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Springer Aerospace Technology
Ji Wu
Introduction to
Space Science
Series Editors
Sergio De Rosa, DII, University of Naples Federico II, NAPOLI, Italy
Yao Zheng, School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Elena Popova, AirNavigation Bridge Russia, Russia, Russia
The series explores the technology and the science related to the aircraft and
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topics cover aircraft, missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines and propulsion units.
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• structural analysis,
• aerodynamics,
• aeroelasticity,
• aeroacoustics,
• flight mechanics and dynamics
• orbital maneuvers,
• avionics,
• systems design,
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• launch technology,
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The series’ scope includes monographs, professional books, advanced textbooks,
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Ji Wu
Introduction to Space Science

Ji Wu
National Space Science Center
Beijing, China
Translated by
Yongjian Xu Qingjiang Bai
National Space Science Center National Space Science Center
Beijing, China Beijing, China
ISSN 1869-1730 ISSN 1869-1749 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-16-5750-4 ISBN 978-981-16-5751-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5751-1
Jointly published with Science Press

The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please order the
print book from Science Press.
Translation from the Chinese language edition: Introduction to Space Science by Ji Wu, © China Science
Publishing & Media Ltd (Science Press) 2020. Published by China Science Publishing & Media Ltd
(Science Press). All Rights Reserved.
© Science Press 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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Singapore
Foreword
Space science adopts the spacecraft as the main tools to carry out scientific research
and experiments, which is an integral part of the space endeavor. For China, with the
gradual increase of comprehensive national power and the emergence of science and
technology innovation as the main driving force of development, it is the inevitable
choice, to vigorously promote the development of space science, which will trigger
a wave of intensive demands for space technology, and provide theoretical guidance
and support for the development of space applications.
I have known Professor Ji Wu, the author of this book, for a long time. As the
former Director General of the National Space Science Center (NSSC) of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the President of the Chinese Society of Space
Research (CSSR), one of the key players in promoting the development of space
science in China in recent years, he has done substantial work and made tremendous
contributions to the development of space science in China. This book is based on
the development of China’s space programs and Prof. Ji Wu’s personal experience
in so many years, and at the same time draws on the practices of spacefaring nations
and institutions, which makes a good reading for scientists, engineers, and project
managers. This book can also be used as a textbook and reference for related courses
in universities and colleges.
For young students who are new to the space sector, they need to get familiar with
the origin and background of the space programs. This book traces back to the early
days of human observation of space and cosmos, reviews the development of science
to reveal the asperation intention of space exploration, and introduces the history of
space technology with the focus on launch vehicles which helps to overcome the
gravity of the Earth to enter space. This will greatly broaden the horizons of these
young students.
For the people with engineering background in space sector, Chaps. 3 and 4 are
very unique in that after a comprehensive and macroscopic introduction to several
important branches of space science, the key scientific frontiers of each branch are
briefly described, which can greatly stimulate their curiosity. Besides, for people
who are no longer engaged in scientific research, and only participate in these space
science missions as engineers or managers, they will be proud of doing their bit in the
v
vi Foreword
exploration of such interesting scientific frontiers. Therefore, the introduction of this

background knowledge is essential for all those involved in space science missions.
After presenting the necessary background knowledge of space exploration, this
book provides a systematic overview of the major systems of space technology, high-
lighting the orbit, launcher, and spacecraft/satellite systems, with particular focus
on the relationship between payloads and orbits, launcher and spacecraft in scien-
tific missions. This knowledge is essential for both engineers and scientists who
are involved in space science missions. For engineers, they need to understand the
requirements of a space science mission and the payloads, while for scientists, they
need to know the engineering constraints and boundaries of orbits, launch vehicles,
and spacecraft.
This book differentiates itself from purely scientific and technical monographs
with substantial discussions on space science mission management. In our long time
cooperation, Prof. Ji Wu has been responsible for specific technical work, as well
as important management work in many major space missions, especially space
exploration missions. Therefore, he has rich experience in systems engineering.
The experience in management issues introduced in this book is based on the 60
years’ development of Chinese space program, as well as his personal experiences in
leading the implementation of major space science missions. As the reading unfolds,
the reader can have the panoramic view, from a mission manager’s perspective, of
the entire process of a science mission from mission planning, pre-research, selec-
tion, approval, development, launch, operations, and evaluation, with the prevailing
principle of maximizing scientific output, which is articulated by the author to the
fullest extent. I believe that those engaged in space science missions would benefit
greatly from reading this book, which would facilitate their future research work.
Finally, the author discusses the relationship between space science, space tech-
nology, and space applications in very concise language and with the help of
diagrams. It can be seen that these three integral aspects are mutually dependent,
mutually supportive, and mutually reinforcing.
All in all, this book makes a fascinating reading. It is a summary and overview
of the development of the space endeavor in China in the last 60 years. I hope that
the present and future scientists, engineers, and project managers of space science
missions could read the book, which can also serve as an introductory textbook for
young students who will enter the space sector. It is hoped that the publication of
this book will inject new momentum into the space science endeavor in China and
promote its faster, better, and sustainable development.
Beijing, China Academician Peijian Ye

May 2020
Preface
Although humans have been observing and recording the stars and the cosmos for
thousands of years, it is only in the last 60 years or so that we have, in the real
sense, entered the space age. Space science is an emerging interdisciplinary field,
which thrives from the development of space technology and uses the spacecraft as
the tools to conduct research in space. Compared with other traditional disciplines,
space science, as a basic research area, is government dominated and its research
directions are planned accordingly. Since its expected scientific output may lead to
discoveries and breakthroughs in major basic science frontiers, it belongs to the basic
research. However, the implementation of a space science mission requires integra-
tion of various disciplines and systems engineering technology, especially the space
technology, and relies on the spacecraft as the platform of observation and experi-
ment to achieve scientific objectives. In addition, due to the uniqueness of scientific
discoveries, the requirements on the space technologies by a space science mission
are constantly becoming higher and higher, leading to innovations and upgrading in
space technology. Transforming these new technologies into applicable technologies
on the ground can even give rise to new strategic industries and drive the development
of economy and society. In this respect, it is also a part of national space activities
with the potential to enhance the space technology capacity.
Traditional basic science education based on individual disciplines aims to train
professionals in specific disciplines, such as physicists, astronomers, space physi-
cists, planetary scientists, atmospheric and ionospheric physicists, solid Earth physi-
cists, and life scientists. In the traditional curriculum, seldom do they have the oppor-
tunity to learn related knowledge of large systems engineering, such as the space
systems engineering. But in the future, when the abovementioned professionals are
engaged in space science research, they will turn into space scientists, who need to
understand orbital dynamics, space environment, various space vehicles like space-
craft/satellites, as well as knowledge of systems engineering management. In the
traditional education system to train the engineers, be it mechanical, electrical, or
material, the focus of education is on feasibility, reliability, repeatability, and imple-
mentability, and the graduates can directly participate in the engineering implemen-
tation. But when involved in a space science mission, these engineers often do not
vii
viii Preface
understand the language of the scientists who are striving to explore the unknown,
and they are unwilling to accept the engineering and technical challenges and risks
brought about by the new requirements. However, prioritizing the scientific objec-
tives prevails in a space science mission, from mission proposal to operations, and
science and engineering are closely bonded together. On one hand, scientists without
basic knowledge of space technology and systems engineering cannot communicate
with the mission development and research team, and are incapable of coordinating
the mission development with hundreds of participants, which leads to the failure
of realizing their dreams. On the other hand, engineers who fail to understand the
language of science cannot understand the requirements of scientific detection and
observation, and cannot make reasonable improvements to the engineering design to
best meet the needs of the scientific objectives.
This book, from a top-down, interdisciplinary, and systematic perspective, aims
to provide a systematic introduction of the knowledge on the frontiers of various
branches of space science disciplines, space technology, and systems engineering, to
highlight the characteristics of space science missions as compared with other space
missions, to lay the fundamental systematic knowledge for scientists and engineers
who wish to engage and participate in space science missions in the future, and to
cultivate scientists and engineers as potential principle investigators, chief designers,
and project managers.
The outline of this book is as follows: Chaps. 1 and 2 focus on the reasons to
conduct research in space and the history of space exploration; Chaps. 3 and 4 intro-
duce the major frontier issues in space astronomy, planetary science, space solar
physics, space physics, space Earth science, microgravity science, and space life
sciences, respectively; Chap. 5 introduces the space systems engineering and its
systems; Chaps. 6–8 introduce the technical foundations for space science missions,
including orbit, attitude and TT&C, scientific payloads and its application environ-
ment, mission planning, and operations. Chaps. 9–12 focus on the key factors of
space science mission management, including mission proposal and its selection,
mission development and the duty of scientists and engineers, quality management
and risk control, full mission lifecycle management, and output evaluation. Chap. 13
introduces the international cooperation in space science missions; Chap. 14 intro-
duces the space science programs in China; Chap. 15, as the wrap up of the book,
not only gives definitions to space science, space technology, and space applications,
but also discusses their relationships.
This book is based on my two-semester course for the graduate course of the
School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences. This book received substantial support from Associate Prof. Bai Qingjiang,
the course assistant, as well as the necessary help from Prof. Zheng Jianhua from
the National Space Science Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Alvaro
Gimenez, former Science Director of the European Space Agency. My thanks also
go to colleagues from several departments of the National Space Science Center
for their assistance, including the Space Science and Deep Space Exploration Study
Center, the Space Science Program Center, and the Space Science Mission Operation
and Control Center.
Preface ix
My thanks go to the translators of this book for their devoted effort to bring it into
the current shape. Mr. Xu Yongjian is responsible for the translation of Chaps. 1–8
and Chap. 13, and Ms. Bai Qingjiang is responsible for Chaps. 9–12 and Chaps. 14
and 15.
Finally, my gratitude also goes to Zhu Pingping, the Editor of the Science Press,
for her hard work, which has enabled efficient publication of this book.
Beijing, China Ji Wu
April 2020
Contents
1 Reasons to Conduct Research in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 To Explore the Unknown Space Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 To Break Free the Barrier of Atmosphere to Electromagnetic
Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 To Utilize the Orbital Altitude Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 To Unveil the Mystery of the Earth’s Gravitational Field . . . . . . . 4
1.6 To Make Full Use of Other Aspects of Space Environments . . . . 5
1.7 Definition of Space Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 History of Human Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 History of Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 The Technology Advancement of Ground-Based
Observations Since Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 A Brief History of Human’s Access to Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 The Recent Technology Progress of Space Exploration . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.1 Rocketry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.2 Satellite and Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.3 Tracking Telemetry and Control (TT&C)
and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.4 Launch and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Major Frontier Issues in Space Science (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Origin of the Universe and Its Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.1 Time Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.2 Spatial Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.3 Questions of Great Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 The Impact of Solar Activities on Human Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
xi
xii Contents
3.3.1 Solar Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.3.2 Interplanetary Space Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.3 The Magnetosphere of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.4 The Earth’s Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.5 The Middle and Upper Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Major Frontiers in Space Science (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 The Earth System and Its Future Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.1 The Spheres and Cycles of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 Microgravity Science and Space Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.1 How to Simulate Microgravity Environment . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.2 What Changes Under Microgravity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.3 Biological Radiation Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.4 Fundamental Physics Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5 Space Systems Engineering and Its Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Space Systems Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.2 High Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2.3 High Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.2.4 Sensitiveness to Political and Social Benefits . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 System Components of Space Systems Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.1 Satellite/Spacecraft System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.3.2 The Launch Vehicle System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.3.3 The Launch Site System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.4 TT&C System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.5 Ground Application System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6 Technical Fundamentals (I): Orbit, Attitude, and TT&C . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Basic Concepts About Time and Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2.1 About Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.2.2 About Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Fundamentals of Spacecraft Orbit Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.1 Johannes Kepler’s Three Major laws of Planetary
Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3.2 Spacecraft Orbit Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.3.3 Examples of Commonly Used Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Contents xiii
6.3.4 Orbit Maneuver and Limited Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6.4 Fundamentals of Satellite Altitude Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.4.1 Commonly Used Altitude Stabilization Methods . . . . . . 94
6.4.2 Satellite Attitudes Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.4.3 Satellite Attitude Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.5 Tracking, Telemetry, and Control (TT&C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5.1 The Responsibilities of the TT&C System . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5.2 Technical System of TT&C System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5.3 Chinese TT&C Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5.4 Satellite Tracking and Methods of Orbit
Measurement and Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7 Technical Fundamentals (II): Scientific Payloads and Its
Application Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Space Science and Science Payloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2.1 Electrostatic Field, Magnetostatic Field,
and Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Wave
Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2.2 Low-Frequency Radio Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.3 Microwave Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2.4 Millimeter-Wave and Submillimeter-Wave
Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.5 Terahertz Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.6 Infrared Remote Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.7 Visible Light Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2.8 Ultraviolet Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2.9 X-ray Remote Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3 Satellite’s Environmental Requirements for the Science
Payloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.3.1 Mechanical Environment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.3.2 Thermal Environment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.3.3 Power Usage Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.3.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility Environment
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.5 Control and Information Usage Requirements . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.6 Radiation Environment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8 Technical Fundamentals (III): Mission Planning
and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 The Application System of Space Science Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2.1 Six Systems of the Space Science Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2.2 Science Application System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
xiv Contents
8.2.3 The Ground Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8.2.4 System Development Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3 Planning of Space Science Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3.1 Analysis of the Requirements for Detection
and Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3.2 The Spacecraft Conditions and Resource
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.3.3 Compiling and Execution of Mission Plans . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.4 Science Data Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.4.1 Ground Station for Science Data Reception . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.4.2 Spacecraft Pass Time and Downlink Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.4.3 Scientific Data Pre-handling/processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.5 Science Data Classification and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.5.1 Science Data Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.5.2 Science Data Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.5.3 Data Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.5.4 Science Data Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9 Management (I): Call for Mission Proposals and Its Selection . . . . . 137
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2 Identification of Science Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2.1 Strategic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.2.2 Space Science Planning in the USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.2.3 Space Science Planning in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.2.4 Space Science Planning in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.3 Study of Scientific Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3.1 How to Propose Scientific Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3.2 The Realizability of Scientific Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3.3 The Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3.4 The Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.4 Selection of Payloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.5 Mission Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.6 Payloads’ Requirement for the Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.7 Selection of Mission Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10 Management (II): Mission Development and the Duty
of Scientists and Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.2 Research Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.2.1 Mission Concept Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.2.2 Advanced Research of Space Science Missions
and Payloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.2.3 Intensive Study of Future Space Science Missions . . . . . 149
10.3 Reviews Necessary for the Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Contents xv
10.3.1 Review of Scientific Objectives and Payload

Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.3.2 Review of Payloads’ Requirement for Spacecraft . . . . . . 151
10.3.3 Systems Compatibility Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.3.4 Review of the Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.4 Engineering Development Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.4.1 Preliminary Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.4.2 Engineering Qualification Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.4.3 Flight Model Production Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.4.4 Tests and Launch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.4.5 In-Orbit Tests and Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11 Management (III): Quality Management and Risk Control . . . . . . . . 157
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.2 Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.2.1 Quality Manual and Procedure Documentation . . . . . . . . 159
11.2.2 Documentation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.2.3 Closed-Loop Solution of Quality Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.2.4 Technical Status Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.3 Risk Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
11.3.1 Risks Identification and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.3.2 Risk Control and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
12 Management (IV): Full Mission Lifecycle Management
and Output Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
12.2 Relationship of the Stakeholders of Space Science Missions . . . . 167
12.3 Output Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
13 International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
13.2 Necessity for International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
13.3 Main Forms of International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
13.4 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
14 Strategic Planning of Space Science in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.2 Scientific Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.2.1 How Did the Universe and Life Originate,
and How Do They Evolve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.2.2 What’s the Relationship Between the Solar
System and Human Beings? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.3 Mission Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.3.1 Black Hole Probe (BHP) Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
xvi Contents
14.3.2 Diagnostics of Astro-Oscillations (DAO) Program . . . . . 181

14.3.3 Portraits of Astrophysical Objects (PAO) Program . . . . . 181
14.3.4 Spectroscopy of Astrophysical Objects (SAO)
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3.5 ExoPlanet Exploration (EPE) Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3.6 Solar Microscope Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3.7 Solar Panorama Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3.8 Space Weather Chain Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3.9 Micro-Sats Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
14.4 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
14.4.1 Ultra-High-Resolution Imaging Technology . . . . . . . . . . 187
14.4.2 Ultra-High-Precision Time Reference Technology . . . . . 187
14.4.3 Distributed Satellite Constellation Technology . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15 Relations of Space Science, Space Technology, and Space
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
15.2 Definition of Space Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
15.3 Definition of Space Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
15.4 Definition of Space Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
15.5 Relations of Space Science, Space Technology, and Space
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
About the Author
Prof. Ji Wu is President of the Chinese Society of Space Research (CSSR) and

former Director General of the National Space Science Center (NSSC) of Chinese
Academy of Sciences (CAS). He is full member of IAA (International Astronautics
Academy), fellow of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society, member of
the Advisory Board of Luxembourg Government for Space Resources, and member
of the Advisory Committee of UAE Space Agency. He once served as Vice-President
of the Committee for Space Research (COSPAR) (2010–2018), Head of the Strategic
Priority Program on Space Science of CAS, Chief Designer of the application system
of Double Star Program, Principle Investigator of Yinghuo-1, and Project Manager
of Scientific Payload System of Chinese Lunar Exploration Program Chang’e-1 and
Chang’e-3.
xvii
Chapter 1
Reasons to Conduct Research in Space
1.1 Introduction
What are the reasons to conduct research in space? For many disciplines, even
including astronomy, research could be carried out on the ground. For example,
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) pioneered the practical ground observation of celestial
bodies using telescopes. Another example is the employment of ground-based radars
to observe and study the ionosphere. Even so, there’s still a lot of research that can’t
be done on the ground, which necessitates the research in space. This chapter will
focus on the reasons to go into space.
From the beginning of the space age, the fundamental and foremost objective of
entering space to carry out research is to unveil the mystery of space and increase
our knowledge of space. Before the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957,
the outer space reaching beyond the atmosphere is shrouded in mystery, where the
neutral atmosphere thins out and is ionized by the ultraviolet light from the Sun
when reaching further out, hence creating the ionosphere. But, questions remain to
be answered, e.g., how the electrons and ions in the ionosphere are distributed and
how do they move? What effect does the Earth’s magnetic field exert on these charged
particles?
After gaining access to space, for the first time in human history, we have the
opportunity to observe the Planet Earth from hundreds or even thousands of kilo-
meters away. When we observe it from such a distance, our perceptions of the Earth
become very different. The changes that the Earth presents to us become systematic,
such as the formation and movement of typhoons.
What’s more, once break free the obstacles of the atmosphere, we have the liberty
to make full use of the resources of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Previously,
the low-frequency electromagnetic waves, terahertz, and infrared wavelengths, as
well as wavelengths beyond the ultraviolet that are normally blocked by the atmo-
sphere. Entering into space enables us to observe the universe in full electromagnetic
spectrum.
© Science Press 2021 1

J. Wu, Introduction to Space Science, Springer Aerospace Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5751-1_1
2 1 Reasons to Conduct Research in Space
For an in-orbit spacecraft, the centrifugal force generated by its rotation around
the Earth is offset by the gravitational force of the Earth, providing us an equivalent
microgravity environment for a long period of time. Previously, our understanding
of the kinetic properties of matter and the rule of life activity is actually based on the
condition of the gravity of the Earth. So, if we remove the gravity, will the movement
of matter and life remain the same?
In short, gaining access to space is to enter a larger laboratory where the
experiments previously impossible on the ground can be carried out.
1.2 To Explore the Unknown Space Environment
Before the space age, the human knowledge of space was limited to speculations and
theoretical conjectures. The atmosphere thinned out, but then what? The ultraviolet
light from the Sun ionizes atoms in the atmosphere, allowing electrons to escape
and correspondingly form the ionosphere. The answer was not clear in 1901, when
Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), an Italian radio engineer, successfully transmitted
a radio signal across the Atlantic. Marconi was puzzled for a long time by the fluctua-
tion of radio waves, which apparently traveled a winding path to reach the destination
thousands of kilometers away.
We now know that, for a transmission distance of more than 5000 km from the
west coast of Europe to the east coast of the United States, the radio waves reached
the receivers with the help of ionospheric reflections. It turns out that Marconi’s first
successful transoceanic radio communication in 1901 verified the existence of the
ionosphere.
The human knowledge about ionosphere stops there. By that time, we still didn’t
know where the upper boundary of the ionosphere is, or how positively charged
ions and negatively charged electrons in the ionosphere behave. Only after 1957
did the answers to these questions become clear. Therefore, to study the unknown
space environment is the core of space research. This is especially the case for
the first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and
the first American artificial satellite launched on January 31, 1958. Malfunctions
were detected on the instruments for both satellites and American scientists tended
to believe that the malfunction is not due to the instrument itself but rather to the
existence of intense high-energy particle zone in the near Earth space, which was
later identified and consequently named as Van Allen belt. This is the first major
discovery in the space history of mankind.
1.3 To Break Free the Barrier of Atmosphere

to Electromagnetic Wave
Since Galileo pointed his telescope into space, human beings have broken the limita-
tions of space observation with the naked eye and began to use scientific instruments
to observe the universe. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves we can observe
1.3 To Break Free the Barrier of Atmosphere to Electromagnetic Wave 3
Fig. 1.1 Atmospheric absorption across the electromagnetic spectrum
was then gradually expanded to radio waves. However, the protective atmosphere
proves to be an obstacle for the ground-based observations using ultraviolet and low-
frequency radio spectrum. Figure 1.1 shows the atmospheric absorption spectrum
diagram, in which the ordinate is the atmospheric absorption expressed in decibels
loss per kilometer.
Since 1957, humans began to break the atmospheric barrier by placing obser-
vational instruments on satellites. New images of the universe and the Sun were
obtained in wave lengths such as infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray, and low-frequency elec-
tromagnetic waves. Since then, space astronomy and space solar physics flourished
as individual disciplines in their own names.
In addition, the atmosphere can absorb the electromagnetic waves, which, in turn,
makes it possible to carry out space-based observation of the physical character-
istics of the Earth’s atmosphere. For example, the frequency in the vicinity of the
temperature absorption line can be used to observe the distribution of atmospheric
temperature at different altitudes, and the frequency in the vicinity of the water vapor
absorption line can be used to observe the distribution of atmospheric water vapor,
etc. These technological breakthroughs have promoted the development of space
Earth science.
1.4 To Utilize the Orbital Altitude Resources
From the mountain top, you can see farther. In general, the altitude of satellite orbit
is above 500 km. Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) is as high as 36,000 km. The
natural field of view of the human eye is about 45°, which is also the field of view of a
standard camera. Accordingly, for Earth observation, the width of more than 400 km
can be obtained at an altitude of 500 km (the width covered by push-sweep camera on
an operating satellite is called swath), and cities such as Beijing, Moscow, and New
York can be seen in a panoramic view. If the Earth is observed in Geosynchronous
Earth Orbit, the field of view of the entire Earth is less than 18°. By designing remote
sensors with different field of views, we can obtain ground images with different
swaths, making possible the systematical observation of the Earth.
Therefore, the satellite orbit promises the unprecedented altitudes where the Earth
observation can be conducted and the data obtained can be used to study the large-
scale phenomena of the Earth system, such as typhoon, ocean currents, El Nino, the
atmospheric pollution caused by volcanic eruptions, and even the global water cycle,
biosphere, energy cycle, ice and snow cycle and lithosphere, etc. This provides the
most important observation platform for space Earth science to study the Earth as a
system. After the technical realization of putting a satellite in Geosynchronous Earth
Orbit, human beings can continuously and comprehensively monitor the changes of
the Earth.
1.5 To Unveil the Mystery of the Earth’s Gravitational Field
We live on the Earth under the effect of 1G gravitational field. To put it in a figurative
way, all the kinetic properties of matter and the rule of life activity lie beneath the
veil of 1G gravitational field on the surface of the Earth.
Using space as platform, it is possible to carry out on-board scientific experiments
that cannot be done otherwise on the ground. Among these on-board experiments, the
microgravity science experiments [1] are the most prominent ones. The centrifugal
force generated by the spacecraft as it orbits the Earth offsets the Earth’s gravity,
hence creating a continuous and stable artificial microgravity environment. Such an
environment may reveal the kinetic properties of matter, which are impossible to be
discovered due to the effect of gravity. The studies of the laws of physics, e.g., the law
of fluid physics, combustion, and semiconductor material growth, are collectively
known as microgravity science.
In addition to the study of laws of physics, some fundamental issues in life science
can also be examined in space microgravity environment, such as the cultivation of
cells and plants, which gives birth to space life science. Of course, when studying
the life science issues, consideration should be given to the effects of space particle
radiation and the influence of weakened Earth’s magnetic field.
With the increase of manned space activities, the required period of stay for
astronauts in space becomes longer and longer. Can animals and human beings live
in space for a long time? These new scientific questions posed by man’s entry into
space can also be deemed as part of space medicine.
1.6 To Make Full Use of Other Aspects of Space Environments 5
1.6 To Make Full Use of Other Aspects of Space

Environments
There are other resources in space that are not available on the ground, such as
radiation.
Without the protective atmosphere, the intensity of cosmic rays is considerably
higher in space than that on the Earth’s surface. With the effect of Earth’s magnetic
field in full play, the high-energy particles of the solar wind will concentrate in
certain regions of the terrestrial space. Combined with the particles of the Earth’s
radiation belt, a unique particle radiation environment is formed featuring a wide
range of energy spectrum, high flux, and continuity, which cannot be simulated on
the ground. This is of unique significance for life science research, such as space
breeding, etc.
In addition, since the Earth’s diameter is only more than 12,000 km, the longest
interferometry baseline we can obtain between two stations on the ground is no more
than the Earth’s diameter. To get a longer interferometry baseline for research like
gravitational wave detection or interference imaging observation in radio astronomy,
we must venture into space to place spacecraft there in a bid to form an interferometry
baseline of millions of kilometers.
Compared with the surface of the Earth, a better electromagnetic radiation envi-
ronment can be obtained in space. The far side of the moon, for example, shields
various man-made and natural electromagnetic radiation from the Earth, making it
the ideal place for low-frequency electromagnetic observation of the universe.
In addition, it is easier to obtain extremely low-temperature and high-vacuum
environment in space, especially in orbits beyond the Earth orbits.
1.7 Definition of Space Science
With spacecraft as the main tools, space science is defined as the study of natural
phenomena and their underlying rules in physics, astronomy, chemistry, and life
science which exist in solar-terrestrial space, interplanetary space, and even the
universe as a whole. The following shows the definitions of space science in different
stages of its historical development, as well as its ever-expanding disciplines.
Prior to the space age, space science was defined in a narrow sense as the study
of space, such as the upper atmosphere, the ionosphere, and the distribution of the
Earth’s magnetic field in space.
In the early days of space age,1 space science is defined as the study of the space
physics phenomena surrounding the spacecraft, e.g., charged particles, neutral parti-
cles, electromagnetic field distribution, and its patterns of changes. The research in
early days has improved our understanding of the electromagnetic field and particle
distribution in the magnetosphere, which is controlled by the Earth’s magnetic field.
New concepts are proposed, such as the magnetopause, bow-shock, magnetic tail,
polar cusp, South Atlantic Anomaly, etc. The period also saw the march from terres-
trial space to the solar system, the birth of planetary science, and the emergence of
comparative planetary science through the comparative study of the composition of
the Earth and other planets.
Five years into the space age, scientists began to use spacecraft as platforms to
conduct astronomical observations, and space astronomy and space solar physics
were established as disciplines accordingly.
Ten years into the space age, scientists began to study the Earth with remote
sensors of various frequency bands, which initiated the discipline of space Earth
science.
From the late 1960s and mid-1970s, humans landed on the moon, which is
followed by the launch of space laboratories, space shuttles, and manned space
stations. A large number of scientific experiments held in microgravity environ-
ments are known as microgravity science and space life sciences research [2]. The
research that aims at the physiological changes of people in space is called space
medicine.
In the past 20 years, making full use of the ultra-low temperature and high micro-
gravity level brought about by spacecraft, we began to verify the basic physical laws,
and thus started the space fundamental physics experiment.
In addition, based on space technology, space science has opened up the field
of space technology science by carrying out technology research and technology
demonstration in space, such as propulsion technology, attitude control technology,
navigation technology, and thermal control technology.
Table 1.1 lists the main research contents of various disciplines of space science.
1 Note: Space age starts from October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik
I, the world’s first artificial satellite, which took about 98 min to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path.
It ushered in new era of political, military, technological, and scientific developments.
1.7 Definition of Space Science 7
Table 1.1 Main research contents of various disciplines of space science

Discipline Main research contents
Space astronomy Space astronomy is a discipline that uses spacecraft to
observe celestial bodies in space and studies the
morphology, structure, composition, physical
properties of motion, and evolution of celestial bodies.
In terms of wavelengths, there are several original
branches of astronomy, such as radio astronomy,
infrared astronomy, ultraviolet astronomy, X-ray
astronomy, gamma ray astronomy, etc. If the
observations are carried out in space by spacecraft,
these branches can be called space radio astronomy,
space infrared astronomy, space ultraviolet astronomy,
space X-ray astronomy, space gamma ray astronomy,
etc
Space solar physics Space solar physics uses spacecraft to carry out
observations and studies of the Sun. According to the
objects of study, the discipline incorporates the solar
magnetic field, solar flares, coronal mass ejections,
solar atmospheric structure and dynamics, solar
medium- and long-term changes, etc
Space physics and space environment The discipline uses spacecraft as well as ground-based
observation facility to study physical phenomena in
solar-terrestrial space, such as the upper atmosphere of
the Sun, the movement of interplanetary space plasma,
and the Earth and other planets’ magnetosphere,
ionosphere, and atmosphere, as well as their
interactions and cause-and-effect relations; it also
studies the space environment, such as the space
electromagnetic environment, space charged particle
environment, middle and upper atmosphere, meteoroid
environment, and space debris environment; combined
with applications, space physics, and space
environment gave rise to new disciplines, namely,
space weather and space climatology
Space Earth science The discipline uses spacecraft to conduct systematic
research of the Earth as a whole, including the
movements of the atmosphere, hydrosphere (water
cycle), energy cycle, lithosphere, and biosphere and
their interactions. Among them, global change is the
core scientific question of space Earth science research
Planetary science The planetary science uses spacecraft to investigate
planets (including comparative studies with the Earth)
and their moons, planetary systems (especially the
solar system), and their formation processes. The
study of exoplanets’ formation and their habitability
has recently been integrated into the field of planetary
science
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)

Discipline Main research contents
Microgravity science The discipline mainly studies the laws of equilibrium
of matter and kinetic properties of matter in a
microgravity environment. The main research fields
include microgravity fluid physics, microgravity
combustion, space materials science, and fundamental
physics experiments in microgravity environment,
which are the main research fields of manned
spaceflight
Space life sciences The discipline studies the phenomena, processes, and
the rule of life activities under the influence of special
environmental factors in space (such as microgravity,
cosmic radiation, magnetic variation, vacuum, high
temperature and low temperature, etc.); explores the
performance and ability to survive in outer space for
extraterrestrial life and human beings; and studies the
origin, evolution, and rule of life
Space fundamental physics experiment The research mainly include cold atom physics,
low-temperature condensed matter physics, relativity
and gravity physics, space experiments of quantum
entanglement
References
1. Wenrui H (2010) Introduction to microgravity science. Science Press, Beijing

2. National Natural Science Foundation of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2019) Space
science. Science Press, Beijing
Chapter 2
History of Human Space Exploration
2.1 Introduction
The history of space exploration begins with space observation from the ground,
which is almost as long as the recorded history of mankind. In ancient times, human
observation of space is out of awe, fear, or divination. The observation is also out
of the necessity for farming, e.g., the observation of time, seasons, and climate.
Yet these simple thoughts and ideas are more or less like groping in the darkness
before Nicolaus Copernicus (or Mikolaj Kopernik in Polish, 1473–1543) proposed
the heliocentric theory.
Galileo directed his telescope into space,expanding the space beyond the naked
eye, which is the first time in history and introduces a new way of space observation.
Since then, the frequency band visible to the naked eye has gradually expanded from
visible light to the full electromagnetic spectrum.
It takes another 350 years to make the giant leap from ground observation of the
universe and planets via telescopes to the launch of spacecraft into space. During
this period, countless science and technology pioneers have made their contributions,
among whom Qian Xuesen (also written traditionally as Tsien Hsue Shen) was an
indispensable player in human’s journey into space. He and Zhao Jiuzhang (also
written traditionally as Jaw Jeoujang) have made pioneering contributions to the
development of Chinese space programs and space science endeavors.
This chapter will touch upon the various frontiers of space technology and their
general development trends.
© Science Press 2021 9

J. Wu, Introduction to Space Science, Springer Aerospace Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5751-1_2
10 2 History of Human Space Exploration
2.2 History of Space Exploration
What did our ancestors see by looking up into the sky with their naked eyes? The
first batch of celestial bodies that greet their eyes are the Sun, the moon, and stars,1
and their movement in the sky followed fixed periodical sequence. Therefore, the
first thing that comes to people’s mind is to ponder over and summarize the rules of
their positions and movements.
This is how the concept of time comes into being, e.g., day, month, year, hour,
minute, and second. All the ancient cultures, be it Egypt, Babylon, Greece, India, and
China, developed their own independent systems about sky phenomena and time. For
example, the Greek calendar is based on the solar cycle and the Chinese calendar is
based on the lunar cycle.2 In terms of timekeeping, the Chinese clepsydra/drip-vessel
and the sundial, as well as the clock in the Tower of Winds in ancient Athens, Greece,
are all the embodiments of human wisdom.
In addition to the summary on the periodic movements of the Sun, the moon,
and stars, the most important part of the ancient study (or simply the thinking) on
space is the observation and description of sky phenomena, including solar and lunar
eclipses, comets, meteors, and auroras. At the ancient time, the physical principles
of these phenomena are still hidden knowledge. China has the earliest and most
complete records of observations of these sky phenomena. For example, China has
the earliest records of sunspots and supernovae, and the record of “New Great Star”
(Xin Da Xing) inscribed on the oracle bone actually describes an exploding supernova
(shown in Fig. 2.1). The continuous observation of Comet Halley is another example.
China recorded Comet Halley for 28 times from BC until 1910, but not knowing
it is the same comet. Based on the systematic knowledge of motions of celestial
bodies established by Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and Isaac Newton (1643–1727),
Englishman Edmond Halley (1656–1742) successfully predicted that the comet’s
return period would be 76 years. Later, the comet was named “Halley’s Comet”.
Auroras normally occur at the poles region of the Earth. Although China is in the
middle and low latitudes, auroras have also been recorded in China during solar
eruptions throughout the history. In addition, China observed the outburst of the
Crab Nebula in the Song Dynasty. Because of its very stable X-ray emission, the
Crab Nebula is now used as a beacon galaxy by X-ray astronomical observers.
In ancient China, the main purpose of detailed astronomical observations and
sky phenomena observations [1] is to strengthen the royal power, hence bearing
little scientific significance. In order to better serve the royal power, for more than
2000 years, extensive records of observations have been made by the emperor’s
astronomers or star gazers (a demanding profession that requires sleeping during
the day, and observing and recording at night). Some of these records are accurate,
while some are hypothetical or even false. For the researchers devoted to the history
of ancient Chinese astronomy, they often spend a great deal of time scrutinizing
these records by extrapolating the cycles of celestial body movements to determine
1 Note: Here the star is a vague term generally describing the visible celestial bodies.
2 The lunar calendar is still in use today in China.
2.2 History of Space Exploration 11
Fig. 2.1 Record of the

“New Great Star” inscribed
on the oracle bone unearthed
at the Yin relics in Anyang,
Henan Province (1300 BC)
the dynasty and year. Some records are quite informative and interesting though,
such as “Mars retrograde”, which is interpreted in ancient China as an inauspicious
sky phenomenon that would bring disasters. For this reason, Mars was traditionally
known as “glittering planet” or “firefly”. Now, we understand that according to the
rules of celestial body movements, the Earth orbits the Sun in the inner circle, and
when the Earth catches up with the Mars that orbits in the outer circle, the ground
observer would find the occurrence of “Mars retrograde”.
Although the observation of sky phenomena in ancient China doesn’t bear much
scientific significance, Chinese people’s philosophical thinking of celestial bodies
and universe has an early origin, such as the idea of “round heaven and square Earth”
[2], the “opening of the universe by Pangu” (a giant in Chinese fable stories who
opened the universe), and the “Heavenly Questions” by Qu Yuan (a Chinese poet
in the warring states period who is regarded as the greatest patriot). In addition, the
deep thinking of the Chinese people and their summary of space and geography at
that time are also reflected in the Book of Changes and the Eight Diagrams.
In other civilizations, space-related thinking also started more than 2000 years ago,
such as the dispute between the heliocentric theory of ancient Greece (Aristarchus,
315–230 BC) and the geocentric theory (Claudius Ptolemy, 90–168). The heliocentric
theory was initially untenable due to the lack of scientific evidence. The geocentric
theory, supported by the European church, dominated the human perception of the
world for a long period. The heliocentric theory began to be widely accepted and
became dominant in humanperception of the solar system only after Copernicus
deduced its correctness in theory and Galileo proved its correctness with practical
Fig. 2.2 Sketch of

Copernicus
observations. The following is the introduction to several Western pioneers and their
achievements.
Nicolaus Copernicus (as shown in Fig. 2.2) is a Polish astronomer who came up
with the heliocentric system (Sun-centered system) and calculated in detail the orbits
of the Earth and several other planets. Under the threat of the geocentric church, his
Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs was not published until
his death in 1543. In fact, Copernicus initially believed in the geocentric theory, but
doubts arose when he was doing calculation. Heliocentric theory changed our view
of the universe and offered a scientific explanation of the movements of celestial
bodies in the solar system, hence laying the foundation for modern astronomy and
space science. Copernicus is one of the giants of the European Renaissance, whose
remains was reburied in Vronburg Cathedral, Poland, on May 22, 2010.
Galileo Galilei (as shown in Fig. 2.3) is an Italian physicist and astronomer, whose
achievements include improving telescope and the astronomical observations with
telescope. He is also known for his advocacy in Copernican heliocentric theory. In
1609, Galileo, for the first time, directed his telescope to space. He discovered that
the surface of the moon was uneven and made the first map of the moon’s surface.
On January 7, 1610, Galileo discovered four moons orbiting the Jupiter, which is
the solid evidence for the heliocentric theory. This also marks the initial victory for
Copernicanism. With the telescope in hand, Galileo made continuous discoveries of
Fig. 2.3 Sketch of Galileo

2.2 History of Space Exploration 13
a ring surrounding the Saturn, sunspots, the rotation of the Sun, the phases of the
Venus and the Mercury, the diurnal libration (or parallactic libration) and circumlunar
libration of the moon, as well as the fact that the Milky Way is made up of countless
stars. These discoveries usher in a new era for astronomy. In honor of Galileo’s
achievements, Jupiter’s moons Io, Europa, Ganymede*, and Callisto are collectively
called the Galilean moons.
Johannes Kepler (as shown in Fig. 2.4) is a German astronomer, physicist, and
mathematician. An ardent supporter for Copernicus’s heliocentric theory, Kepler
discovered, even before Newton, three laws of planetary motion: the orbit law, the
area law, and the harmonic law. The three laws can be described as follows: (1) the
planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus (the orbit law); (2) the time
necessary to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the
sector between the central body and that arc (the area law), which means the planet
in question travels faster around the perigee and travels slower around apogee; and
(3) there is an exact relationship between the squares of the planets’ periodic times
and the cubes of the radii of their orbits (the harmonic law). These three laws were
later confirmed by Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
Isaac Newton (as shown in Fig. 2.5) is an English physicist, President of the
Royal Society, and the author of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Fig. 2.4 Sketch of Kepler
Fig. 2.5 Sketch of Isaac

Newton
(Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) and Optics. In his 1687 treatise, he

described the three laws of motion, including the law of universal gravitation. These
descriptions laid the foundation for the scientific view of the world of physics for the
next three centuries and became the basis for modern engineering. By demonstrating
the consistency between Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and his law of gravitation,
he showed that the motion of terrestrial and celestial bodies followed the same laws,
which provided strong theoretical support for the heliocentric view of the universe
and contributed to the revolution in science.
We can see that Copernicus and Newton are almost two centuries apart, and their
findings and discoveries lay the foundation for modern astronomy and modern space
science.
2.3 The Technology Advancement of Ground-Based

Observations Since Galileo
The inventor of telescope is Hans Lippershey (1570–1619), a Dutch spectacle

merchant. But he did not use the telescope to observe space. When Galileo learned
about this invention, he immediately came up with the idea of using it to observe
space.
Galileo began making telescopes in 1609. The first telescope was capable of
magnifying up to 32 times. Using this telescope (Fig. 2.6), he discovered craters on
Fig. 2.6 Galileo’s telescope,

the first telescope ever
pointed to space. Collection
of Galileo Museum
2.3 The Technology Advancement of Ground-Based Observations Since Galileo 15
the moon, a ring of the Saturn, and four moons of the Jupiter. Thanks to telescopes,
the observation capacity of human eye improved from 6 to 9 magnitudes (based on
the aperture of Galileo’s first telescope).
Magnitude measures the brightness of a star or other celestial body as seen by an
observer on the ground. The apparent magnitude can be negative. The brighter the
object, the lower the number assigned as a magnitude, and vice versa. For example,
the apparent magnitude of the moon is around −12. The naked eye is capable of
observing stars of 6 magnitudes. One magnitude is defined as a ratio of brightness
of 2.512 times, e.g., one magnitude lower means 2.512 times bright. The absolute
magnitude difference is 1 and the luminosity difference is 2.512 times. Magnitudes
don’t reflect the true luminosity of the star itself, because magnitudes do not take
into account the distance to the star. For stars with the same level of luminosity, the
more distant from an observer, the lower the apparent brightness.
Brightness is determined by the flow of photons received by the eyes, so if the aper-
ture of the telescope’s objective lens (the space-facing end) is larger than the pupils
of our eyes, more photons will be received, which will be converged to the eyepiece
and received by the observer. The larger the aperture, the lower the magnitude for
the observer (and the more magnitudes). European Extremely Large Telescope (E-
ELT), the largest ground-based astronomical telescope currently being designed, has
an aperture of 39 m. The space telescope with the largest aperture was the James
Webb Space Telescope (JWST), whose aperture is up to 6.5 m.
The larger aperture not only enhances the observation capacity, but also improves
the spatial resolution. The aperture of Galileo’s telescope is much larger than the
pupils of the eyes, hence improving spatial resolution, which explains why he easily
observed the craters on the surface of Moon and the ring system of Saturn. The
schematic relationship between telescope aperture D (m), optical wavelength λ (m),
and angular resolution θ (°) is given by Eq. (2.1).
λ
θ = 180 (2.1)
πD
It is fair to say that the invention of the Galileo astronomical telescope opened up
the modern space observation, and also laid the technical foundation for the modern
space studies. The observation technology, be it at any electromagnetic wave band,
is based on this basic principle.
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) (as shown in Fig. 2.7) is an English physicist whose
discoveries laid the foundation for electromagnetism. On October 17, 1831, Faraday
discovered electromagnetic induction for the first time and developed a method to
generate alternating current. On October 28, 1831, Faraday invented the first electric
motor and dynamo.
Because of his great contributions to electromagnetism, he was called the father
of electricity and the father of alternating current.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) (as shown in Fig. 2.8) is a British physicist and
mathematician. Based on existing research by scientists like Michael Faraday, James
Fig. 2.7 Sketch of Michael

Faraday
Fig. 2.8 Sketch of James

Clerk Maxwell
Clerk Maxwell put forward classical electromagnetic field theory. He is the founder
of classical electrodynamics. His Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873) is
considered the most important physics classic after Newton’s Mathematical Prin-
ciples of Natural Philosophy. The book describes the basic theory of electromag-
netic waves and lays the foundation for all applications up to date that relate to
electromagnetic waves.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894) (as shown in Fig. 2.9) is a German physicist
who proved the existence of electromagnetic waves through experiments in 1888.
His research has stunned the scientific community, proving for the first time that
electromagnetic waves can travel, transmit information and energy, and the traveling
speed is the speed of light. The international unit of radio frequency, Hertz (Hz), is
named after him. 1 Hz equals one cycle per second.
Guglielmo Marconi (as shown in Fig. 2.10) is an Italian radio engineer, entrepreneur,
and founder of practical wireless telegraph communications. During his study at the
University of Bologna, he successfully carried out radio communication experiments
at a distance of about 2 km with electromagnetic waves. In 1901, he completed his
2.3 The Technology Advancement of Ground-Based Observations Since Galileo 17
Fig. 2.9 Sketch of Heinrich

Rudolf Hertz
Fig. 2.10 Sketch of

Guglielmo Marconi
transatlantic wireless communication and discovered the ionosphere. In 1897, he

founded the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, Ltd. (changed to Marconi’s
Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd. in 1900). He won the Nobel Prize in physics in
1909 and was regarded as the father of radio.
Starting from Faraday, the electromagnetic wave theory became an established
theory, which provides modern scientific basis for using radio wave to observe space.
In the 1930s, two ultrashort wave antenna engineers of the Bell telephone company
first discovered electromagnetic radiation in the sky. Theoretical physicists at the time
analyzed that the very high-frequency radiation was left after the Big Bang of the
universe, and that over 13.7 billion years, as the universe is expanding, we gradually
drift away from the center of the Big Bang, and these frequencies are redshifted to
the microwave band. The cosmic background measured by the two engineers is the
remnant of the Big Bang. During the Second World War, due to the advent of higher
frequency radar, scientists gradually found that the Sun and some other celestial
bodies also have strong electromagnetic radiation.
Starting in the 1950s, Martin Ryle (1918–1984) and Antony Hewish (1924) of the
Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge of the United Kingdom used
interferometry method to produce high-resolution radio images of the universe and

they also made a radio survey of the sky.
The four major astronomical discoveries of the mid-1960s are quasars, pulsars,
interstellar molecules, and cosmic microwave background radiation. All these discov-
eries were achieved by radio astronomy. Among them, cosmic microwave back-
ground radiation is a milestone discovery in radio astronomy, which provides
convincing evidence for the Big Bang theory. For this reason, the discoverers of
pulsars and cosmic microwave background radiation won the Nobel Prize in physics
in 1978.
2.4 A Brief History of Human’s Access to Space
Many fascinating stories about flying to space are recorded in ancient Chinese books.
The ancient Chinese also invented gunpowder. There is a long development history
for ancient Chinese rockets, which were introduced to the West through Arabia and
India around the middle of the thirteenth century. Around 1500 AD (Ming Dynasty),
an inventor called Wan Hu3 (real name: Tao Chengdao) put his flying dream into
practice. He designed a wickerwork chair with 47 rockets underneath for liftoff and
held two kites above, taking advantage of the rocket propulsion and the kites for a
soft landing. He ordered his co-worker to ignite the rockets and tried to fly into space,
but ended up catastrophically. This event shows that the Chinese has a long tradition
of imagining flying into space and are keen to make efforts to realize the dream.
A crater on the moon was named “Wan Hu” during an International Astronomical
Union (IAU) meeting in the 1970s. After the Opium War, the awakened Chinese,
as represented by Lin Zexu, advocated the introduction of Western technology to
improve China’s weapons and machinery. With this setting, Chinese began to develop
modern rockets in 1851.
For the modern science period, the following scientists and engineers have made
substantial and prominent contributions to human effort of gaining access to space.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) (as shown in Fig. 2.11) is a Russian scientist
known as the father of spaceflight. He was the first to study the possibility of using
rockets for interplanetary travels, as well as the possibility to make artificial satellite
and build near Earth orbital station. He pointed out the reasonable way to develop
astronautics and build rockets, and proposed a batch of important engineering solu-
tions to rocket development and liquid engine structures. One well-known saying
from Konstantin Tsiolkovsky is that “the Earth is the cradle of humanity, but mankind
cannot stay in the cradle forever”.
Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882–1945) (as shown in Fig. 2.12) is the maker of
the first liquid rocket in the United States and the first person in human history to
use liquid fuel for spaceflight. From 1926 to 1942, Goddard and his team launched
3 In fact, Wanhu is a title for an official at that time.

2.4 A Brief History of Human’s Access to Space 19
Fig. 2.11 Sketch of

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Fig. 2.12 Sketch of Robert

Hutchings Goddard
34 rockets, and the most powerful can fly as high as 2600 m. Later, he led the team
and conducted numerous experimental flights during the World War II. Although
the high altitude required to enter space was not yet to be reached, the team set up
plenty of technical standards for liquid rocket engines and applied for many patents,
which laid the foundation for liquid rocket experiments in the United States. Later,
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) named its Maryland
Flight Center after Goddard.
Frank Malina (1912–1981) (as shown in Fig. 2.13) and Qian Xuesen (1911–2009)
(as shown in Fig. 2.14) are both recipients of America’s first Scientific Achievement
Award, and they are students of Theodore von Karman (1881–1963), a great aerody-
namics master and Professor of California Institute of Technology (Caltech). In the
early 1930s, Malina started the work to develop liquid rockets and set up a rocket
team. The team members include mechanical engineers and chemical engineers, but
the team needs an expert in theoretical analysis. Therefore, he invited Qian Xuesen,
another student of von Karman, to join in for the calculation of orbit and solving
the aerodynamic problems [3]. During the World War II, learning that Germany was
speeding up its development of rockets, Qian Xuesen made a proposal to the US
government in the name of von Karman for the establishment of the Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory (JPL). Therefore, the name of JPL first appeared in Qian Xuesen’s
proposal. For this reason, Qian Xuesen is regarded as one of the co-founders of JPL.
The liquid rocket engine they developed was the most advanced in the United States
Fig. 2.13 Sketch of Frank

Malina
Fig. 2.14 Qian Xuesen
at that time, and the flight altitude records were constantly broke by the team, leaving
the altitude records of Goddard’s rocket far behind.
Wernher von Braun (1912–1977) (as shown in Fig. 2.15) is the most outstanding
scientist and engineer in the field of modern rocketry. In the 1930s, with great interest,
Fig. 2.15 Sketch of

Wernher von Braun
he joined the German rocket group and later participated in the development of guided
missiles. The missile in question is the most advanced guided weapon at the time
which was later named V2. Before the end of the World War II, a large number of
missiles were fired from Germany with London as the target, causing great casualties
and public panic. It was the nightmare for the Allies. Before the allied occupation of
the V2 rocket development base and the production base, von Braun fled to southern
Germany with a large number of senior engineers and technicians, and surrendered
to the American army. Some of them were transported to the United States, while
some remained in France. Those who went to the United States became the core
research team for the rocket of the first American satellite, while those who stayed
in France became the core technical team for the development of the Ariane rockets.
After the end of World War II, Qian Xuesen, dressed in American military uniform,
accompanied von Karman to Germany to investigate the technology of V2 rocket and
participated in the interrogation of von Braun. After that, the United States shipped
home several unused V2 rockets.
As soon as the Soviet Red Army occupied Berlin, they immediately sent troops
to capture the V2 rocket development sites, only to learn that von Braun and his
technical team had fled. The Soviet army called back some skilled technicians to
continue the production of V2 rocket engines. After the production capacity was
restored, the factory was totally relocated to the Soviet Union.
The development history of V2 rocket and its inheritance relationships with
rockets of various countries are shown in Fig. 2.16.
The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite Sputnik-1 (Fig. 2.17),
Fig. 2.16 Evolution of the German V2 rocket and its inheritance relationships with other countries’
rockets
Fig. 2.17 Sputnik-1, the

first artificial satellite
marking the beginning of the space age and the beginning of the space race between
the United States and the Soviet Union. In fact, before that, both sides had been
working,independently, on satellites programs and these activities were top secrets.
The American’s development progress was hampered by several embarrassing fail-
ures, mainly because the American military, which was in charge of the development,
did not trust von Braun, who had surrendered from Germany, and relied solely on
the United States Navy to develop the launch vehicle for the first satellite. After the
launch of the first satellite in human history by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957,
von Braun actively proposed to the U.S. Department of Defense and assured the latter
that a satellite could be launched within 3 months. Then, Braun got support from the
U.S. Department of Defense. He kept his promise 3 months later. The United States
successfully launched its first artificial satellite, Explorer I (Fig. 2.18) on January 31,
1958.
Fig. 2.18 Explorer-1, the

first American artificial
satellite. Photo credit: NASA
Shortly after that, the United States and the Soviet Union focused on the compe-
tition of “who is No. 1”, such as the first manned spaceflight [the Soviet Union’s
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (1934–1968), Fig. 2.19], the first extravehicular activity,
the first female astronaut, the first manned lunar orbiting, the first manned moon
landing [Neil Alden Armstrong (1930–2012) became the first man landed on the
moon, Fig. 2.20], the first manned space laboratory, the first manned space station,
etc. In general, the Soviet Union got the upper hand in the initial stage of the space
race, making many records. But the United States caught up and gradually overtook
the Soviet Union.
At the later period of the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union began
to conduct joint space research, such as the docking of Soyuz with the Apollo. But
the space race did not end until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.
It costs humongous amount of human and financial resources for both sides, but also
greatly accelerated the pace of human’s exploitation and utilization of space.
In 1990s, the United States became the only space power, and its focus gradually
shifted to space science since then. Several important space science missions have
been launched into space, including the Hubble Space Telescope (HST).
Fig. 2.19 First manned spaceflight. Soviet Union’s Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin became the first
man entering space
Fig. 2.20 First moon landing: Neil Armstrong became the first man landed on the moon with the
Apollo 11 mission. On the far right is the shoe print left by Buzz Aldrin (1930). Photo credit: NASA
Fig. 2.21 Zhao Jiuzhang
After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Qian Xuesen returned
to China in 1955 after many setbacks. He immediately made proposals to develop
rocketry, missiles, and the follow-up aerospace technology, and the proposals covered
management, research, design, and production.
In 1958, China obtained the prototype of P2 missile engine from the Soviet Union,
which was an improvement on the German V2 rocket. The project to imitate the P2
missile is called Project 1059. In 1964, China successfully tested a rocket capable
of launching satellites, which is based on the work of imitating the engine provided
by the Soviet Union. In 1965, China restarted the development of artificial satellites.
China leveraged the development of ballistic missiles to study the launch vehicles,
especially the liquid ballistic missiles, hence forming the CZ series launch vehicles.
Since the Dongfanghong-1 (DFH-1),4 Chinese space program started from scratch,
and great leap forward was made from conventional propellants to cryogenic propel-
lant, from multistage rockets to strap-on rockets, from one satellite a launch to multi-
satellites a launch, from Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO) to
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO), from the launch of unmanned satellites to the
launch of manned spacecraft, as well as lunar probes. In addition, China successfully
entered into the market of the international commercial satellite launch service.
Zhao Jiuzhang (1907–1968, Fig. 2.21) is the founder of Chinese artificial satellite
program. In 1933, he graduated from the physics department of Tsinghua Univer-
sity. In 1935, he went to Berlin University for further study and obtained his doctor
degree in 1938. After returning to China, he was appointed the Director of the Insti-
tute of Meteorology, the Academia Sinica, and then the Director of the Institute of
Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 1958, he was appointed the Deputy
Director of the 581 Group which is responsible for the development of China’s
first artificial satellite. Through arduous effort, he established China’s first research
institute of space physics and the first ground simulation laboratory for space envi-
ronment. In 1964, once again he put forward the proposal of developing China’s
4 Note: Dongfanghong means, literally, the East is red.

artificial satellite and formulated the development plan. In 1965, when the Chinese
satellite program reopened again, he was appointed the Director of the 651 Design
Academy. In 1968, when the Dongfanghong-1 (DFH-1) satellite entered engineering
qualification phase, Zhao Jiuzhang passed away. Sun Jiadong took over the torch to
develop DFH-1 satellite, which was successfully launched in 1971. In 1999, the
Central Committee of CPC, the State Council, and the CMC posthumously awarded
Zhao Jiuzhang the Two Bombs and One Satellite Award.
2.5 The Recent Technology Progress of Space Exploration
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first artificial satel-
lite, marking the beginning of space age, and since then the effort of space exploration
never ceased. This section will briefly introduce the technical frontiers of launch
vehicle, satellite and spacecraft, communication system of Tracking Telemetry and
Control (TT&C), and launch and recovery technologies.
2.5.1 Rocketry
Up to now, the largest rocket ever built is NASA’s Saturn V rocket in the 1960s.
Saturn V looms a staggering height of 111 m (about the height of a building with
36 stories) and has a liftoff weight of 2800t. So far, the Saturn V rocket (shown in
Fig. 2.22) is still the upper limit of human spaceflight.
Space shuttle, as a reusable manned spacecraft, can send satellites and spacecraft
into orbit just like a launch vehicle. It can also operate in orbit like manned spaceship
and can glide through the atmosphere for soft landing like a glider. The United States
is the only country that has successfully completed manned missions with space
shuttles, including Columbia (disintegrated on return), Challenger (exploded shortly
after launch), Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Space shuttles retired in 2011.
SpaceX, an American space commercial company, has designed and built reusable
commercial rocket Falcon 9, the first rocket that realizes controlled vertical landing
on land and sea.
In the future, rocket propellant will be safer and more environmentally friendly,
non-toxic, and pollution-free. Non-toxic and pollution-free liquid oxygen kerosene
and liquid hydrogen oxygen propellant have been used in Chinese launch vehicles,
such as CZ-5 and CZ-7.
Heavy rockets are necessary to enhance human being’s capacity of gaining access
to space beyond the Earth orbit. NASA will upgrade the Space Launch System (SLS)
incrementally in three phases, with the aim of completing the Block 2 rocket with
Low Earth Orbit capacity of 130t.
Fig. 2.22 Saturn V rocket
The advantages of solid rocket launch system include fast response and mobile
launch. Besides the land-based launch, launch vehicles with solid propellant are also
suitable for sea-based launch and airborne launch.
Access to space is expensive. As for international commercial LEO launches, the
typical cost is $3,000–$5,000 per kilogram using small launchers (SpaceX). But the
price is still too high for many applications. At present, the lowest price for entering
space is 100,000 Chinese Yuan per kilogram (price offered by China). Once the
rockets become reusable, the target price can be lowered to 20,000–30,000 Chinese
Yuan per kilogram.
The major technical and capacity constraints to launch rockets into space are the
mass and cost.
2.5.2 Satellite and Spacecraft
With the rapid development of space technology, satellites with better performance
and versatile functions have empowered mankind with unprecedented space appli-
cation capabilities. On the other hand, satellites become lighter, smaller, and more
intelligent. Satellites can be mass produced, and the application efficiency of satellites
has been constantly enhanced.
So far, the largest man-made satellite launched by a rocket is the Environment
Satellite (Envisat, Fig. 2.23) from the European Space Agency (ESA). Its folded solar
2.5 The Recent Technology Progress of Space Exploration 27
Fig. 2.23 Envisat in testing. Photo credit: ESA
panels and radars reach a staggering height of 10 m. The Imager for Magnetopause-
to-Aurora Global Exploration (IMAGE) has the longest foldable boom which can
be extended to 504 m. As a type of smallest satellite, CubeSat has been standardized
(shown in Fig. 2.24). It consists of one or multiple cubes of 10 × 10 × 10 cm. There
is a project that is still in the design phase called Breakthrough Starshot Program, in
which Stephen Hawking has participated. The program is sponsored by the American
Breakthrough Foundation to develop light sail spacecraft called Starchip, which
will be accelerated by powerful lasers located on the moon to reach the velocity of
20% light speed (about 6 × 104 km/s). With that speed for interstellar mission, the
spacecraft will reach and explore centauri α in about 20 years. It takes about 4 years
for the Earth to receive the message transmitted back.
The frontiers of satellite technology vary greatly according to missions’ require-
ments. Nevertheless, to develop smaller, smarter satellites has emerged as the new
Fig. 2.24 CubeSat
trend, especially the design of intelligent formation (i.e., the formation of a larger
scale satellite cluster by connecting separate satellite groups).
In addition to all types of satellites in the Earth orbits, the spacecraft heading to
the moon, the Mars, the Venus, and other celestial bodies in the solar system also
indicate new directions for space technology. In addition to the scientific objectives,
these missions also aim at the utilization of the resources in the solar system, as well
as the identification of small Near Earth objects (NEOs) that may threaten the Earth
and require corresponding defense strategies. The innovative technologies involved
include interplanetary navigation, landing on and liftoff from extraterrestrial bodies,
sample collection and sample return, extraterrestrial survey and subsurface detection,
as well as in situ sample analysis and utilization.
2.5.3 Tracking Telemetry and Control (TT&C)

and Communication
Tracking, Telemetry and Control (TT&C) technology refers to the comprehensive

technologies to track, measure, and control the target spacecraft. Tracking Telemetry
and Control system consists of control centers, tracking and telemetry stations, and
specialized communication network. TT&C technology is moving to the direction of
continuous orbit coverage, and the precision of orbit determination improves from
meter to centimeter.
Communication technology mainly refers to the technology of transmitting large
amounts of data from the spacecraft to the ground. Due to advances in laser commu-
nication technology, the satellite-to-ground data transmission rate from Low Earth
Orbit will soon surpass the rate of bandwidth (Gbps).
At present, TT&C technology is expanding into the field of deep space exploration.
Besides the speed, the main obstacle of deep space TT&C is the time delay caused by
long distance. For the communication between the Earth and the moon, the delay will
be as long as 1.3 s, while for the communication between the Mars and the Earth, the
delay will be 3–20 min depending on the orbits of the Earth and Mars. Figure 2.25
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being transplanted. How
would you prune a tree or
bush that is being
transplanted? Fig. 130 may
be suggestive.
Fig. 126.—To illustrate

Transpiration.
Fig. 128.—To show

Sap Pressure.
Fig. 127.—Loss of Water.

CHAPTER XIV
DEPENDENT PLANTS
Thus far we have spoken of plants that have roots and foliage and
that depend on themselves. They collect the raw materials and make
them over into assimilable food. They are independent. Plants
without green foliage cannot make food; they must have it made for
them or they die. They are dependent. A sprout from a potato tuber
in a dark cellar cannot collect and elaborate carbon dioxide. It lives
on the food stored in the tuber.
All plants with naturally white or
blanched parts are dependent.
Their leaves do not develop. They
live on organic matter—that which
has been made by a plant or
elaborated by an animal. The
dodder, Indian pipe, beech drop,
coral root among flower-bearing
plants, also mushrooms and other
fungi (Figs. 131, 132) are
examples. The dodder is common
Fig. 131.—A Mushroom, example of a in swales, being conspicuous late
saprophytic plant. This is the edible
in the season from its thread-like
cultivated mushroom.
yellow or orange stems spreading
over the herbage of other plants.
One kind attacks alfalfa and is a bad pest. The seeds germinate in
the spring, but as soon as the twining stem attaches itself to another
plant, the dodder dies away at the base and becomes wholly
dependent. It produces flowers in clusters and seeds itself freely
(Fig. 133).
Parasites and Saprophytes.—A plant that is
dependent on a living plant or animal is a parasite,
and the plant or animal on which it lives is the host.
The dodder is a true parasite; so are the rusts,
mildews, and other fungi that attack leaves and
shoots and injure them.
The threads of a parasitic
fungus usually creep through
the intercellular spaces in the
leaf or the stem and send
suckers (or haustoria) into the
cells (Fig. 132). The threads
Fig. 132.—A (or the hyphæ) clog the air-
Parasitic spaces of the leaf and often
Fungus, plug the stomates, and they
magnified. The also appropriate and
mycelium, or
vegetative part, is disorganize the cell fluids; thus
shown by the they injure or kill their host.
dotted-shaded The mass of hyphæ of a
parts ramifying in fungus is called mycelium.
the leaf tissue. Some of the hyphæ finally
The rounded
haustoria grow out of the leaf and
projecting into the produce spores or
cells are also reproductive cells that answer
shown. The long the purpose of seeds in
fruiting parts of distributing the plant (b, Fig. Fig. 133.—Dodder in
the fungus hang Fruit.
from the under 132).
surface of the A plant that lives on dead or
leaf.
decaying matter is a saprophyte. Mushrooms (Fig.
131) are examples; they live on the decaying
matter in the soil. Mould on bread and cheese is an example. Lay a
piece of moist bread on a plate and invert a tumbler over it. In a few
days it will be mouldy. The spores were in the air, or perhaps they
had already fallen on the bread but had not had opportunity to grow.
Most green plants are unable to make any direct use of the humus or
vegetable mould in the soil, for they are not saprophytic. The shelf
fungi (Fig. 134) are saprophytes. They are common on logs and
trees. Some of them are perhaps partially parasitic, extending the
mycelium into the wood of the living tree and causing it to become
black-hearted (Fig. 134).
Some parasites spring from the
ground, as other plants do, but they are
parasitic on the roots of their hosts.
Some parasites may be partially parasitic
and partially saprophytic. Many (perhaps
most) of these ground saprophytes are
aided in securing their food by soil fungi,
which spread their delicate threads over
the root-like branches of the plant and
act as intermediaries between the food
and the saprophyte. These fungus-
covered roots are known as
mycorrhizas (meaning “fungus root”).
Mycorrhizas are not peculiar to
saprophytes. They are found on many
wholly independent plants, as, for
example, the heaths, oaks, apples, and
Fig. 134.—Tinder Fungus
pines. It is probable that the fungous
(Polyporus igniarius) on beech threads perform some of the offices of
log. The external part of the root-hairs to the host. On the other hand,
fungus is shown below; the the fungus obtains some nourishment
heart-rot injury above. from the host. The association seems to
be mutual.
Saprophytes break down or decompose organic substances. Chief
of these saprophytes are many microscopic organisms known as
bacteria (Fig. 135). These innumerable organisms are immersed in
water or in dead animals and plants, and in all manner of moist
organic products. By breaking down organic combinations, they
produce decay. Largely through their agency, and that of many true
but microscopic fungi, all things pass into soil and gas. Thus are the
bodies of plants and animals
removed and the continuing round
of life is maintained.
So
me
parasit
es are
green-
leaved
. Such
is the
mistlet Fig. 135.—Bacteria of Several
oe Forms, much magnified.
(Fig.
136). They anchor themselves on the
host and absorb its juices, but they also
appropriate and use the carbon dioxide
of the air. In some small groups of
bacteria a process of organic synthesis
has been shown to take place.
Epiphytes.—To be distinguished from
Fig. 136.—American
the dependent plants are those that grow
Mistletoe Growing on a
Walnut Branch. on other plants without taking food from
them. These are green-leaved plants
whose roots burrow in the bark of the
host plant and perhaps derive some food from it, but which subsist
chiefly on materials that they secure from air dust, rain water, and
the air. These plants are epiphytes (meaning “upon plants”) or air-
plants.
Epiphytes abound in the tropics. Certain orchids are among the
best known examples (Fig. 37). The Spanish moss or tillandsia of
the South is another. Mosses and lichens that grow on trees and
fences may also be called epiphytes. In the struggle for existence,
the plants probably have been driven to these special places in
which to find opportunity to grow. Plants grow where they must, not
where they will.
Suggestions.—114. Is a puffball a plant? Why do you think so? 115. Are
mushrooms ever cultivated, and where and how? 116. In what locations are
mushrooms and toadstools usually found? (There is really no distinction between
mushrooms and toadstools. They are all mushrooms.) 117. What kinds of mildew,
blight, and rust do you know? 118. How do farmers overcome potato blight? Apple
scab? Or any other fungous “plant disease”? 119. How do these things injure
plants? 120. What is a plant disease? 121. The pupil should know that every spot
or injury on a leaf or stem is caused by something,—as an insect, a fungus, wind,
hail, drought, or other agency. How many uninjured or perfect leaves are there on
the plant growing nearest the schoolhouse steps? 122. Give formula for Bordeaux
mixture and tell how and for what it is used.
CHAPTER XV.
WINTER AND DORMANT BUDS
A bud is a growing point, terminating an axis either long or short,

or being the starting point of an axis. All branches spring from buds.
In the growing season the bud is active; later in the season it ceases
to increase the axis in length, and as winter approaches the growing
point becomes more or less thickened and covered by protecting
scales, in preparation for the long resting season. This resting,
dormant, or winter body is what is commonly spoken of as a “bud.” A
winter bud may be defined as an inactive covered growing point,
waiting for spring.
Structurally, a dormant bud is a shortened axis or
branch, bearing miniature leaves or flowers or both, and
protected by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of
the horse-chestnut or other plant that has large buds. With
a pin separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Examine the
big bud of the rhubarb as it lies under the ground in late
winter or early spring; or the crown buds of asparagus,
hepatica, or other early spring plants. Dissect large buds
Fig. 137.— of the apricot and pear (Figs. 137, 138).
Bud of
The bud is protected by firm and dry scales. These
Apricot,
showing scales are modified leaves. The scales fit close. Often the
the bud is protected by varnish (see horse-chestnut and the
miniature balsam poplars). Most winter buds are more or less
leaves. woolly. Examine some of them under a lens. As we might
expect, bud coverings are most prominent in cold and dry
climates. Sprinkle water on velvet or flannel, and note the result and
give a reason.
All winter buds give rise to branches, not to leaves alone; that
is, the leaves are borne on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis,
or branch, remains very short,—so short that it may not be
noticed. Sometimes it grows several feet long.
Whether the branch grows large or not
depends on the chance it has,—position on
the plant, soil, rainfall, and many other
factors. The new shoot is the unfolding and
enlarging of the tiny axis and leaves that we
saw in the bud. If the conditions are
congenial, the shoot may form more leavesFig. 138.—
Bud of
than were tucked away in the bud. The Pear,
length of the shoot usually depends more on showing
the length of the internodes than on the both
number of leaves. leaves
and
Where Buds are.—Buds are borne in the flowers.
axils of the leaves,—in the acute angle that The latter
the leaf makes with the stem. When the leaf are the
Fig. 139.— little
Leaf-Scars.— is growing in the summer, a bud is forming knobs in
Ailanthus. above it. When the leaf falls, the bud the
remains, and a scar marks the place of the centre.
leaf. Fig. 139 shows the large leaf-scars of ailanthus.
Observe those on the horse-chestnut, maple, apple, pear,
basswood, or any other tree or bush.
Sometimes two or more buds are borne in one axil; the extra ones
are accessory or supernumerary buds. Observe them in the
Tartarian honeysuckle (common in yards), walnut, butternut, red
maple, honey locust, and sometimes in the apricot and peach.
If the bud is at the end of a shoot, however short the shoot, it is
called a terminal bud. It continues the growth of the axis in a direct
line. Very often three or more buds are clustered at the tip (Fig. 140);
and in this case there may be more buds than leaf-scars. Only one
of them, however, is strictly terminal.
A bud in the axil of a leaf is an axillary or lateral bud. Note that
there is normally at least one bud in the axil of every leaf on a tree or
shrub in late summer and fall. The axillary buds, if they grow,
are the starting points of new shoots the following season. If a
leaf is pulled off early in summer, what will become of the
young bud in its axil? Try this.
Bulbs and cabbage
heads may be likened to
buds; that is, they are
condensed stems, with
scales or modified leaves
densely overlapping and
forming a rounded body
(Fig. 141). They differ from
true buds, however, in the Fig.
140.—
fact that they are Termin
Fig. 141.—A Gigantic Bud.—Cabbage.
condensations of whole al Bud
main stems rather than betwee
embryo stems borne in the axils of leaves. But bulblets (as of n two
tiger lily) may be scarcely distinguishable from buds on the other
Buds.
one hand and from bulbs on the other. Cut a cabbage head in —
two, lengthwise, and see what it is like. Currant.
The buds that appear on roots are unusual or abnormal,—
they occur only occasionally and in no definite order. Buds appearing
in unusual places on any part of the plant are called adventitious
buds. Such usually are the buds that arise when a large limb is cut
off, and from which suckers or water-sprouts arise.
How Buds Open.—When the bud swells, the scales are pushed
apart, the little axis elongates and pushes out. In most plants the
outside scales fall very soon, leaving a little ring of scars. With
terminal buds, this ring marks the end of the year’s growth. How?
Notice peach, apple, plum, willow, and other plants. In some others,
all the scales grow for a time, as in the pear (Figs. 142, 143, 144). In
other plants the inner bud scales become green and almost leaf-like.
See the maple and hickory.
Sometimes Flowers come out
of the Buds.—Leaves may or
may not accompany the flowers.
We saw the embryo flowers in Fig.
138. The bud is shown again in
Fig. 142. In Fig. 143 it is opening.
In Fig. 145 it is more advanced,
and the woolly unformed flowers
are appearing. In Fig. 146 the
growth is more advanced.
Buds that contain or produce
only leaves are leaf-buds. Those
which contain only flowers are
Fig. flower-buds or fruit-buds. The
Fig. 143.— latter occur on peach, almond,
142.—
The opening
Fruit- apricot, and many very early
of the Pear
bud of
Fruit-bud. spring-flowering plants. The single
Pear. flower is emerging from theFig. 144.—
apricot bud in Fig. 147. A Opening
Pear Leaf-
longitudinal section of this bud, enlarged, bud.
is shown in Fig. 148. Those that contain
both leaves and flowers are mixed
buds, as in pear, apple, and most late spring-flowering
plants.
Fruit buds are usually thicker or stouter than leaf-
buds. They are borne in different positions on different
plants. In some plants (apple, pear) they are on the
ends of short branches or spurs; in others (peach, red
maple) they are along the sides of the last year’s
growths. In Fig. 149 are shown three fruit-buds and
one leaf-bud on E, and leaf-buds on A. See also Figs.
Fig. 145.— 150, 151, 152, 153, and explain.
Opening of
the PEAR-
BUD.
Fig. 146.—
A single
Flower in
the Pear
Fig. 147.—
cluster,
The
as seen at
opening Fig. 148.—Apricot
7 a.m. on
of the Flower-bud,
the day of
Flower- enlarged.
its
bud of
opening. At
Apricot.
10 o’clock
it will be
fully
expanded.
Fig. 149.—Fruit-buds and
Leaf-buds of Pear.
Fig. 152.—
Fig. 151.—Cluster
Two Fruit-
Fig. 150.—Fruit-buds of Apple of Fruit-buds of
buds of
on Spurs: a dormant bud at the Sweet Cherry, with
Peach with a
top. one pointed leaf-bud
leaf-bud
in centre.
between.
Fig. 153.—Opening of Leaf-buds and Flower-buds of Apple.
“The burst of spring” means in large part the opening of the buds.
Everything was made ready the fall before. The embryo shoots and
flowers were tucked away, and the food was stored. The warm rain
falls, and the shutters open and the sleepers wake.
Arrangement of Buds.—We have found that leaves are usually
arranged in a definite order; buds are borne in the axils of leaves:
therefore buds must exhibit phyllotaxy. Moreover, branches grow
from buds: branches, therefore, should show a definite arrangement.
Usually, however, they do not show this arrangement because not all
the buds grow and not all the branches live. (See Chaps. II and III.) It
is apparent, however, that the mode of arrangement of buds
determines to some extent the form of the tree. Compare bud
arrangement in pine or fir with that in maple or apple.
Fig. 154.—Oak Spray. How are the leaves borne with reference
to the annual growths?
The uppermost buds on any twig, if they are well matured, are
usually the larger and stronger and they are the most likely to grow
the next spring; therefore, branches tend to be arranged in tiers
(particularly well marked in spruces and firs). See Fig. 154 and
explain it.
Winter Buds show what has been the Effect of Sunlight.—
Buds are borne in the axils of the leaves, and the size or the vigour
of the leaf determines to a large extent the size of the bud. Notice
that, in most instances, the largest buds are nearest the tip (Fig.
157). If the largest buds are not near the tip, there is some special
reason for it. Can you state it? Examine the shoots on trees and
bushes.
Suggestions.—Some of the best of all observation lessons are those made on
dormant twigs. There are many things to be learned, the eyes are trained, and the
specimens are everywhere accessible. 123. At whatever time of year the pupil
takes up the study of branches, he should look for three things: the ages of the
various parts, the relative positions of the buds and the leaves, the different sizes
of similar or comparable buds. If it is late in spring or early in summer, he should
watch the development of the buds in the axils, and he should determine whether
the strength or size of the bud is in any way related to the size and the vigour of
the subtending (or supporting) leaf. The sizes of buds should also be noted on
leafless twigs, and the sizes of the former leaves may be inferred from the size of
the leaf-scar below the bud. The pupil should keep in mind the fact of the struggle
for food and light, and its effects on the developing buds.
124. The bud and the branch. A twig cut from an apple tree in early spring is
shown in Fig. 155. The most hasty observation shows that it has various parts, or
members. It seems to be divided at the point f into two parts. It is evident that the
part from f to h grew last year, and that the part below f grew two years ago. The
buds on the two parts are very unlike, and these differences challenge
investigation.—In order to understand this seemingly lifeless twig, it will be
necessary to see it as it looked late last summer (and this condition is shown in
Fig. 156). The part from f to h,—which has just completed its growth,—is seen to
have its leaves growing singly. In every axil (or angle which the leaf makes when it
joins the shoot) is a bud. The leaf starts first, and as the season advances the bud
forms in its axil. When the leaves have fallen, at the approach of winter, the buds
remain, as seen in Fig. 155. Every bud on the last year’s growth of a winter twig,
therefore, marks the position occupied by a leaf when the shoot was growing.—
The part below f, in Fig. 156, shows a wholly different arrangement. The leaves
are two or more together (aaaa), and there are buds without leaves (bbbb). A year
ago this part looked like the present shoot from f to h,—that is, the leaves were
single, with a bud in the axil of each. It is now seen that some of these bud-like
parts are longer than others, and that the longest ones are those which have
leaves. It must be because of the leaves that they have increased in length. The
body c has lost its leaves through some accident, and its growth has ceased. In
other words, the parts at aaaa are like the shoot fh, except that they are shorter,
and they are of the same age. One grew from the end or terminal bud of the main
branch, and the others from the side or lateral buds. Parts or bodies that bear
leaves are, therefore, branches.—The buds at bbbb have no leaves, and they
remain the same size that they were a year ago. They are dormant. The only way
for a mature bud to grow is by making leaves for itself, for a leaf will never stand
below it again. The twig, therefore, has buds of two ages,—those at bbbb are two
seasons old, and those on the tips, of all
the branches (aaaa, h), and in the axil of
every leaf, are one season old. It is only
the terminal buds that are not axillary.
When the bud begins to grow and to put
forth leaves, it gives rise to a branch,
which, in its turn, bears buds.—It will now
be interesting to determine why certain
buds gave rise to branches and why
others remained dormant. The strongest
shoot or branch of the year is the
terminal one (fh). The next in strength is
the uppermost lateral one, and the
weakest shoot is at the base of the twig.
The dormant buds are on the under side
(for the twig grew in a horizontal
position). All this suggests that those
buds grew which had the best chance,—
the most sunlight and room. There were
too many buds for the space, and in the
struggle for existence those that had the
best opportunities made the largest
growth. This struggle for existence began
a year ago, however, when the buds on
the shoot below f were forming in the
axils of the leaves, for the buds near the
tip of the shoot grew larger and stronger
than those near its base. The growth of
Fig. 155.—An Fig. 156.—Same twig one year, therefore, is very largely
Apple Twig. before leaves fell. determined by the conditions under
which the buds were formed the previous
year. Other bud characters. 125. It is
easy to see the swelling of the bud in a room in winter. Secure branches of trees
and shrubs, two to three feet long, and stand them in vases or jars, as you would
flowers. Renew the water frequently and cut off the lower ends of the shoots
occasionally. In a week or two the buds will begin to swell. Of red maple, peach,
apricot, and other very early-flowering things, flowers may be obtained in ten to
twenty days. 126. The shape, size, and colour of the winter buds are different in
every kind of plant. By the buds alone botanists are often able to distinguish the
kinds of plants. Even such similar plants as the different kinds of willows have
good bud characters. 127. Distinguish and draw fruit-buds of apple, pear, peach,
plum, and other trees. If different kinds of maples grow in the vicinity, secure twigs
of the red or swamp maple, and the soft or silver maple, and compare the buds
with those of the sugar maple and the Norway maple. What do you learn?
Fig. 157.—Buds of the Hickory.

CHAPTER XVI
BUD PROPAGATION
We have learned (in Chap. VI) that plants propagate by means of

seeds. They also propagate by means of bud parts,—as rootstocks
(rhizomes), roots, runners, layers, bulbs. The pupil should determine
how any plant in which he is interested naturally propagates itself (or
spreads its kind). Determine this for raspberry, blackberry,
strawberry, June-grass or other grass, nut-grass, water-lily, May
apple or mandrake, burdock, Irish potato, sweet potato, buckwheat,
cotton, pea, corn, sugar-cane, wheat, rice.
Plants may be artificially propagated by similar means, as by
layers, cuttings, and grafts. The last two we may discuss here.
Cuttings in General.—A bit of a plant stuck into the ground
stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting. Plants have
preferences, however, as to the kind of bit which shall be used, but
there is no way of telling what this preference is except by trying. In
some instances this preference has not been discovered, and we
say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings.
Most plants prefer that the cutting be made of the soft or growing
parts (called “wood” by gardeners), of which the “slips” of geranium
and coleus are examples. Others grow equally well from cuttings of
the hard or mature parts or wood, as currant and grape; and in
some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in the
blackberry. In some cases cuttings are made of tubers, as in the Irish
potato (Fig. 60). Pupils should make cuttings now and then. If they
can do nothing more, they can make cuttings of potato, as the farmer
does; and they can plant them in a box in the window.
Fig. 158.—Geranium Cutting. Fig. 159.—Rose Cutting.
The Softwood Cutting.—The softwood cutting is made from

tissue that is still growing, or at least from that which is not dormant.
It comprises one or two joints, with a leaf attached (Figs. 158, 159). It
must not be allowed to wilt. Therefore, it must be protected from
direct sunlight and dry air until it is well established; and if it has
many leaves, some of them should be removed, or at least cut in
two, in order to reduce the evaporating surface. The soil should be
uniformly moist. The pictures show the depth to which the cuttings
are planted.
For most plants, the proper age or maturity of wood for the making
of cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend: if it
snaps and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition; if it bends
without breaking, it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is
too old and woody. The tips of strong upright shoots usually make
the best cuttings. Preferably, each cutting should have a joint or
node near its base; and if the internodes are very short it may
comprise two or three joints.
The stem of the cutting is inserted one third or more of its length in
clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed firmly about it. A
newspaper may be laid over the bed to exclude the light—if the sun
strikes it—and to prevent too rapid evaporation. The soil should be
moist clear through, not on top only.
Loo
se
sandy
or
gravell
y soil
is
used.
Sand
used Fig. 160.—Cutting-box.
Fig. 161.—Verbena Cutting
by
ready for Transplanting.
masons is good material in which to start
most cuttings; or fine gravel—sifted of
most of its earthy matter—may be used. Soils are avoided which
contain much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding
places of fungi, which attack the soft cutting and cause it to “damp
off,” or to die at or near the surface of the ground. If the cuttings are
to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the earth in a
shallow box or a pan. A soap box cut in two lengthwise, so that it
makes a box four or five inches deep—as a gardener’s flat—is
excellent (Fig. 160). Cuttings of common plants, as geranium,
coleus, fuchsia, carnation, are kept at a living-room temperature. As
long as the cuttings look bright and green, they are in good
condition. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have
formed, the plants begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they
may be transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in
Fig. 161 is just ready for transplanting.
It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make
the cuttings. The best practice, in that case, is to cut back an old
plant, then keep it warm and well watered, and thereby force it to
throw out new shoots. The old geranium plant from the window
garden, or the one taken up from the lawn bed, may be treated this
way (see Fig. 162). The best plants of geranium and coleus and
most window plants are those which are not more than one year old.
The geranium and fuchsia cuttings which are made in January,

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Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science

Introduction to Information Science 2nd Edition David

Space Technology: A Short Introduction Ignacio Chechile

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More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/8613

Introduction to Space Science

ISSN 1869-1730 ISSN 1869-1749 (electronic)

Jointly published with Science Press

exploration of such interesting scientific frontiers. Therefore, the introduction of this

Beijing, China Academician Peijian Ye

1 Reasons to Conduct Research in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.3.1 Solar Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.3.4 Orbit Maneuver and Limited Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

8.2.3 The Ground Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

10.3.1 Review of Scientific Objectives and Payload

14.3.2 Diagnostics of Astro-Oscillations (DAO) Program . . . . . 181

Prof. Ji Wu is President of the Chinese Society of Space Research (CSSR) and

© Science Press 2021 1

1.2 To Explore the Unknown Space Environment

1.3 To Break Free the Barrier of Atmosphere

Fig. 1.1 Atmospheric absorption across the electromagnetic spectrum

1.4 To Utilize the Orbital Altitude Resources

1.5 To Unveil the Mystery of the Earth’s Gravitational Field

1.6 To Make Full Use of Other Aspects of Space

1.7 Definition of Space Science

Table 1.1 Main research contents of various disciplines of space science

Table 1.1 (continued)

1. Wenrui H (2010) Introduction to microgravity science. Science Press, Beijing

© Science Press 2021 9

2.2 History of Space Exploration

Fig. 2.1 Record of the

Fig. 2.2 Sketch of

Fig. 2.3 Sketch of Galileo

Fig. 2.4 Sketch of Kepler

Fig. 2.5 Sketch of Isaac

(Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) and Optics. In his 1687 treatise, he

2.3 The Technology Advancement of Ground-Based

The inventor of telescope is Hans Lippershey (1570–1619), a Dutch spectacle

Fig. 2.6 Galileo’s telescope,

Fig. 2.7 Sketch of Michael

Fig. 2.8 Sketch of James

Fig. 2.9 Sketch of Heinrich

Fig. 2.10 Sketch of

transatlantic wireless communication and discovered the ionosphere. In 1897, he

interferometry method to produce high-resolution radio images of the universe and

2.4 A Brief History of Human’s Access to Space

3 In fact, Wanhu is a title for an official at that time.

Fig. 2.11 Sketch of

Fig. 2.12 Sketch of Robert

Fig. 2.13 Sketch of Frank

Fig. 2.14 Qian Xuesen

Fig. 2.15 Sketch of

Fig. 2.17 Sputnik-1, the