Project Work (Final)
Project Work (Final)
Project Work (Final)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE
Submitted by:
Bishesh Khatri
Grade: XI
Section: J1
Roll no.: 8
Submitted to:
It is my good fortune to get a very cooperative teacher, Mr. Dhirendra Kumar Yadav, during
my study of computer science here at GSS. His support, helpfulness, and constant
science and motivating me to research for this report. He provided invaluable guidance during
the course of my studies. I have not only learned about the subject of computer science but
also obtained important suggestions regarding how I can apply this knowledge in daily life. I
Additionally, I would like to thank all the faculty members who have motivated me up until
this point and helped me achieve academic success so far. I also would like to express my
heartfelt gratitude towards the school administration who have provided me with all the
I want to give special thanks to the respected principal, Dr. Amba Datta Joshi, and the
Program Director, Mr. Gokul Dev Badu of GSS, for their support and contribution to my
studies. I am also deeply thankful to the Department of Computer Science for providing me
with this immense opportunity to prepare this report and exhibit what I have learned so far.
Finally, I wish to send my thanks to my greatest mentors, my parents, for they have helped me
to become who I am today, and have been the greatest contributors to all of my achievements.
Thank you!
Bishesh Khatri
Grade XI
Section: J1
Roll no.: 8
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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
Supervisor
Dhirendra Kumar Yadav,
Date:
Department of chemistry
Global School of Science
Mid-Baneshwor, Kathmandu
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Table of Contents
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OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
usage of computers.
II. To clarify the history of computers and explain the various generations of
III. To introduce logic gates and mention all the types of logic gates, mentioning their
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Computers are powerful, versatile devices that have been widely regarded as one of the greatest
inventions in human history. This device has allowed human civilization to achieve exceptional
Definition
that is capable of accepting input, processing it, and producing information as output at an
enormous speed.
computers decreased dramatically, and the processing capacity and speed increased. Their
educational institutions, etc. The development of computers has greatly helped humans to
A computer accepts data from the user through input devices, processes the data according to
the programs stored in the computer, and finally provides useful and processed data to the user
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Characteristics of computer
Electronic Diligence
Speed Storage
Computer
Accuracy Non-intelligent
and produce results. It runs with the help of many electronic components and thus runs
2. Speed: A computer can perform the given function and extract output at a very fast
speed. Very complex calculations can be done by computers in nanoseconds. The speed
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3. Accuracy: A computer is an accurate machine. It can perform millions of calculations
very fast without making any errors at all. If we give wrong data, the computer also
gives the wrong output, which is called GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out).
4. Versatility: A computer is a versatile machine, i.e., it can perform many different tasks
depending on the program being used. Browsing the internet, playing games, watching
videos, etc. are some of the different tasks that a computer can perform.
5. Diligence: The capacity of a computer to perform repetitive tasks without being tired
or bored is called the diligence of a computer. It can function for several hours or days
and still have the same accuracy and speed during calculations. It can perform millions
6. Storage: The computer has a feature of mass storage for storing data, information, and
programs for a long period of time. Different forms of data such as music, videos,
photos, etc. can be stored inside a computer for a long period of time. This storage is
etc. The units used to measure storage capacity are mentioned below:
• 1 MB -1024 KB
• 1 GB - 1024 MB
• 1 TB - 1024 GB
based on the stored program and data given by the user. The user is required to give
data and instructions, but the computer can perform processing automatically.
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8. Non-intelligent: A computer is non-intelligent as it cannot make its own decisions. It
relies completely on the user to perform any task. It does not have any feelings,
emotions, knowledge, or experience. Thus, it does not have the capacity to think and
9. Processing: A computer can process large volumes of data at great speeds. Many
transfer of data, comparison, etc. are some of the processes that take place
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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
A computer can be used in many different fields for many different purposes. In the modern
world, computers have been used in many different fields such as industry, education, business,
etc. The usage of computers has been very useful and proven to be very efficient. Some of the
1. Computer in education
Computers are devices that can be utilized for education in many different ways.
Nowadays, many different schools and universities utilize computers to provide online
notes to students, submit academic assignments, take online classes, etc. Similarly,
many different platforms such as Google, YouTube, etc. have also provided students
2. Computers in business
organization. Computers are used mainly to store data about transactions, prepare
receipts, manage credit, etc. in many small and large businesses. E-Commerce is a
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3. Computer in health
Computers can be used in health and medical fields for the diagnosis of diseases and
booking, etc. Computers have also allowed for easy and fast communication between
doctors and patients that can further help safeguard the health of patients. Different
devices that utilize computers are also used in hospitals and other medical facilities.
4. Computer in baking
customers, etc. ATM is a very popular machine that utilizes computers to help account
5. Computer in industry
In industries, computers are extensively used for the automatic control of machines and
control things like temperature, current, power, etc. inside an industry. Similarly, they
can alarm the workers in the case of any miscalculations or hazardous situations.
6. Computer in military
Computers are widely used for defense purposes. Many advanced computer systems
have been built around the world to deflect missiles, detect enemy aircraft, etc. Many
different weapons and equipment used in the military including aircraft, warships,
missiles, and rockets also fully utilize computer systems for proper functioning.
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7. Computers in Engineering
Scientific and engineering designs and research require complex calculations and
computations. The designs of bridges, buildings, dams, towers, etc. have been greatly
assisted by computer graphic design and computer simulations. In today’s world, most
engineers utilize computers for many such purposes since such complex calculations
8. Computers in Entertainment
The entertainment industry has been using computers for many things. Consumers
generally use computers to gain access to entertainment facilities such as movies and
TV shows. The production of such programs and shows is also only possible through
the use of computers for graphic designing and animation. Games are also a popular
9. Computers in robotics
program and control machines. Robots are computer-controlled machines that are made
with specific work capabilities. Such robots can be used in many other fields such as
Computers are used in most governmental works nowadays. They are primarily used
to store and record data about people and access such data quickly when required. Many
government agencies are encouraged to use e-governing which further simplifies the
systems, etc. are some government fields that are supported by computers
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HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
Nowadays, computers can be found in the form of desktop computers, laptops, smartphones,
etc. The modern computers are a result of many decades of gradual development of computer
technologies.
In 1962, scientists decided to classify computers into different classes according to the device
technology, system architecture, processing mode, and languages used. Computers are
classified into five groups called the generations of computers. The various generations of
computers along with their duration and main device are mentioned in the table below.
Every new generation of computers has better capability and higher speed than the previous
generation. There is also a successive decrease in size, power consumption, and price along
with an increase in storage capacity, versatility, and . The fourth generation of computers are
the computers used in the present by the general population for a wide variety of tasks.
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First generation computers
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes as the processor or main technology,
magnetic drum for data storage, and machine language as well as assembly language for giving
instructions. These computers were very large in size, and it was difficult to write programs in
• It occupied large space, had slow processing, was inefficient, and had low accuracy.
The second generation of computers utilized transistors as the main technology. The transistors
developed by John Burdeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockley were much more
efficient than vacuum tubes. They had a smaller size, lower power consumption, and were
much faster than first generation computers since one transistor could replace 1000 vacuum
tubes.
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• They used magnetic core memory as primary memory and magnetic tape as secondary
memory.
• They consumed less electricity and could handle more complex calculations.
Third generation computers made use of IC (Integrated Circuits), also known as chips.
Integrated circuits were developed by John Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958. A single IC has
many components placed on a single silicon chip that makes them faster despite having a small
• Semiconductor memory was used as primary memory and Magnetic disks were used
as secondary memory.
Examples: IBM 360, ICL 1900, IBM 370, VAX 750 etc.
The fourth generation computers use microprocessors as the main technology. The present-
day computers are fourth generation computers. These computers utilize VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration). These computers could be used by the public for general use or official use.
Fourth generation computers are faster, more reliable, cheaper, and more versatile than others.
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➢ Some of the features of fourth generation computers are mentioned below
• This generation of computers can understand high level language such as JavaScript,
• Semiconductor memory is used as primary memory, while optical and magnetic discs
(CD, floppy disk, pen drive, etc.) are used as secondary memory.
The fifth generation computers are the upcoming generation of computers. They will use bio-
chips and AI as the main technology. These computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) and are much faster than any previous generation of computers. They are expected
to use Knowledge-based Information Processing System (KIPS) and possess intelligence like
humans. Japan and the USA are currently developing this type of computer.
• They can perform a large number of parallel processing and are thus very fast.
• Superconductor technology such as bio-chips and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) are used
as memory devices.
• They can understand natural language and develop programs based on it.
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INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are electric circuits that operate on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal. Logic gates are the basic component of a digital computer, as they perform all basic
binary operations. Logic gates are embodied in the Integrated Circuits (IC), and there are many
different types of gates with their own specific function and graphical symbol.
The input signal of logic gates accepts the binary signal, and provides a single output signal
AND gate
OR gate
Basic Gates
NOT gate
NAND gate
NOR gate
Universal Gates
❖ AND Gate: AND gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more
input signals. If both the input signals are 1, then the output is also 1, otherwise it is 0.
Logic diagram:
A
F=A.B
B
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Truth table of AND gate:
A B F=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
❖ OR Gate: OR gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more input
signals. If any one of the input signals is 1, then the output is also 1, otherwise it is 0.
Logic diagram:
A
F=A+B
B
A B F=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
❖ NOT Gate: NOT gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one input
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Operation symbol: ( ‘ ) Boolean function: F = A’
Logic diagram:
A F = A’
Input output
A F = A’
0 1
1 0
❖ NAND Gate: NAND gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or
more input signals. This gate is a combination of AND gate and NOT gate. If both the
Logic diagram:
A
F = (A . B)‘
B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
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❖ NOR Gate: NOR gate is a gate which produces one output signal with one or more
input signals. This gate is a combination of OR gate and NOT gate. If both the input
Logic diagram:
A
F = (A + B)‘
B
A B F = (A + B)‘
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
❖ Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate: XOR gate is a gate which produces one output signal
with one or more input signals. If both the input signals are different, then the output is
1, otherwise it is 0.
Logic diagram:
A
F = (A B)
B
= A‘.B + A.B‘
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Truth table of XOR gate:
A B F = (A B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
❖ Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gate: XNOR gate is a gate which produces one output
signal with one or more input signals. If both the input signals are same, then the output
is 1, otherwise it is 0.
Logic diagram:
A
F = (A B)
B
= A‘.B‘ + A.B
Truth table of XNOR gate:
Input 1 Input 2 output
A B F = (A B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables and
logical operations. This is a two-valued system of algebra that represents logical relationships
A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to help reduce the
number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting in a list of
There are many laws of Boolean Algebra, they are mentioned below:
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❖ Compliment law: It states that, “When an OR operation is performed between a
variable and its complement, the result is 1. Similarly, when an AND operation is
Proof:
A + A’ = 1 A . A’= 0
A A’ RESULT A A’ RESULT
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
❖ Associative law: It states that, “Associative law using the OR function states that
ORing more than two Boolean variables will return the same output, irrespective of the
order of the variables in the equation and their grouping. No matter which order the
variables are swapped in, ORing them will always give the same result.”
And,
“Associative law using the AND function states that ANDing more than two Boolean
variables will return the same output, irrespective of the order of the variables in the
equation and their grouping. No matter which order the variables are swapped in,
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Proof of associative law: (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Here, output 1 and output 2 are equal. This verifies the associative law. The second
❖ Distributive law: This law states that, “The product of two variables, when added
to a third variable, produces the same result as when we add each variable with the third
And,
“The sum of two variables, when multiplied to a third variable, produces the same result
as when we multiply each variable with the third variable separately and add their
products.”
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Proof of distributive law:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Since output 1 and output 2 are same, Distributive law is verified. The second statement
❖ De-Morgan’s law: It states that, “The complement of the union of two sets is the
And,
“The complement of the intersection of two sets is the same as the union of their
complements.”
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Proof of De-Morgan’s law:
(A + B)’ = A’ . B’ (A . B)’ = A’ + B’
A B A + B (A + B)’ A’ B’ A’. B’ A B A . B (A. B)’ A’ B’ A’ + B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Thus, De-Morgan’s law is verified in this manner.
❖ Commutative law: This law states that, “ORing more than two Boolean variables
will return the same output, irrespective of the order of the variables in the equation
And,
“ANDing more than two Boolean variables will return the same output, irrespective of
Mathematically, A + B = B + A, and A . B = B . A
A+B=B+A A.B=B.A
A B A+B B+A A B A.B B.A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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SUMMARY
The computer is an electronic, automatic device that makes use of a large variety of
programs and physical components to process data obtained as input and produce
an output. The computer is a device that has many different characteristics that enable it
processing, automatic, etc. Similarly, computer is applicable in many different fields due
to its power of processing and its multi-tasking ability. Some of the fields in which
computers are fully utilized are; business, education, health, industry, communication,
entertainment, governance, defense, engineering, etc. Thus, due to such different uses,
computers are divided as “Generations of computer”. There are a total of five generations;
1975), fourth generation (1976-1991), and fifth generation (1991 onwards). All these
generations have their own different main technologies, and each successive generation
has greater speed, accuracy, and power than the previous generation, while also having
Logic gates are the electric circuits that carry out the binary operations within the
computer. They are significant components for the proper functioning of the computer.
Logic gates accept one or more input signals and process them to produce an output
signal. Some of the various logic gates are; AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND gate,
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NOR gate, XOR gate, XNOR gate. All of these different logic gates have their own
function.
Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables
and logical operations. A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been
invented to help reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation
resulting in a list of functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.
1. Identity law
2. Boundedness law
3. Idempotent law
4. Complement law
6. Commutative law
7. Associative law
8. Distributive law
9. De Morgan’s law
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REFERENCES
The contents of this report are prepared with reference to the sources mentioned below:
• A textbook of COMPUTER SCIENCE, Heritage publishers and distributors.
• Essentials of computer science, Asmita publications.
• www.byjus.com
• www.studysmarter.co.uk
• www.javatpoint.com
• ecomputernotes.com
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