Introduction to

Atmospheric Dynamics
Chapter 1

Paul A. Ullrich
[email protected]
How to Read These Slides
Definition: A definition is an explanation or
outline for relevant jargon or terms.

Concept: An idea that draws a connection between

subjects or provides an answer for a question.

Question: What is something that motivates

delving into this topic?

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Part 1: Forces in the Atmosphere
 Radius of the Earth
6371.22 km

Atmosphere Depth
100 km

Troposphere Depth
10 km

Mountain Height
8.8 km

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Question: How do we understand
the dynamics of the atmosphere?

Answer: The principles of atmospheric dynamics

are drawn from basic physical principles.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Question: What are the basic physical
principles that govern the atmosphere?

Newton’s Second Law: The

change in momentum of an
object is equal to the sum of
forces acting on that object.

d(mv) X
= Fi
dt
all i
Conservation of Momentum:
With no external forces momentum
must be conserved.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Basic Principles of Physics
Definition: Velocity is the change of dx
position with respect to time u=
dt

Definition: Acceleration is the change du

of velocity with respect to time
a=
dt

Hence, for an object of constant mass:

d(mu) du 1 X
=m = ma Newton’s
Second Law
a= Fi
dt dt m
all i

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Basic Principles of Physics
l How do these forces induce acceleration?

l We assume the existence of

an idealized “parcel” of fluid.

l Forces are calculated on the

idealized parcel.

l Then take the limit of the

parcel being infinitely small.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Parcel Properties

⇢ Density (kg/m3)
z
V = x y z Volume (m3)
Δz
m=⇢ x y z Mass (kg)
y
Δx Δy
T Temperature (K)
x

p Pressure (Pa)

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Spherical Coordinates

j Spherical coordinates:

Longitude

k Latitude
j r Radius

i Basis vectors:

i Eastward basis vector

j Northward basis vector
k Vertical basis vector

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Definition: The Material Derivative (expressed
with a capital D) denotes the change in a quantity
following a fluid parcel.

1 X Du 1 X
a= Fi = Fi
m Dt m
all i all i
u = (u, v, w) 3D velocity vector

u Eastward velocity (zonal velocity)

v Northward velocity (meridional velocity)

w Upward velocity (vertical velocity)

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Question: What forces are important for
understanding atmospheric dynamics?

1 X Du 1 X
a= Fi = Fi
m Dt m
all i all i

l Pressure gradient force

l Gravitational force
l Viscous force
l Coriolis and centrifugal force

l Total force is the sum of all these forces

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Definition: A Surface Force acts on the surface of a
parcel of fluid, typically due to interactions with
neighboring parcels. The magnitude of a surface
force is typically proportional to the surface area of
the parcel. Examples: Pressure Force, Viscous Force.

Definition: A Body Force acts on the center of mass of a parcel of

fluid. The magnitude of the body force is typically proportional to
the mass of the parcel. Example: Gravity.

Definition: When a coordinate system (for instance coordinates on

the sphere) varies with respect to time and/or space, there is an
Apparent Force due to the fact that coordinate vectors are changing
following the fluid parcel. Examples: Coriolis, Centrifugal Force.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Pressure Gradient Force

(x0 , y0 , z0 )
Pressure at parcel center:
p0 = p(x0 , y0 , z0 )
Δz
z
Approximate pressure here via
Taylor expansion
Δx Δy
y ✓ ◆
@p x
p = p0 + + O( x2 )
x
@x 2

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Pressure Gradient Force
Δz

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@p x Δy @p x
pL ⇡ p 0 Δx pR ⇡ p 0 +
@x 2 @x 2
F L = p L AL = p L y z FR = p R AR = pR y z

Ftot = FL + FR
 ✓ ◆  ✓ ◆
@p x @p x
= p0 y z p0 + y z
@x 2 @x 2
✓ ◆
@p
= x y z Total force acting on fluid parcel
@x in the x direction

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Pressure Gradient Force
Repeat in all coordinate directions:

✓ ◆
@p @p @p
Ftot = i+ j+ k x y z= (rp) x y z
@x @y @z

Then computing the force per unit mass (recall

this determines the acceleration):

Ftot 1
= rp
m ⇢
Total force acting on fluid parcel
in all directions

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Viscous Force
The viscosity of air is responsible for resisting motion
of the fluid. It is a dissipative force, which results
slowing a fluid which is not otherwise forced.

A For example, the blue fluid

ut parcel experiences a shear
stress in the x direction due
Ftop~i to motion of the red fluid
y u parcel and green fluid parcel.
Fbot~i
~j ub Ftop ⇠ (ut u) A
Fbot ⇠ (ub u) A
~i
Observe that if all fluid parcels are traveling at the same
velocity, no force will be conferred.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Viscous Force
Ftop ⇠ (ut u) A
Fbot ⇠ (ub u) A
A The resistance of the fluid parcel to
shearing is determined by the
ut
proportionality coefficient
Ftop~i µ/ y
y u
Where μ is the dynamic
Fbot~i
viscosity. Observe that this
~j ub quantity is inversely
proportional to the thickness
~i of the fluid parcel δy. Why
might this be the case?
µ A
Hence: Ftop + Fbot = (ut 2u + ub )
y

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Viscous Force
The force per unit mass gives the acceleration:
Ftot Ftot µ (ut 2u + ub )
= =
m ⇢ y A ⇢ y2

And so in the limit y!0

A
✓ 2
◆
ut Ftot µ @ u
=
m ⇢ @y 2
Ftop~i
y u
Fbot~i
~j ub

~i

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Viscous Force
Extending this derivation to each flow direction
then yields the total acceleration due to viscosity.

Kinematic µ
⌫=
Viscosity ⇢

Fvisc
= ⌫r2 u
m

Note Laplacian (second

derivative). What
consequences does this have
for linearly sheared flow?

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Gravitational Force
Mm r
Recall Newton’s law of gravity: Fg = G
|r|2 |r|
Gravitational constant:
11 1
G = 6.67384 ⇥ 10 m3 kg s 2

Mass of the Earth: r

M = 5.972 ⇥ 1024 kg

But since the atmosphere is essentially a

thin shell, we can make the approximation

|r| ⇡ a a = 6.37122 ⇥ 106 m Fg

= gk
GM m
Define gravity at surface: g= 2
a
Total gravitational force
Question: Can you calculate g from the above information? acting on fluid parcel

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Dynamical Equations
of Motion (Cartesian,  non-­‐rota.ng  fluid)  
Du 1 @p
= + ⌫r2 u
Dt ⇢ @x
Dv 1 @p
= + ⌫r2 v
Dt ⇢ @y
Dw 1 @p
= –g + ⌫r2 w
Dt ⇢ @z

Pressure Gradient Gravity Viscosity

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Coriolis / Centrifugal Force
The Earth revolves around its axis at
⌦ a certain rate ⌦.

j Coriolis and Centrifugal forces are

k known as apparent forces, because
they only exist because the
reference frame is in motion.

The Coriolis force deflects fluid

parcels as a consequence of the
Earth’s rotation.

The Centrifugal force attempts to

push fluid parcels away from the
axis of rotation.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum

Angular velocity is defined as the

angular frequency (in units of radians
per second) multiplied by the radius:
ω
|v| = !r
r (radius) v Δv
Δθ Velocity vector

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Ω
On the surface of the sphere the
radius of rotation is equal to the
perpendicular distance from the axis
R of rotation:
a
|R| = a cos

( = latitude)

Earth

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Ω
k
j Define a local coordinate system:

i = Points towards the East (Zonal)

R Longitudinal direction
a (at red circle this is directed into the page)

j = Points towards the North (Meridional)

Latitudinal direction
(at red circle directed to top-left)

k = Points in the vertical

Earth Local vertical coordinate
(at red circle directed to top-right)

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Ω
k
j
Given a vector B in the same
direction as R, whare the
B components of this vector in the
R local basis?
a
B = By j + Bz k

Verify:
By = |B| sin
Bz = |B| cos
Earth
Observe:

By2 + Bz2 = |B|2

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Ω
k
j

R B
a
What is theVerify:
velocity
of this point only due
to the rotation of the
Earth?

Earth Answer: Velocity is purely zonal

ui = ⌦|R|
u = ui i

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Velocity due to rotation of the
Ω Earth:
k ui = ⌦|R|
j
Angular momentum vector L is
equal to the cross product of the
R radial vector and the linear
a momentum
L = R ⇥ mu
But R and u are perpendicular to
one another, so

|L| = |R|mui
Earth
|L| = m⌦|R|2

The angular momentum vector

points in the same direction as Ω.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Angular momentum due to rotation
Ω of the Earth:
k
j
|L| = m⌦|R|2 Rotation only

Write the radial vector in terms of a:

R
a
|R| = a cos

So for a fluid parcel at rest relative to

the surface:
|L| = m⌦a2 cos2
Earth Angular momentum is relevant
since it is a conserved quantity.
That is,
D|L|
=0
Dt

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Assume the fluid parcel now
Ω possesses some zonal velocity u.
k The angular momentum due to its
j
zonal velocity is
Zonal velocity
R |L| = mu|R| only
a
Angular momentum including
both rotation of the Earth and
relative velocity u:

|L|
= ⌦|R|2 + u|R|
m
Earth ✓
u
◆
2
= |R| ⌦ +
|R|

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Meridional Displacement
Ω
k
j
R

Imagine the air parcel moves

R south (or north). What happens?

We get some change ΔR in

the magnitude of R.

Earth

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Meridional Displacement
Ω Imagine the air parcel moves
k south (or north). What happens?
j
R
But if angular momentum is
conserved, then u must change:
✓ ◆
R |L| 2 u
= |R| ⌦ +
m |R|
✓ ◆
2 u+ u
= (|R| + R) ⌦ +
|R| + R

Earth Solve (assuming small increments):

u
u⇡ 2⌦ R R
|R|

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Meridional Displacement
Ω Imagine the air parcel moves
k south (or north). What happens?
j
R
But if angular momentum is
conserved, then u must change:
✓ ◆
R |L| 2 u
= |R| ⌦ +
m |R|
✓ ◆
2 u+ u
= (|R| + R) ⌦ +
|R| + R

Earth Solve (assuming small increments):

u
u⇡ 2⌦ R R
|R|

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Meridional Displacement
Ω Imagine the air parcel moves
k south (or north). What happens?
j
R u
u⇡ 2⌦ R R
|R|
R For southward displacement

R= sin y ( y=a )
( y < 0)
Total change in velocity:
u
u ⇡ 2⌦ sin y+ sin y
Earth a cos

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Meridional Displacement
Ω Imagine the air parcel moves
k south (or north). What happens?
j
R u
u⇡ 2⌦ sin y+ sin y
a cos
R Divide through by Δt, take limit:
Du Dy u Dy
= 2⌦ sin + tan
Dt Dt a Dt

Du uv
Earth = 2⌦v sin + tan
Dt a

Coriolis Term Geometric Term

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Angular Momentum
Displacements of a fluid parcel in the meridional
direction lead to the apparent forces:

Du uv
= 2⌦v sin + tan
Dt a

What about if the fluid parcel is displaced zonally? i.e. if it experiences an acceleration

What about if the fluid parcel is displaced vertically?

Left as an exercise for the reader… Essentially requires repeating a similar analysis.

Then: Combine all three possibilities to obtain all Coriolis and geometric terms

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Curvature / Coriolis in 3D

Du uv uw
= 2⌦v sin + tan 2⌦w cos
Dt a a
Dv u2 vw
= 2⌦u sin tan
Dt a a
Dw u2 + v 2
= 2⌦u cos +
Dt a

Curvature Coriolis

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Coriolis Parameter
Du uv uw
= 2⌦v sin + tan 2⌦w cos
Dt a a
Dv u2 vw
= 2⌦u sin tan
Dt a a
Dw u2 + v 2
= 2⌦u cos +
Dt a

Definition: The Coriolis Parameter f is defined as f = 2⌦ sin

For w small, the Coriolis force is then given by:

Du Dv
= fv = fu
Dt Dt

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Coriolis Force

Deflection is to the right in the Northern

hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
hemisphere.

Du Dv
= fv = fu
Dt Dt

Tendency is for fluid parcels to move in circles.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

Centrifugal Force
⌦

j
k

Fcent

Centrifugal force always works

perpendicular to the axis of rotation:
mv 2
Fcent = R
r
Typically small, so vertical component absorbed
into the gravitational term and horizontal
component absorbed into curvature.

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014

 Dynamic Equations of
Motion (Spherical  geometry,  rota.ng  fluid)  

Du uv tan uw 1 @p
+ = + 2⌦v sin 2⌦w cos + ⌫r2 u
Dt r r ⇢r cos @
Dv u2 tan vw 1 @p
+ + = 2⌦u sin + ⌫r2 v
Dt r r ⇢r @
Dw u2 + v 2 1 @p
= g + 2⌦u cos + ⌫r2 w
Dt r ⇢ @r

Curvature Pressure Gradient Gravity

Coriolis Viscosity

Paul Ullrich The Equations of Atmospheric Dynamics March 2014