ABSTRACT

This study aimed to investigate the factors associated with women's experience of
intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. A quantitative
research design was adopted to collect data from 240 respondents using a
structured questionnaire. The study focused on three research questions: the
prevalence rate of different types of intimate partner violence, women's perception
and response to intimate partner violence, and the factors contributing to its
occurrence in the study area. The findings revealed that both single and married
women commonly face a combination of psychological, physical, sexual, and
controlling violence. Moreover, the prevalence rate of intimate partner violence
was higher than commonly perceived. Women in the study area were generally
aware of the issue and felt comfortable discussing their experiences. They
perceived intimate partner violence as a societal problem rather than a private
matter and believed that reporting incidents would lead to positive outcomes.
Additionally, traditional gender roles, unequal power dynamics, economic
stressors, cultural norms accepting violence against women, inadequate legal and
justice systems, and substance abuse were identified as contributing factors to
intimate partner violence. Based on the study's findings, recommendations were
made to enhance awareness and education, strengthen support services, advocate
for legal reforms, promote economic empowerment, and develop substance abuse
programs. These recommendations aim to address the factors contributing to
intimate partner violence and provide support for victims.
 CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Intimate partner violence (IPV), also referred to as domestic violence or domestic

abuse, is a pervasive social issue that affects individuals of all genders, races,

socioeconomic backgrounds, and age groups (Smith, 2016; WHO, 2017). IPV

encompasses a range of abusive behaviors that occur within intimate relationships,

including physical, sexual, psychological, and emotional abuse (Brake, 2023;

Wall, 2012). Additionally, it involves exercising control over their behavior,

preventing them from talking to their parents or friends, and restricting their access

to money (Banks & Waters, 2023).

However, women are disproportionately impacted by IPV, with higher rates of

victimization compared to men. World Health Organization (2017) reported that

about 35% of women globally have experienced either physical and/or sexual

intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime.

According to Amnesty International (2008) and Krug et al. (2002), IPV has

become the leading cause of death for young and middle-aged women. In addition,

IPVAW (Intimate Partner Violence Against Women) is notable as the main reason

why injuries to women occur (Rand, 1997). According to the United Nations

Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC, 2021), 47,000 (58%) of the 81,000 women
and girls who died in 2020 across the globe were killed by an intimate partner.

These figures show that a woman was killed in 58% of all killings carried out by an

intimate partner. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) states that IPV can

result in a number of health concerns, such as depression, unwanted pregnancies,

and gynecological difficulties such urine infections. The stress and trauma

associated with IPV can also contribute to long-term physical and mental health

issues.

Intimate partner violence encompasses multiple dimensions, including physical,

sexual, psychological, and financial abuse (Haddock and Maio, 2004). Each form

of abuse has its unique impacts and consequences on survivors. Recognizing the

different dimensions of IPV is crucial for raising awareness, providing support to

survivors, and developing comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of

violence within intimate relationships.

One dimension of IPV is physical violence, which involves the use of physical

force that causes harm or injury to the victim. This can include acts such as hitting,

slapping, kicking, or choking (Dim, E. E., & Elabor-Idemudia, 2020). Physical

violence not only inflicts immediate pain and injuries but can also have long-

lasting physical consequences for survivors (Garcia et al., 2005; Ali and Naylor,

2013). It often serves as a means for the abuser to exert power and control over the

victim, reinforcing a cycle of violence and fear.

Another dimension of IPV is sexual violence, which involves any non-consensual

sexual act or behavior imposed on the victim. This can range from unwanted sexual

touching to rape (Garcia et al., 2015). Sexual violence within intimate relationships

is particularly insidious, as it can have severe physical and psychological

consequences for survivors, including sexually transmitted infections, unwanted

pregnancies, and trauma-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) (WHO, 2013).

Psychological and emotional abuse is another form of IPV that primarily targets a

person's mental well-being. This type of abuse involves tactics such as

intimidation, humiliation, threats, isolation, and control over the victim's thoughts,

emotions, and actions (WHO, 2013; 2012). Over time, the cumulative effects of

psychological abuse can have profound psychological and emotional impacts,

leading to anxiety, depression, and other mental health disorders (Jina & Thomas,

2013, WHO, 2013).

Financial abuse is a lesser-known dimension of IPV, but it is no less harmful. It

involves controlling or limiting a person's access to financial resources, including

employment, education, or financial decision-making (McKay White & Fjellner,

2022). Abusers may prevent their partners from working, withhold money, or force

them to relinquish control over their finances (Usta et al, 2013). Financial abuse

can trap survivors in abusive relationships, making it difficult for them to leave or
seek help.

In Nigeria, there is a growing recognition of the need to address the issue of IPV as

IPV is a significant public health concern, with a high prevalence rate in the

country (Llori et al, 2023). According to the Nigeria Demographic and Health

Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2018, approximately 30% of Nigerian women aged

15-49 have experienced physical violence, and 14% have experienced sexual

violence perpetrated by an intimate partner (Adam & Erhus et al, 2022; Yaya et al,

2018). These figures highlight the urgent need to understand the factors

contributing to IPV in Nigeria and develop effective strategies for prevention and

intervention. While specific statistics on IPV in Nigeria may be limited, anecdotal

evidence suggests that it is a prevalent issue that affects numerous women within

the community (Nwabunike & Tenkorang, 2017; Oyediran, 2016).

The prevalence and patterns of IPV in Nigeria are influenced by various factors,

including socio-demographic characteristics, cultural norms and attitudes,

economic disparities, and social support systems (Antai & Adaji, 2012; Ikekwuibe

& Okoror, 202). Socio-demographic factors play a significant role in shaping the

experiences of IPV among women. Factors such as age, education, marital status,

and economic status can influence a woman's vulnerability to violence within an

intimate relationship (Ayodele, 2017; Okenwa et al, 2009). For instance, younger

women may be more susceptible to IPV due to power imbalances, while women
with lower levels of education and limited financial resources may face additional

challenges in escaping abusive relationships (Ojo, 2013). On the other hand, social

isolation, stigma, and lack of support may discourage women from seeking help or

reporting instances of abuse (Oloniniyi, et al, 2022; Peterman et al, 2020).

Enhancing community support systems and fostering a culture of solidarity and

empathy are vital in addressing IPV effectively.

Addressing intimate partner violence in Nigeria requires a comprehensive approach

that involves legal reforms, awareness campaigns, provision of support services for

survivors, economic empowerment programs, and education on gender equality

and healthy relationship dynamics (Bowman, 2003; Heise, 2011). Efforts should

focus on challenging harmful gender norms, strengthening legal protections,

promoting community engagement, and ensuring access to justice for survivors. By

addressing the root causes and consequences of IPV, Nigeria can work towards

building safer and more equitable communities for all.

Hence, understanding the factors associated with women's experiences of IPV in

Nigeria is crucial for developing targeted interventions and policies that address the

specific needs of the community (Olayanju, et al, 2013). By examining the

prevalence and patterns of IPV, socio-demographic factors, cultural norms,

economic disparities, and social support systems, this research project aims to

contribute to the body of knowledge on IPV in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State,

Nigeria and provide insights for effective prevention and intervention strategies.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a pressing issue that affects women globally,

including those living in Nigeria. Meinhart et al. (2021) outlined the negative

impact of IPV at four levels (societal level, social and organizational

structure, interpersonal interaction and relationship, and individual levels). At

societal levels, IPV can increase gender differences and inequalities, reduce

the opportunity for men and women, maximize stigma, raise acceptance of IPV

and other domestic violence and boost the prevalence rate of IPV in

society.

While there is anecdotal evidence suggesting the prevalence of IPV in the

community, there is a lack of comprehensive research that specifically investigates

the factors associated with women's experiences of IPV in Nigeria particularly in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria(Nwabunike & Tenkorang, 2017 ; Oyediran,

2016). The absence of empirical data on the prevalence and patterns of IPV in

Nigeria restricts our understanding of the magnitude and nature of the problem.

Without accurate information, it becomes challenging to raise awareness, allocate

resources, and develop evidence-based strategies to combat IPV. This research gap

poses a significant problem as it hinders the development of targeted interventions

and policies to effectively prevent and address IPV in the community.

Addressing this research gap is essential to effectively prevent IPV, support

survivors, and create a safer and more inclusive environment for women in

Akungba Akoko.

1.3 Research Questions

 What is the prevalence rate of different types of intimate partner violence

(psychological, physical, sexual, and controlling) against women in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State?

 How do women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive and respond to

intimate partner violence?

 What factors contribute to the occurrence of intimate partner violence in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State?

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study

Intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) is a serious social issue that

affects countless individuals worldwide. It encompasses various forms of abuse,

including psychological, physical, sexual, and controlling behaviors. Recognizing

the significance of addressing this problem, a comprehensive study is being

conducted in a specific area to gain insights into the prevalence, attitudes, and

underlying causes of IPVAW. By shedding light on these aspects, this research

aims to contribute to the understanding of the dynamics surrounding IPVAW and

provide valuable information for the development of effective interventions and

policies.

The study aims to achieve the following specific objectives:

• Determine the prevalence of different types of intimate partner violence

(psychological, physical, sexual, and controlling) against women.

• Investigate the attitudes of women towards intimate partner violence.

• Examine the underlying causes and factors influencing intimate partner

violence.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the mean response of single

and married women regarding the factors associated with intimate partner violence

in Nigeria.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is significant difference in the mean response of

single and married women regarding the factors associated with intimate partner

violence in Nigeria.
1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study focuses on examining the factors associated with women's

experience of intimate partner violence specifically in the region of Akungba

Akoko, located in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study aims to identify and analyze

various factors that contribute to intimate partner violence against women within

this specific geographical area.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This research project holds significant importance for various stakeholders,

including policymakers, healthcare professionals, community leaders, NGOs, and

individuals living in Akungba Akoko. The study's findings and implications have

the potential to bring about positive change in addressing the issue of intimate

partner violence (IPV) and improving the overall well-being and safety of women

in the community.

Firstly, this study will contribute to filling the existing knowledge gap regarding

IPV in Akungba Akoko. While there may be anecdotal reports of IPV occurring in

the community, a comprehensive understanding of the prevalence, patterns, and

factors associated with IPV in this specific context is lacking. By conducting

rigorous research and generating empirical evidence, this study will provide

valuable insights into the extent and nature of IPV experienced by women in

Akungba Akoko. This knowledge is fundamental for raising awareness about the
issue, debunking myths and misconceptions, and fostering a more informed public

discourse on IPV.

Secondly, the research project will contribute to the development of evidence-

based interventions and policies. By identifying the socio-demographic factors,

cultural norms, economic disparities, and social support systems associated with

IPV, stakeholders can design targeted interventions that address the specific needs

and challenges faced by women in Akungba Akoko. For example, the findings may

highlight the need for educational programs in schools and communities to

challenge gender stereotypes, promote healthy relationships, and foster gender

equality. Additionally, the research can inform the development of economic

empowerment initiatives that support women's financial independence, as well as

the establishment of safe spaces and support networks for survivors. Policymakers

can utilize the study's findings to develop comprehensive policies and guidelines

that prioritize the prevention of IPV and the protection of survivors' rights.

Thirdly, the research project will contribute to raising awareness and promoting a

cultural shift within the community. By shedding light on the prevalence and

consequences of IPV, the study can challenge the societal acceptance and

normalization of violence within intimate relationships. It can serve as a catalyst

for open discussions, dialogues, and community engagement, encouraging

individuals to critically examine and question prevailing cultural norms and

attitudes that perpetuate IPV. This increased awareness can lead to collective

efforts to eradicate violence and promote healthier, more respectful relationships.

Furthermore, the significance of this study extends to healthcare professionals and

service providers. The findings can inform the development of training programs

and protocols for healthcare practitioners to effectively identify and respond to

cases of IPV. It can also highlight the need for comprehensive support services,

such as counseling, legal aid, and medical assistance, tailored to the unique needs

of IPV survivors in Akungba Akoko. Healthcare professionals can play a pivotal

role in early detection, intervention, and providing a supportive environment for

survivors to seek help and healing.

Finally, the research project's significance lies in its potential to empower survivors

and give them a voice. By amplifying the experiences and stories of women who

have survived IPV, the study can contribute to reducing stigma, fostering empathy,

and inspiring other survivors to seek help and support. The research findings can

serve as a testimony to the resilience and strength of survivors, while also

highlighting the urgent need for a collective response from society to address IPV

effectively.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Intimate Partner Violence: Refers to any form of physical, sexual, psychological,

or emotional abuse or violence that occurs within an intimate relationship. It

includes acts of aggression, coercion, control, and manipulation exerted by one

partner towards the other.

Factors: In the context of this study, factors refer to the elements, variables, or

circumstances that have a significant influence on women's experience of intimate

partner violence. These factors can include social, cultural, economic,

psychological, and demographic aspects that contribute to the occurrence and

perpetration of violence.

Women's Experience: Encompasses the personal encounters, perceptions, and

consequences of intimate partner violence as reported by women who have directly

experienced such violence in their intimate relationships.

Akungba Akoko: Refers to a specific geographic region located in Ondo State,

Nigeria. It is the primary focus area for this study, where data will be collected and

analyzed to understand the factors associated with women's experience of intimate

partner violence.

Ondo State: A state in southwestern Nigeria, serving as the geographical context

for the study. It provides the broader setting in which Akungba Akoko is situated

and influences the social, cultural, and economic dynamics relevant to intimate

partner violence in the area.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive and complex issue that affects

women globally, including Nigeria. It encompasses a range of harmful behaviors,

including physical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse, perpetrated by

current or former intimate partners (WHO, 2010).. IPV has severe consequences

for women's physical and mental health, as well as their overall well-being.

Understanding the factors associated with women's experience of IPV is essential

for developing effective strategies to prevent and address this issue.

Nigeria, as the most populous country in Africa, faces significant challenges in

tackling IPV. Despite efforts to address gender-based violence, IPV remains

prevalent in the country. The Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey

conducted in 2018 revealed that approximately 30% of Nigerian women aged 15-

49 have experienced some form of IPV in their lifetime (NDHS, 2018). However,

it is important to note that the actual prevalence is likely higher due to

underreporting, cultural barriers, and the normalization of violence within

relationships.

The factors contributing to women's experience of IPV in Nigeria are multifaceted

and interconnected. They operate at different levels, including individual,

relationship, community, and societal factors. By examining these factors,

researchers and policymakers can gain valuable insights into the complex

dynamics that perpetuate IPV and develop targeted interventions.

This literature review aims to consolidate existing research on the factors

associated with women's experience of IPV in Nigeria. It seeks to provide a

comprehensive understanding of the diverse elements that contribute to IPV

victimization, acknowledging that these factors often intersect and reinforce one

another. By exploring individual-level factors, such as age, education,

employment, and mental health, we can identify the specific vulnerabilities and

risk factors that increase women's likelihood of experiencing IPV.

By reviewing the existing literature on factors associated with women's

experience of IPV in Nigeria, this study aims to contribute to the body of

knowledge in this field. It provides a foundation for evidence-based policy and

program development that addresses the root causes of IPV, promotes prevention,
supports survivors, and ultimately works towards creating a society free from

violence against women.

2.2 Conceptual Review

2.2.1 Concept of Intimate Partner of Violence

IPV refers to the utilization of coercive physical, sexual, and psychological

actions that result in physical, sexual, and psychological harm to an intimate

partner, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2010). In

accordance with this definition, IPV is characterized as any form of abusive

behavior within an intimate relationship that inflicts physical, emotional,

psychological, or controlling harm. It represents the most prevalent form of

violence against women (WHO, 2002).

Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to any behaviors exhibited within an

intimate relationship that can result in sexual, physical, or psychological harm.

This includes actions related to controlling behavior, sexual coercion,

psychological abuse, and physical aggression (World Health Organization, 2010).

The concept of IPV encompasses the psychological, physical, and sexual harm
inflicted by a current or former partner or spouse (Saltzman, Fanslow, McMahon,

& Shelley, 2002).

IPVAW can manifest in various ways, including physical violence such as

slapping, kicking, and beating, sexual violence such as forced sexual acts and

other forms of sexual harassment, emotional abuse involving insults, belittlement,

and continuous humiliation, acts of intimidation such as destruction of property,

threats of harm, threats to separate the partner from their children, and controlling

behavior such as isolation from family and friends, surveillance of their

movements, and restricting access to resources.

Intimate Partner Violence against women is a prevalent form of domestic

violence, encompassing a range of abusive behaviors that cause physical, sexual,

psychological, or controlling harm. Examples include physical attacks like

slapping, kicking, or beating, sexual assaults such as forced sexual activity or

other forms of abuse, psychological assaults involving insults, belittlement,

humiliation, or destruction of personal belongings. Other forms of harm include

isolating women from their loved ones, monitoring their activities, and restricting

their access to financial resources (Wall, 2012).

2.1.1 Prevalence of Intimated Partner Violence

Intimate partner violence is a global phenomenon that occurs in diverse cultures,

affecting individuals across societies regardless of their social class, economic

status, or gender (WHO, 1997; 2010). Prior to the World Health Organization

multi-country study (WHOMCS), data on IPV primarily came from sources such

as the police, clinical settings, and surveys conducted by non-governmental

organizations (NGOs). In order to address this issue and enable comparisons

across settings, the WHOMCS standardized the instrument for IPV data collection

(WHO, 2005).

According to the findings of the National Intimate Partner Sexual Violence

Survey (2018), it was reported that among intimate dating partners, 10% had

experienced physical violence, 7% had endured forced sexual violence, and 11%

had encountered sexual violence in the context of dating. Additionally, an analysis

of a population-based survey conducted across ten countries between 2000 and

2004 revealed that the lifetime prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV)

varied from 19% to 66% among women aged 15 to 24 years old (Stockl et al.,

2014).

While specific statistics on IPV in Nigeria may be limited, anecdotal evidence

suggests that it is a prevalent issue that affects numerous women within the

community (Nwabunike & Tenkorang, 2017 ; Oyediran, 2016). According to the

Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2018,

approximately 30% of Nigerian women aged 15-49 have experienced physical

violence, and 14% have experienced sexual violence perpetrated by an intimate

partner (Adam & Erhus et al, 2022; Liimatainen, 2021; Shittu et al, 2022; Yaya et

al, 2018).

Furthermore, estimates indicated that approximately one in three women in the

United States has experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or

stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime, compared to 33.6% of

men(Campbell et al., 2009; Jewkes et al., 2010).

2.1.3 Contributing Factor to Intimate Partner Violence

The prevalence and patterns of IPV in Nigeria are influenced by various factors,

including socio-demographic characteristics, cultural norms and attitudes,

economic disparities, and social support systems (Antai & Adaji, 2012; Ikekwuibe

& Okoror, 2021; Okumu et al, 2022). Socio-demographic factors play a significant

role in shaping the experiences of IPV among women. Factors such as age,

education, marital status, and economic status can influence a woman's

vulnerability to violence within an intimate relationship (Ayodele, 2017; Okenwa

et al, 2009; Odeyemi et al, 2009; Oyediran & Isiugo-Abanihe, 2005).

Cultural norms and attitudes also contribute to the occurrence of IPV in Nigeria.

Cultural beliefs, gender roles, and social expectations can perpetuate a culture of

violence and normalize abusive behaviors within relationships (Ojo, 2013;

Piedalue, Gilbertson, Alexeyeff & Klein, 2020). Traditional notions of masculinity

and the subordinate role of women may contribute to the acceptance of violence as

a means of control (Piedalue, Gilbertson, Alexeyeff & Klein, 2020). Challenging

and transforming these cultural norms are essential for combating IPV in the

community.

Economic factors can further exacerbate the risk of IPV. Poverty, unemployment,

and financial dependence on the perpetrator can make it difficult for women to

leave abusive relationships or access resources and support services (Boateng &

Tenkorang, 2022; Fawole, 2008; Laisser et al, 2011). Economic empowerment

programs and initiatives that address financial disparities may play a crucial role in

reducing women's vulnerability to IPV in Nigeria.

Another contributing factor to intimate partner violence is the presence of a power

imbalance within the relationship. Previous research has demonstrated a

connection between power imbalances and negative sexual and reproductive

health outcomes (Campbell et al., 2009; Jewkes et al., 2010). Other studies have

revealed that individuals with greater relationship power are more likely to make

sexual decisions, and such dynamics can contribute to higher rates of HIV and
other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) (Jewkes et al., 2010; McMahon et al.,

2015). It is crucial to note that power imbalances are experienced by young

people in intimate relationships at various stages, particularly in societies where

patriarchal norms are deeply entrenched, granting men more power than women

within relationships.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1 Ecological Theory

The theoretical framework employed in this study is based on Bronfenbrenner's

ecological system theory (Urie Brofenbrenner, 1977; Tudge, Gray, and Hogan, 1997).

This theory primarily examines the influence of the environment on individuals.

Bronfenbrenner proposed that individuals are shaped by their microsystem,

mesosystem, and exosystem (Urie Brofenbrenner, 1977). The microsystem

encompasses the immediate environment where direct interactions take place. The

mesosystem refers to the combination of immediate environments or

microsystems, while the exosystem represents a microsystem that does not

directly involve the developing person but still impacts their micro- and
mesosystems (Urie Brofenbrenner, 1977). Decisions made within the exosystem

can have repercussions on the mesosystem or microsystem.

The model suggests that intimate partner violence (IPV) against women is

influenced by various factors operating at four distinct levels: individual,

interpersonal, community, and societal. This conceptual framework has been

adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) for its surveys.

At the individual level, personal background and biological characteristics play a

role in shaping behavior and the likelihood of becoming a violent perpetrator.

These factors encompass experiences of childhood abuse, personality traits, and a

history of substance addiction (World Health Organization, 2014; Krug et al.,

2002; Oxfam, 2004).

At the interpersonal level, factors contributing to IPV include unhealthy familial

relationships, male dominance and control over resources and decision-making,

ongoing conflict within partnerships, and significant inequalities in terms of

economic status, education, and employment levels (Krug et al., 2002; Oxfam,

2004; Heise et al., 1998).

At the community level, the contextual factors within which social interactions

occur, such as the individual's neighborhood (including unemployment rates and

population density), the school they attend, or the workplace environment, can

influence their behavior and the risk of becoming a victim or perpetrator of

violence (WHO, 2014).

The Ecological Theory provides a useful framework for understanding the factors

associated with women's experience of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Nigeria.

This theory emphasizes the complex interplay between individual, relationship,

community, and societal factors in shaping human behavior and development. By

applying the Ecological Theory to the research topic of IPV in Nigeria, we can

explore how various factors at different levels of the ecological system contribute

to the occurrence and perpetuation of IPV.

By applying the Ecological Theory to the research topic of IPV in Nigeria, we can

gain a comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions and influences

that contribute to women's experiences of violence. This holistic approach allows

for the identification of risk factors and protective factors at multiple levels of the

ecological system, informing the development of targeted interventions and

policies aimed at preventing IPV, supporting survivors, and promoting gender

equality in Nigeria.

2.2.2 Feminist Theory

Feminist theory, also referred to as the feminist model, posits that the patriarchal

framework is the primary causal explanation for intimate partner violence (IPV),

as argued by Dobash and Dobash (1978) and DeKeseredy and Schwartz (2011).

This theory suggests that socio-cultural beliefs granting men greater authority and

privileges than women contribute to the development of aggressive gender role

attitudes (McCue, 2008; Loue, 2002; Wekerle and Wolfe, 1999). Proponents of

this theory argue that gender inequality and sexism within a patriarchal culture are

the main drivers of IPV (Bell and Naugle, 2008). Men may assume a dominant

position over women due to socially imposed gender norms that are instilled from

childhood. As Walker (1984) points out, these socially constructed gender norms

can result in women being victimized by men.

The feminist theoretical perspective acknowledges that acts of violence against

women should be treated as distinct cases separate from other forms of abuse and

criminal activity, as argued by Dobash (2004). Consequently, it asserts that

addressing the issue requires a focus on educating men and challenging

patriarchal attitudes and oppressive behavior towards women. The ultimate goal is

to dismantle patriarchal social structures in order to prevent, reduce, and

ultimately eliminate violence against women (Dutton, 2011).

Feminist theory is utilized to examine and understand women's experiences of

intimate partner violence (IPV) and the shared patriarchal ideologies and norms

that contribute to such violence. It suggests that individuals' behavior is shaped by

socially and culturally transmitted ideologies and beliefs, perpetuating women's

victimization and men's perpetration of IPV. However, criticism has been directed

towards feminist theory for its narrow focus solely on the patriarchal system,

which is seen as limited in defining IPV. The theory overlooks the existence of

men within patriarchal cultures who do not abuse women and condemn such

behavior as unacceptable (Dutton et al., 2006; Hawkins, 2007). Additionally, the

theory does not address IPV against men or instances where women are the

perpetrators of IPV (McCue, 2008).

By applying feminist theory to the research topic of IPV in Nigeria, it becomes

evident that addressing the issue requires not only individual-level interventions

but also transformative changes at the societal level. This involves challenging

patriarchal norms, promoting gender equality, providing support services,

reforming legal frameworks, and raising awareness about the root causes and

consequences of IPV. Feminist perspectives serve as a crucial framework for

understanding the systemic nature of IPV and advocating for social justice and

gender equality in Nigeria.

2.3 Empirical Review

Umana, Fawole, and Adeoye (2014) conducted a study to determine the occurrence

of intimate partner violence (IPV) among female students at Ibadan University in

Nigeria. The findings revealed an overall IPV prevalence rate of 42.3%. However,

when examining specific academic levels, the prevalence rate was found to be

34.5% among postgraduate students and 44.1% among undergraduate students.

While the study by Umana, Fawole, and Adeoye (2014) focuses on the occurrence

of IPV among female students at Ibadan University, the research topic shifts the

focus to women's experience of IPV in Akungba Akoko. This geographical change

allows for a more specific understanding of the factors associated with IPV in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State.

Adebowale (2018) conducted a study in Nigeria to examine the relationship

between spousal age differences and intimate partner violence (IPV). The study

utilized data from the couples recode section of the 2013 Nigeria Demographic

Health and Survey, which involved 6765 participants. Intimate partner violence

was assessed using a set of 13 questions, and statistical analysis was performed

using logistic regression.Several predictors of IPV were identified, including

family size, ethnicity, household wealth, education, number of marital unions, and

alcohol consumption by the husband.Overall, the study revealed a high level of

IPV in Nigeria, but the prevalence decreased with larger spousal age differences.

The study by Adebowale (2018) examines the relationship between spousal age

differences and IPV in Nigeria, while the proposed research topic aims to

investigate the factors associated with women's experience of IPV in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. Both studies contribute to the understanding of IPV

but within different contexts and with a focus on different factors.

Antai et al. (2008) aimed to explore the attitudes of rural women in Nigeria

towards intimate partner violence (IPV). The researchers used data from the 2003

Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) and analyzed a random sample

of 3911 rural women aged 15-49 years. The study examined the predictors of these

attitudes and found that social, religious, and cultural factors influenced women's

attitudes towards IPV.

The findings of the study indicated that women residing in the three northern

regions and the South South region, Muslim women, women with lower levels of

education, and those with lower household wealth were more likely to tolerate

IPV. These findings suggest that socio-economic disadvantages, as well as cultural

and religious restrictions, contribute to the acceptance of IPV among these women.

While the study by Antai et al. (2008) focuses on rural women in Nigeria and their

attitudes towards IPV, the proposed research topic shifts the focus to understanding

the factors associated with women's actual experience of IPV in Akungba Akoko.
The study conducted by Obi and Ozumba (2007) focused on identifying the

factors associated with domestic violence (DV) in two tertiary health institutions

in south-east Nigeria. The study collected data from 600 consecutive men who

visited the General Outpatient department of the two hospitals during a specific

period. The findings revealed that over two-thirds of the respondents reported

experiencing abuse within their families, with female partners being the primary

victims. Domestic violence was found to be significantly associated with lower

social class, alcohol consumption, increasing age disparity between couples, and

spouse unemployment. The most common forms of abuse reported were shouting

at the partner, slapping or pushing, and punching or kicking. The study noted that

only a small proportion of abuse incidents occurred during pregnancy, and

financial constraints were often cited as a major reason for such occurrences.

The study by Obi and Ozumba (2007) examines factors associated with domestic

violence in south-east Nigeria, while the research topic aims to investigate the

factors associated with women's experiences of IPV in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State, Nigeria. Both studies contribute to the understanding of violence within

intimate relationships, but they differ in terms of the specific focus, geographical

location, and the populations studied.

Makayoto et al. (2013) conducted a study on determining the prevalence and

associated factors of intimate partner violence (IPV) among pregnant women

seeking antenatal care at Kisumu District Hospital in Kenya. The researchers

randomly selected 300 pregnant women as participants and collected data using a

structured questionnaire. The participants self-reported their experiences of IPV

during different time periods, and data analysis was performed using Epi-info

software. The study revealed a high prevalence of IPV among pregnant women

seeking antenatal care at Kisumu District Hospital.while the Makayoto et al.

(2013) study examines the prevalence and associated factors of IPV among

pregnant women in Kisumu, Kenya, the proposed research topic aims to

investigate the factors associated with women's experience of IPV in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. Both studies contribute to the understanding of IPV

but within different geographical contexts and with a focus on different

populations.

In a study conducted by Agenagnew et al. (2020), the focus was on the reporting

of intimate partner violence (IPV) and the factors contributing to non-reporting

among abused women in Ethiopia. The research gathered data from 280 IPV

survivors in the Gedeo Zone. The findings of the study indicate that out of the 280

women who experienced abuse from their partners, 136 (48.6%) chose not to

report their IPV cases to the police. Among these non-reporting individuals, 72%
of the respondents cited feelings of shame, uncertainty about where to seek help

(45.2%), reluctance to involve others (39.5%), and fear of not being believed

(36.7%) as the primary reasons for not reporting their experiences of IPV. While

Agenagnew et al. (2020) study focuses on the reporting of IPV and factors

contributing to non-reporting in Ethiopia, the proposed research topic aims to

explore the factors associated with women's experience of IPV in a specific

location, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. The geographical and cultural

context of Akungba Akoko might influence the experiences of IPV and the factors

contributing to it, which may differ from the Ethiopian context.

In a study conducted by Uwayu (2014) in Kenya on the causes of intimate partner

abuse, the findings revealed that out of 48 respondents who reported experiencing

IPV, 29.2% attributed their suffering to a failure to comply with their male

partners' demands. Approximately 21.7%, 25%, and 6.3% of the respondents

identified mistrust/jealousy, poverty and/or unemployment, and alcoholism as the

primary factors contributing to IPV, respectively. Additional factors such as

polygamy and miscommunication were also reported as contributors to IPV.

While the Uwayu (2014) study provides insights into the causes of intimate

partner abuse in Kenya, the proposed research topic in Nigeria seeks to uncover

factors associated with women's experience of IPV in a distinct geographical and

cultural context. By conducting research in Akungba Akoko, researchers can gain

a deeper understanding of the specific challenges faced by women experiencing

IPV in that region, potentially leading to more targeted interventions and support

systems.

A cross-sectional survey on spousal abuse and barriers to women's empowerment

was conducted by Kabir and Khan (2019) in Armenia. The study identified age,

wealth index, number of children, and empowerment status as significant factors

contributing to intimate partner violence (IPV). The research highlighted that

individuals between the ages of 35 and 49 are more prone to experiencing IPV.

Moreover, the study revealed that among respondents who lack decision-making

power, a staggering 89% reported experiencing IPV. While the study by Kabir

and Khan (2019) provides insights into spousal abuse and barriers to women's

empowerment in Armenia, the proposed research topic seeks to investigate factors

associated with women's experience of IPV in a different geographical and

cultural context, specifically in Akungba Akoko.

2.4 Research Gap

Despite the existing studies on intimate partner violence (IPV) in Nigeria and

other African countries, there is still a need for research specifically focused on

the factors associated with women's experience of IPV in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State, Nigeria. The proposed research topic aims to fill this gap by exploring the

unique factors that contribute to IPV within this specific geographical and cultural

context. While the existing studies provide valuable insights into IPV prevalence,

attitudes, reporting, and associated factors in Nigeria and other regions, they do

not specifically address the experiences of women living in Akungba Akoko.

Furthermore, while the existing studies have examined factors such as spousal age

differences, attitudes towards IPV, socio-economic status, and reporting

behaviors, there is a need to explore additional factors that may be particularly

relevant to the experiences of women in Akungba Akoko. These factors could

include cultural and traditional beliefs, gender norms, access to resources and

support services, educational opportunities, employment status, and the role of

community and social networks. By investigating these specific factors within the

context of Akungba Akoko, a more comprehensive understanding of the

determinants of IPV can be achieved, leading to more effective prevention and

intervention strategies tailored to the needs of the local population.

The research gap identified is the lack of studies specifically focused on the

factors associated with women's experience of IPV in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State, Nigeria. Conducting research in this specific geographical and cultural

context will provide localized insights into the unique determinants of IPV and

inform the development of targeted interventions and support systems to address

and prevent IPV in Akungba Akoko.

2.5 Summary of Literature Review

The literature review on intimate partner violence (IPV) begins by providing a

conceptual review of IPV, defining it as the use of coercive actions that cause

physical, sexual, and psychological harm to an intimate partner. It highlights that

IPV encompasses various forms of abusive behavior, such as physical violence,

sexual violence, emotional abuse, intimidation, and controlling behavior. The

review emphasizes that IPV is the most prevalent form of violence against

women.

Next, the prevalence of intimate partner violence is discussed. It is noted that IPV

is a global phenomenon that affects individuals across different cultures and

societies. Prior to the World Health Organization multi-country study

(WHOMCS), data on IPV primarily came from sources such as the police, clinical

settings, and surveys conducted by non-governmental organizations. Studies and

surveys from different countries are cited to illustrate the prevalence of IPV

among women, with lifetime prevalence rates varying from 19% to 66% among

women aged 15 to 24 years old.

The literature review also addresses the contributing factors to intimate partner

violence. Socio-demographic characteristics such as age, education, marital status,

and economic status are identified as factors that influence a woman's

vulnerability to IPV. Cultural norms and attitudes, including traditional notions of

masculinity and the subordinate role of women, are highlighted as contributors to

the acceptance of violence within relationships. Economic disparities, poverty,

and financial dependence on the perpetrator are mentioned as additional factors

that exacerbate the risk of IPV. The presence of power imbalances within

relationships is discussed as another contributing factor to IPV, particularly in

societies where patriarchal norms grant men more power than women.

The theoretical framework section introduces two frameworks relevant to the

study of IPV. The ecological theory, based on Bronfenbrenner's ecological system

theory, is discussed. It explains how IPV is influenced by factors operating at four

levels: individual, interpersonal, community, and societal. The ecological theory

allows for a comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions and

influences that contribute to women's experiences of violence.

The feminist theory is also presented as a theoretical framework to understand

IPV. It highlights that patriarchal norms and gender inequality are the primary

causal factors behind IPV. The theory calls for challenging and dismantling

patriarchal social structures to prevent and eliminate violence against women.

However, it is noted that the feminist theory has received criticism for its narrow

focus and exclusion of other forms of IPV, such as violence against men or

instances where women are the perpetrators.

Overall, the literature review provides an overview of the conceptual

understanding of IPV, its prevalence, and the contributing factors, while also

introducing the theoretical frameworks that can be applied to analyze and address

the issue.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research methodology used to investigate the factors

associated with women's experience of intimate partner violence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. The research design, population, sample size, data

collection procedures, and data analysis techniques are outlined in this chapter.

3.1 Research Design

The research utilized a quantitative research design, which enabled the collection

of numerical data to examine the factors associated with women's experience of

intimate partner violence. This design facilitated the assessment of relationships

between variables and allowed for statistical analysis to test research hypotheses.

3.2 Study Population

The target population for this study consisted of women residing in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria, who had encountered intimate partner violence. The

population included both married and single women aged 18 years and above.

3.3 Sample Size

The sample size was determined using Yamane's formula. Considering a

population size (N) of unknown exact value but estimated to be relatively large, a

confidence level of 95%, and a margin of error of 5%, the formula is given as:

n = N / (1 + N(e^2))

where:
n = sample size

N = population size

e = margin of error (as a proportion)

Given that the population size is unknown, we will assume a conservative

estimate of 500 women experiencing intimate partner violence in Akungba

Akoko. Using Yamane's formula, the calculated sample size is:

n = 500 / (1 + 500(0.05^2))

n ≈ 240

Therefore, the study aimed to collect data from 240 respondents.

3.4 Sampling Technique

The sample was purposefully selected by the researcher to include an equal

number of married and single women. Purposeful sampling allowed for the

intentional selection of participants who met specific criteria, in this case, women

who had experienced intimate partner violence. The researcher employed various

methods to identify potential participants, such as seeking referrals from

community organizations, engaging with local support groups, and conducting

outreach efforts in collaboration with relevant stakeholders.

3.5 Data Collection

Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires as the main data

collection instrument. The questionnaire was developed based on previous

research on intimate partner violence and included sections on demographic

information, prevalence of intimate partner violence, perception and responses to

intimate partner violence and factors contributing to violence. The questionnaires

were administered face-to-face by trained research assistants to ensure clarity and

proper completion.

The data collected through the survey will be subjected to statistical analysis to

identify any significant differences between the two groups and provide

quantitative insights into the research questions. The questionnaire had a four
point rating scale of Strongly Agreed (SA), Agreed (A), Disagreed (D) and

Strongly Disagreed (SD).

3.6 Research Validity

Reliability refers to the degree to which a measurement instrument consistently

produces the same results or measurements under consistent conditions (Mugenda,

2014) .To assess the reliability of the research instrument, Cronbach's alpha

coefficient is a commonly used measure. A Cronbach's alpha value of 0.81 from a

sample of 240 respondents was reported in this study, indicating that the items in

the instrument are reliable and measure the intended constructs consistently. A

Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.81 indicates that the items in your questionnaire

are internally consistent, and the responses from the participants are reliable.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The quantitative data collected through the survey will be analyzed using

appropriate statistical techniques. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and

percentages, will be calculated to summarize the responses within each group.

Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while the

null hypotheses were tested at .05 alpha level of significance using t-test.

3.8 Decision Rule

In answering the research questions mean scores below the cut-off point of 2.50

were remarked disagree while mean score of 2.50 and above were remarked agree.

Decision for testing of null hypotheses was based on comparison of the calculated

t-value with the critical t-value. The null hypotheses were rejected if the calculated

t-value is greater than the table value otherwise the null hypotheses were retained.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

Ethical guidelines will be followed throughout the research process to ensure the

protection of participants' rights and privacy. Informed consent will be obtained

from all participants, and their identities will be kept confidential. The research

will adhere to ethical principles of voluntary participation, data protection, and

informed consent.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This chapter was dedicated to the presentation of the result from analysis based on

the field survey conducted. It was organized under the following sub-headings:

demographic variable of respondent, presentation of results, and discussion of

results and summary of findings.

4.1. Results
4.1.1 Demographic Variable of Respondents

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents based on Marital status

Categories Frequency Percent

Single 120 50

Married 120 50

Total 240 100

Table 1 above presents the distribution of respondents based on marital status. It

shows that out of the total of 240 respondents, 120 respondents (50%)are single

while married are 120 respondents (50%).

What factors contribute to the occurrence of intimate partner violence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State?

4.2 Answering of Research Questions

4.2.1 Research Question 1: What is the prevalence rate of different types of

intimate partner violence (psychological, physical, sexual, and controlling)

against women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State?

Table 2: Analysis of Mean and Standard Deviation showing the prevalence

rate of different types of intimate partner violence (psychological, physical,

sexual, and controlling) against women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

s/n Items Categories Mean SD Decision
1 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 3.17 0.70 Agree

State commonly face a Married 3.13 0.72 Agree

combination of different types of

intimate partner violence

(psychological, physical, sexual,

and controlling)

2 Do you believe that a significant Single 2.97 1.08 Agree

number of women experience Married 2.93 1.06 Agree

intimate partner violence at some

point in their lives

3 Based on your understanding, the Single 3.44 0.53 Agree

prevalence rate of intimate partner Married 3.47 0.55 Agree

violence against women is higher

than commonly perceived.

4 Would you agree that intimate Single 2.85 1.10 Agree

partner violence affects a large Married 2.80 1.10 Agree

proportion of women globally?

5 In your opinion, intimate partner Single 2.95 0.88 Agree

violence against women is a Married 2.99 0.86 Agree

widespread problem.
 Grand Mean Single 3.08 0.86 Agree

Married 3.06 0.86 Agree

N= 240 Cut-off Point = 2.50

Table 4 shows the mean response of single and married respondents on the

prevalence rate of different types of intimate partner violence (psychological,

physical, sexual, and controlling) against women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State.

The grand mean of single and married respondents are 3.08 and 3.06 respectively.

This implies that both single and married respondents agreed on the prevalence

rate of different types of intimate partner violence (psychological, physical, sexual,

and controlling) against women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State.

4.2.2 Research Question 2: How do women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

perceive and respond to intimate partner violence?

Table 3: Mean Response of respondents showing how women in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State perceive and respond to intimate partner violence

s/n Items Categories Mean SD Decision

1 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 2.97 1.04 Agree

State are generally aware of the Married 3.01 1.01 Agree

issue of intimate partner violence.

2 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 3.00 0.69 Agree

State feel comfortable discussing Married 2.93 0.68 Agree

 their experiences of intimate

partner violence.

3 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 3.00 1.04 Agree

State perceive intimate partner Married 3.02 1.01 Agree

violence as a societal problem

rather than a private matter.

4 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 3.60 0.49 Agree

State perceive that their Married 3.60 0.49 Agree

community supports victims of

intimate partner violence

5 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo Single 2.79 1.20 Agree

State believe that reporting Married 2.80 1.17 Agree

incidents of intimate partner

violence would lead to positive

outcomes.

Grand Mean Single 3.07 0.89 Agree

Married 3.07 0.87 Agree

N= 240 Cut-off Point = 2.50

Table 3 shows the mean response of single and married respondents on how

women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive and respond to intimate partner

violence. The grand mean of single and married respondents are 3.07 and 3.07
respectively. This implies that both single and married respondents agreed on how

women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive and respond to intimate partner

violence.

4.2.3 Research Question 3: What factors contribute to the occurrence of

intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State?

Table 4: Mean Response on the factors contribute to the occurrence of

intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

s/n Items Categories Mean SD Decision

1 Traditional gender roles and Single 2.96 0.71 Agree

unequal power dynamics within Married 3.12 0.77 Agree

relationships contribute to the

occurrence of intimate partner

violence in Akungba Akoko,

Ondo State.

2 Economic stressors, such as Single 3.08 0.86 Agree

unemployment or financial Married 3.06 0.93 Agree

instability, contribute to the

occurrence of intimate partner

violence in Akungba Akoko,

Ondo State.
3 Cultural or societal norms that Single 2.96 0.89 Agree

perpetuate the acceptance of Married 3.05 0.83 Agree

violence against women

contribute to the occurrence of

intimate partner violence in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

4 Inadequate legal and justice Single 3.05 1.03 Agree

systems that fail to effectively Married 3.15 0.97 Agree

respond to cases of intimate

partner violence contribute to its

occurrence in Akungba Akoko,

Ondo State

5 Substance abuse, such as alcohol Single 3.53 0.50 Agree

or drug addiction, is a Married 3.50 0.50 Agree

contributing factor to intimate

partner violence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State

Grand Mean Single 3.11 0.80 Agree

Married 3.17 0.80 Agree

N= 240 Cut-off Point = 2.50

Table 4 shows the mean response of single and married respondents on the factors

contribute to the occurrence of intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State. The mean response of single and married respondents on all item are above

2.50 respectively. This implies that single and married respondents agree to all

items listed above. Furthermore, the grand mean of single and married respondents

are 3.11 and 3.17 respectively. This implies that both single and married

respondents agreed that certain factors contribute to the occurrence of intimate

partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State.

4.3 Testing of Hypothesis

Hypotheses One

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the mean response of single

and married women regarding the factors associated with intimate partner violence

in Nigeria.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is significant difference in the mean response of

single and married women regarding the factors associated with intimate partner

violence in Nigeria.

Table 5: t-test analysis showing mean difference of single and married

respondents regarding the factors associated with intimate partner violence in

Nigeria.

Categorie N Mean SD Df t-cal p- Decision

s value

Single 120 15.58 1.72

238 1.37 0.834 NS

Married 120 15.88 1.68

NS = Not Significant at p< 0.05

The summary of analysis for the test of hypothesis one is presented on Table 5.

The table shows that the calculated t-value is 1.37 and the observed significant

value of 0.834 at 0.05 alpha level of significance and 238 degree of freedom. Since

the p-value of .938 is greater than .05, hence the null hypothesis is accepted. This

implies that there is no significant difference in the mean response of single and

married women regarding the factors associated with intimate partner violence in

Nigeria.

4.4 Discussion of Findings of the Study

The study examined the prevalence rates of psychological, physical, sexual, and

controlling IPV against women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. The findings

indicate that both single and married respondents agreed on the prevalence of IPV,

with relatively similar mean responses. This suggests that IPV is a significant issue

affecting women in Akungba Akoko, regardless of their marital status. The

findings agree with that of Umana, Fawole, and Adeoye (2014) whose study
revealed an overall prevalence rate of IPV in Nigeria. The prevalence rates

reported in this study can serve as a baseline for understanding the extent of the

problem and inform interventions and support services.

The study explored how women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive and

respond to IPV. Both single and married respondents expressed agreement on

various aspects, including awareness of the issue, comfort in discussing their

experiences, perceiving IPV as a societal problem, perceiving community support,

and believing that reporting incidents would lead to positive outcomes. These

findings indicate that women in Akungba Akoko recognize the gravity of IPV and

are open to seeking help and support. It highlights the importance of creating safe

spaces for women to share their experiences, fostering community support

systems, and strengthening the pathways for reporting and seeking justice.

The study identified several factors contributing to the occurrence of IPV in

Akungba Akoko, as agreed upon by both single and married respondents. These

factors include traditional gender roles, unequal power dynamics, economic

stressors, cultural/societal norms accepting violence against women, inadequate

legal and justice systems, and substance abuse. The respondents' agreement on

these factors emphasizes their recognition of the complex interplay between

individual, interpersonal, and societal factors that contribute to IPV. The findings

agree with that of Makayoto et al. (2013) whose study revealed that factors such as
economic stressors, unequal power dynamics, and substance abuse contributed to

women's experience of IPV and that of Agenagnew et al (2020) whose findings

attributed feelings of shame, uncertainty about seeking help, reluctance to involve

others, and fear of not being believed can be considered when exploring factors

associated with women's experience of IPV. The finding underscores the need for

comprehensive interventions addressing these underlying issues to prevent and

respond to IPV effectively.

\
CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIOS

5.1 Summary of Findings of the Study

The following were the findings of the study:

1. The study included a total of 240 respondents, with 50% being single and

50% being married.

2. The study examined the prevalence rate of different types of intimate partner

violence (psychological, physical, sexual, and controlling) against women in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. The mean responses indicated agreement

among both single and married respondents regarding the prevalence of

intimate partner violence. The grand mean for single respondents was 3.08,

and for married respondents, it was 3.06.

3. The study explored how women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive

and respond to intimate partner violence. Both single and married

respondents agreed on various aspects, such as awareness of the issue,

comfort in discussing experiences, perceiving it as a societal problem,

perceiving community support, and believing that reporting incidents would

lead to positive outcomes. The grand mean for both single and married

respondents was 3.07.

 4. The study examined factors contributing to the occurrence of intimate

partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. Both single and married

respondents agreed that traditional gender roles, unequal power dynamics,

economic stressors, cultural/societal norms accepting violence against

women, inadequate legal and justice systems, and substance abuse were

contributing factors. The grand mean for single respondents was 3.11, and

for married respondents, it was 3.17.

5.2 Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that intimate partner violence is prevalent in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. Women in the area commonly face different types of

intimate partner violence, and the prevalence rate is higher than commonly

perceived. The respondents, both single and married, are generally aware of the

issue and perceive it as a societal problem. They believe that reporting incidents

and receiving community support can lead to positive outcomes. Various factors

contribute to the occurrence of intimate partner violence, including traditional

gender roles, economic stressors, cultural norms, legal system inadequacies, and

substance abuse.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the study findings, the following recommendations can be made:

 1. Awareness and Education: Conduct awareness campaigns to increase

knowledge about intimate partner violence and its impact on women.

Educational programs should focus on challenging traditional gender roles,

promoting equality, and dispelling societal acceptance of violence against

women.

2. Support Services: Strengthen support services for victims of intimate partner

violence. Ensure that women feel comfortable discussing their experiences

and have access to counseling, legal aid, and shelters.

3. Legal Reforms: Advocate for legal reforms that address intimate partner

violence effectively. Improve the legal and justice systems to ensure prompt

and fair handling of cases and appropriate punishment for perpetrators.

4. Economic Empowerment: Implement initiatives to address economic

stressors faced by women, such as unemployment and financial instability.

Provide skill-building programs, job opportunities, and financial support to

enhance women's economic independence.

5. Substance Abuse Programs: Develop programs to address substance abuse

issues in the community, including awareness campaigns, rehabilitation

centers, and support networks for individuals struggling with addiction.

5.4 Implications of the Study

The findings have several implications for addressing intimate partner violence in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria:

1. The study provides insights into the factors contributing to intimate partner

violence. Policymakers can use this information to develop comprehensive

policies and strategies aimed at preventing and responding to intimate

partner violence effectively.

2. The findings highlight the need for targeted intervention programs that

address the specific needs and challenges faced by women in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State. These programs should focus on empowering women,

raising awareness, and providing support services.

3. The study emphasizes the importance of collaboration between government

agencies, non-governmental organizations, community leaders, and other

stakeholders. By working together, these stakeholders can pool resources,

expertise, and efforts to address intimate partner violence comprehensively.

4. The study provides a foundation for further research on intimate partner

violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. Future studies can explore

additional factors, examine the long-term effects on women's health and

well-being, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions implemented.

By implementing the recommendations and considering the implications,

stakeholders can contribute to reducing intimate partner violence and creating a

safer and more supportive environment for women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State, Nigeria.

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APPENDIX A

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

Gender: M[ ] F [ ]

Age:

Instruction: This questionnaire is divided into four (4) sections for easy

understanding. Each section is structured to provide a conviction on the factors

 associated with women's experience of intimate partner violence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State.

You are requested to tick (√ ) the option that best describe your opinion on the

factors associated with women's experience of intimate partner violence in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State.

The level of requirement is represented as follows:

Strongly Agreed - SA

Agreed - S

Disagreed - D

Strongly Disagreed - SD

SECTION B: FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH WOMEN'S EXPERIENCE

OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE IN AKUNGBA AKOKO, ONDO

STATE.

A What is the prevalence rate of different types of SA A D SD

intimate partner violence (psychological,

physical, sexual, and controlling) against women

 in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State?

1 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State commonly

face a combination of different types of intimate

partner violence (psychological, physical, sexual,

and controlling)

2 Do you believe that a significant number of women

experience intimate partner violence at some point

in their lives?

3 Based on your understanding, the prevalence rate of

intimate partner violence against women is higher

than commonly perceived.

4 Would you agree that intimate partner violence

affects a large proportion of women globally?

5 In your opinion, intimate partner violence against

women is a widespread problem.

B How do women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

perceive and respond to intimate partner

violence?

1 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State are

generally aware of the issue of intimate partner

 violence.

2 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State feel

comfortable discussing their experiences of intimate

partner violence.

3 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive

intimate partner violence as a societal problem

rather than a private matter.

4 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State perceive

that their community supports victims of intimate

partner violence

5 Women in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State believe that

reporting incidents of intimate partner violence

would lead to positive outcomes.

C What factors contribute to the occurrence of

intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko,

Ondo State?

1 Traditional gender roles and unequal power

dynamics within relationships contribute to the

occurrence of intimate partner violence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State

2 Economic stressors, such as unemployment or

financial instability, contribute to the occurrence of

intimate partner violence in Akungba Akoko, Ondo

State

3 Cultural or societal norms that perpetuate the

acceptance of violence against women contribute to

the occurrence of intimate partner violence in

Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

4 Inadequate legal and justice systems that fail to

effectively respond to cases of intimate partner

violence contribute to its occurrence in Akungba

Akoko, Ondo State

5 Substance abuse, such as alcohol or drug addiction,

is a contributing factor to intimate partner violence

in Akungba Akoko, Ondo State

APPENDIX B

RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT RESULT

Reliability Statistic

Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items

.81 240