China's Economic Development

China’s Economic Development
Through a rigorous examination of “China’s rise”, Lee addresses an important

question—Did China catch up? Or more specifically, can growth be auto
matically translated to catching up with the advanced industrialised countries
or has it only allowed limited progress (if any) to be made?
To answer these queries and the broader question of the possibility of the
Global South converging with the Global North, four development theories
are utilised, with competing explanations, to uncover the complexity and
multifaceted development of China. This includes whether China really has
a unique developmental model to offer. Positioning China within the global
economy, this book traces its developmental progress over time as well as
its progress relative to other countries. To understand whether the Chinese
political economy is socialist (or not), Lee moves away from the orthodox
definition of socialism and instead examines the official narrative of Socialism
with Chinese Characteristics. Lastly, this book argues that though China is
catching up, challenges that could potentially block China’s progress for a full
catch‑up are to be anticipated.
A useful resource for students and scholars in the fields of international
relations, international political economy, Chinese studies, and development
studies.
Lee Pei May is Assistant Professor at the Department of Political Science at the
International Islamic University of Malaysia. Her research focuses on China’s
political economy, US‑China geopolitical competition, and Malaysia‑China
relations. Her published work includes US‑China relations: trade war and the
quest for global hegemony.
Routledge Research on Asian Development
3 Regional Cooperation for Peace and Development

Japan and South Korea in Southeast Asia
Edited by Brendan Howe
4 Child and Youth Well‑being in China

Lijun Chen, Dali L. Yang, Di Zhou, and Qiang Ren
5 Modern Slavery and Bonded Labour in South Asia

A Human Rights Based Approach
Elena Samonova
6 Social Development and the Sustainable Development Goals

in South Asia
Edited by Nitya Khemka and Suraj Kumar
7 Community Welfare Organisations in Rural Myanmar

Precarity and Parahita
Michael P. Griffiths
8 The 2006 Crisis in East Timor

Lessons for Contemporary Peacebuilding
Rebecca E. Engel
9 Rethinking World Bank Influence

Governance Reforms and the Ritual Aid Dance in Indonesia
D. Brent Edwards Jr.
10 China’s Economic Development

Decoding and Reframing its Rise
Lee Pei May
For a full list of titles, please visit https://www.routledge.com/Routledge‑Research‑on‑Asian‑

Development/book‑series/RRASIADEV
China’s Economic
Development
Decoding and Reframing its Rise
Lee Pei May

First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Lee Pei May
The right of Lee Pei May to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing‑in‑Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 9781032382524 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032382531 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003344186 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003344186
Typeset in Galliard
by codeMantra
This book is dedicated to my dearest mother,
supportive husband, and my beautiful daughter,
Shervelle Nge.
Contents
List of figures and tables xi

Acknowledgements xiii
List of abbreviations xv
1 Key Debates on China’s Development 1

1.1 Historical Background of China 1
1.2 Unsettled Debates of China’s Development 3
1.3 Concept of Development 6
1.4 Scientific Contributions 8
1.5 Research Methodology 9
1.5.1 Document Analysis 10
1.6 The Structure of the Book 11
2 Theoretical Frameworks 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 On the Idea of Catch‑Up 13
2.2.1 Modernisation Theory 14
2.2.2 Dependency Theory 18
2.2.3 Theory of Uneven and Combined Development 24
2.3 Expectations of China’s Developmental Outcomes 28
2.4 China’s Developmental Model 31
2.4.1 Modernisation Theory 32
2.4.2 Developmental State Theory 34
2.5 Expectations of Chinese Development Model 40
2.6 Conclusion 41
3 China’s Integration into the Global Economy: Progress

or Underdevelopment? 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Dependency Theory on Underdevelopment of China 44
viii Contents
3.2.1 Foreign Economic Relations 45

3.2.2 Technology Development 50
3.2.3 Summary 51
3.3 Modernisation Theory on China’s Attaining Economic
Development 52
3.3.1 Social Overhead Capital 55
3.3.2 Foreign Economic Relations 58
3.3.3 Agricultural Technology 62
3.3.4 Summary 65
3.4 Conclusion 66
4 Is Development Catch‑Up Possible? 67

4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Modernisation Theory on China’s Developmental
Catch‑Up 68
4.2.1 Income Level 69
4.2.2 Comparison of Chinese Development with Other
Countries 74
4.2.3 Technology Gap 77
4.2.4 Summary 88
4.3 The Theory of Uneven and Combined Development:
China Could Not Catch‑Up 90
4.3.1 “Combination” Form of Chinese Development? 91
4.3.2 Unevenness between China and Developed
Economies 92
4.3.3 Unevenness between Regions within China 94
4.3.4 Sectoral Unevenness within China 97
4.3.5 Urban‑Rural Gap 98
4.3.6 Summary 102
4.4 Conclusion 103
5 Understanding Chinese Political Economy 107

5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Chinese Official Narrative of “Socialism with Chinese
Characteristics” 108
5.3 Analysis of “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics” 112
5.4 Scholarly Debate on the Nature of the Chinese Political
Economy 120
5.5 Conclusion 125
Contents ix
6 China’s Variety of Capitalism 128

6.2 Modernisation Theory’s Expectations of the Chinese
Development Model 131
6.2.1 China Model: Free‑Market Development
Model? 132
6.3 Developmental State Theory’s Expectations of the Chinese
Development Model 137
6.3.1 China Model: State‑Led Development Model? 139
6.4 Conclusion 151
7 Potential Challenges to China’s Catch‑Up to the West 154

7.2 Internal Challenges 154
7.2.1 Slowing Economic Growth 155
7.2.2 Declining Innovation and Investment 156
7.2.3 Housing Market Crisis 158
7.2.4 Growing Dissatisfaction and Protest within
China 160
7.3 External Challenges 163
7.3.1 Decoupling to De‑risking from the Chinese
Economy 163
7.3.2 The US‑China Trade War 164
7.3.3 From Trade War to Tech War 166
7.3.4 Wide‑ranging Competition and Potential
Confrontation with the United States 168
7.4 Conclusion 170
8 Conclusion 171
8.2 Developmental Catch‑Up in China 172
8.3 China Development Model 178
8.4 Potential Challenges to China’s Catch‑Up 186
8.5 Conclusion 189
References 191
Index 223
Figures and Tables
Figures
3.1 China’s Balance of Trade (USD Million) 49
4.1 China’s Share of World GDP (%) 70
4.2 Number of Poor Living under USD1.90 a day (millions) 72
4.3 Average Real GDP Growth among Major Global Economies:
2008–2011 (percent) 76
5.1 Illiteracy Rate for Population Aged 15 and Over
(% of Population) 117
Tables
3.1 Length of China’s Transportation Network (1,000 km) 56
4.1 Level of GDP Per Capita of China, OECD, and G7 Countries 73
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deep gratitude to my former supervisors, Professor

Andreas Bieler and Dr. Chun‑Yi Lee, who continuously supported and assisted
me. They were happy to provide invaluable feedback on my book proposal
when asked. I am truly fortunate to have met these two wonderful people.
To my beloved mother, Miss Gooi Siew Fung, thank you for your undying
support and love. She was so excited about the book and constantly reminded
me that I had a deadline to meet. I am also extremely lucky to have supportive
family members who gave me emotional support whenever I needed it. Spe
cial thanks to Crystal, Kian, Ru, Marvin, and my beloved nephew and niece,
Arthur and En Ee, who never fail to cheer me up.
I felt extremely blessed to have an understanding and encouraging hus
band. He volunteered to take care of our daughter so I could focus on com
pleting this book. I would not have been able to publish this book if it weren’t
for all the sacrifices he made. Thank you.
Lastly, I would like to take this opportunity to thank this special person,
Dr. Mohd Irwan. Irwan played a very instrumental role in inspiring me to
make the decision to publish a book. I will always remember his generosity
and kindness.
Abbreviations
ACFTU All‑China Federation of Trade Unions

AI Artificial Intelligence
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BRI Belt and Road Initiative
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa
CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
CHFS China Household Finance Survey
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CCP Chinese Communist Party
CPC Communist Party of China
CPEC China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
DJI Da‑Jiang Innovations
ECLA Economic Commission of Latin America
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FEZs Free Export Zones
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNI Gross National Income
GNP Gross National Product
G7 Group of Seven
HDI Human Development Index
IBM International Business Machines Corporation
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPEF Indo‑Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity
KMT Kuomintang
LURs Land‑User Rights
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry
MFN Most Favoured Nation
MFP Multi‑factor productivity
MNCs Multinational companies
MOFCOM Ministry of Commerce People’s Republic of China
NBS National Bureau of Statistics of China
xvi Abbreviations
NDRC National Development and Reform Commission

NGOs Non‑governmental Organisations
OBOR One Belt One Road
OECD Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PRC People’s Republic of China
PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers
RCA Revealed Comparative Advantage
RMB Renminbi
R&D Research and Development
SEZs Special Economic Zones
SOEs State‑owned enterprises
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
TFP Total‑factor productivity
TNCs Transnational Companies
TVEs Township‑Village Enterprises
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
UK United Kingdom
US United States
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
1 Key Debates on China’s
Development
1.1 Historical Background of China

After years of civil wars and occupation by foreign powers, the Communist
Party of China (CPC)1 led by Mao emerged as the eventual victor. In 1949,
the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was officially founded. Since the foun
dation of the PRC in 1949, the country’s elites have striven to develop China.
However, natural disasters and political struggles within the CPC have slowed
growth in some periods. The main aim of the CPC is to build a socialist econ
omy because the previous capitalist economic system was seen to be exploita
tive and oppressive. By the mid‑1950s, all production had been brought under
the control of the state. As China was still an agrarian country, the CPC had
to decide on the future policy of agriculture. Mao decided to push forward
the full collectivisation of the rural economy. Following this reform, farmers
were required to pool their tools, equipment, and land. Farmers would receive
wages based on contributions (Benson, 2013). By 1958, Mao had proceeded
with establishing a commune system in rural China under the Great Leap
Forward.
The Great Leap Forward is said to have contributed to “Three Bitter Years”
(1959–1961) where millions of rural Chinese faced starvation mainly due to
bad governance (Benson, 2013, pp. 36–37). In a rare rejection of the main
stream idea that the Great Leap Forward is a catastrophe, Han (2009), an
independent socialist magazine, contends that there has been a misreading of
the Great Leap Forward. Han argues that although the Great Leap Forward
had created hardship for rural China, it has also led to improvements in agri
cultural production and the people’s living conditions. In particular, he points
out that farmers came to understand the importance of irrigation to improve
crop yields (Han, 2009).
Whatever the truth may be, the grave situation during the Great Leap For
ward had been highlighted by Peng Dehuai, a military leader, which resulted
in him being purged (Benson, 2013). Due to the bad economic policies,
which caused massive starvation and death, in 1959, Mao stepped down and
was succeeded by Liu Shaoqi, who later fell victim to the Cultural Revolution
for being right‑leaning (Benson, 2013). Despite the economic disasters that
DOI: 10.4324/9781003344186-1
2 Key Debates on China’s Development
had happened due to the Great Leap Forward, it should be emphasised that
there was some form of development before the reform in 1978 as discussed
in Chapter 3, though the growth was not as phenomenal as experienced by
China in the last two to three decades. China was able to generate a surplus
from its trade with other countries before its reform, which gave rise to high
savings and a modest amount of foreign reserves. I argue in Chapter 3 that
the growth before the reform and opening up had helped to lay the founda
tion for China’s industrialisation in the later years—a point which was often
underappreciated by many.
After decades of virtually closed economy, under the leadership of reformist
leader Deng Xiaoping, China in 1978 boldly took a step towards reform and
opening to the outside world. The result of the reforms was nothing short of
amazing with China scoring double‑digit growth rates for many years. Fol
lowing the reform and opening up, China has depended on both foreign trade
and foreign investment for the development of its economy (Lin, 2012a). In
2016, China received close to USD 175 billion of Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI), down from USD 242.49 billion in 2015 (World Bank, 2016a). Despite
the decline in inflows of FDI in 2016, the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD) reports that China was still the world’s
third‑largest recipient of FDI (UNCTAD, 2017).
What was peculiar was that while Hong Kong is basically a part of China,
investments coming from Hong Kong are still considered foreign investments.
Tracing the source of capital in Hong Kong is complicated because part of this
capital is thought to be channelled via Hong Kong from Taiwan and Main
land China for different reasons (Wei, 1996). This situation suggests that it
was intranational capital rather than international capital that has contributed
most to the economy of China because inflows of FDI from Hong Kong into
China remain the largest (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016). Addi
tionally, overseas Chinese use their cultural and linguistic links to gain favour
able preferential treatment in the region where they trace their ancestry (Wei,
1996). This is not only a form of domestic investment but is also an important
distinct characteristic of FDI in China that should be highlighted.
The study by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) explained that FDI
yields many benefits, but most importantly, it provides additional benefit that
was not found in other form of capital flows, e.g., it was not able to leave the
host country easily, particularly during a crisis (Loungani & Razin, 2001).
The resilience of such capital proves to be important for developing coun
tries. Southeast Asian countries that depend on non‑FDI capital suffered more
severely as compared to East Asian countries during the Asian Financial Crisis.
The long‑term investment nature of FDI helps to develop human capital and
technology in the host countries. Since the reforms, data point that the form
of capital flows into China was predominantly FDI except before the early
1990s when foreign loans and portfolio investments were the largest contribu
tors to China’s foreign investment (National Bureau Statistics of China, 2014;
Wei, 1996).
Key Debates on China’s Development 3
Foreign trade has surged to an unprecedented scale, accounting for

12.4 percent of the Chinese Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1980 to 64.5
percent of the GDP in 2006 (World Bank, 2018a). Through trade and FDI,
China has managed to accumulate massive reserves. By 2015, China’s total re
serves were bigger than the total reserves of the United States (US) by nearly
10 times (World Bank, 2016u). Despite these impressive economic figures,
there is doubt over whether this represents the real development of China
as the figures include the production of foreign companies within Chinese
borders. By looking at the aggregate data, it is fairly easy to argue that China
indeed has achieved impressive development since its reforms. However, the
underlying consequences associated with these figures are largely masked in
aggregate figures. The issues of exploitation, oppression, and inequality as
sociated with the reforms need to be examined. This book has also made use
of both aggregate data and disaggregated data for a better understanding of
the Chinese economy, including how different types of firm ownership have
contributed to the economy.
Although there are abundant studies, this book offers a new approach to
understanding the unresolved debates surrounding the Chinese political econ
omy. Comparative analysis of the competing theoretical perspectives employed
in this book looks at the multi‑dimensions of Chinese political economy, which
could provide a fine distinction of an understanding of Chinese development.
The main timeline of the research is from 1978 to the year 2023, although
development prior to the reform period has also been briefly discussed. This
book is interested in uncovering whether the reforms undertaken by the
Chinese party‑state in the late 1970s helped to achieve economic development
and if these developments eventually paved the way for its catching up. What
would then be the development model that has allowed or denied Chinese
development? If China is catching up, are there any challenges that might
hinder China’s catch‑up? These were the puzzles that the book intends to
examine since they remain contested today. Chapter 1 is organised as follows.
First, there is a discussion on the unsettled debates of China’s development.
Next, this chapter discusses the evolution of the concept of development and
the development definition used in this book. In addition to giving an ac
count of the evolution of the concept of development, measurement tools are
established. These tools are important because they provide a uniform assess
ment of development that is lacking in the prior literature. With an established
measurement tool that clearly outlines the development indicators, China’s
development can be assessed systematically. Next are the scientific contribu
tions, research methodology and finally, the structure of the book.
1.2 Unsettled Debates of China’s Development

China’s phenomenal economic performance in recent years has generated
enormous scholarly discussion (Huang, 2008; Kiely, 2015; Kolo, 2007;
Panitch & Gindin, 2013). While most scholars, but not all, agree that China
has undergone impressive economic growth since its reform and opening up
in the late 1970s, they disagree on whether these achievements could be trans
lated to China’s catching up with developed countries. In general, there are
two perspectives formulated differently on the issue of China’s catch‑up. The
first perspective comes largely from economists, particularly those from Gold
man Sachs, who theorise a rise of emerging powers, notably China. These
economists are optimistic that China will lead future global growth (Goldman
Sachs, 2010). The growing influence of China is said to have perpetuated
South‑South trade which has allowed the South to “decouple” from depend
ence on the West (Kiely, 2015, p. 2). Reports by international organisations,
notably the United Nations, henceforth UN (2015), and Organisation for
Economic Co‑operation and Development, henceforth OECD (2010), fur
ther support the trend of income convergence between high‑income nations
and emerging countries.
PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) estimates that in 2050, China and
India would be the world’s two largest economies in terms of GDP at Pur
chasing Power Parity (PPP) (PwC, 2017). It is noteworthy that during the
2000s, China and India have grown “three to four times the OECD average”
(OECD, 2010, p. 4). Therefore, there is evidence for the optimistic view of
China converging with the developed nations in the sense of catching up,
specifically during and after the 2008 crisis. This is especially so when the
estimated year that China could possibly overtake the US as the largest econ
omy has fast‑forwarded 14 years to 2027. Such projections once again rein
forced the optimism of China catching up and overtaking the US (O’Neill &
Stupnytska, 2009).
Another perspective found in Chinese development literature is that
China’s exceptional growth in the past does not automatically translate to
catching up with the developed nations, specifically with the US (Lieberthal,
2010; Panitch & Gindin, 2013). Despite viewing China’s growth optimisti
cally, Panitch and Gindin (2013) maintain that the global capitalist order is
still led by America. As industrial exports were mainly produced by foreign
firms and joint ventures, some scholars argue that China’s economic domi
nance has been overstated. They argue that China is still lagging in technology
and remains in need of what the US can offer. Therefore, investments by US
Multinational Companies (MNCs) such as Microsoft and International Busi
ness Machines Corporation (IBM) are more significant than the first wave of
investments in China, which were labour‑intensive in nature (Panitch & Gin
din, 2013). Most importantly, the model of rapid catch‑up pursued by China
has had profound environmental implications, which will need to be dealt with
quite urgently. In a similar vein, Liebertal (2010) maintains that although the
reforms led to impressive growth rates, the GDP per capita of China is still rel
atively low compared to the US. Furthermore, both Hardy and Budd (2012)
and Liebertal (2010) argue that the US has long been leading the race in
technological development, whereas China has just begun to make progress.
Another central debate that has stemmed from various discussions of

Chinese development is the question of China’s economic development
model. The China model is commonly associated with the East Asian Model,
sometimes referred to as the Developmental State Model (Arrighi, 2007;
Boltho & Weber, 2009). However, both Huang (2008) and Zhao (2010) are
of the opinion that China is not following an East Asian Model, although the
Chinese model may appear similar. Huang (2008) argues that the essential
difference between the China Model and the East Asian Model is the engine
of growth. While growth in the East Asian Model adopted by Hong Kong
and South Korea is driven by small private businesses, in China, the businesses
that have boosted growth are dictated by the state, though they may not be
state‑owned enterprises (SOEs). Zhao (2010), however, differentiates the
models by looking at the political aspects. In the reform process, East Asian
model countries have adopted liberal democracy while China continues to
maintain its single‑party rule, though it is cautiously transforming to be more
receptive to citizens’ demands. The argument made by Zhao is contradicted by
Boltho and Weber (2009), who question if Japan, Taiwan, and South K orea,
which adopted the East Asian Model, can be considered liberal democracies in
the Western sense, especially during their period of rapid growth.
In light of this controversy, this book has two key research questions: (1)
Can China catch up? and (2) What is the particular development model of
China? Since the two main research questions are too broad to be assessed
directly, each of the research questions is further split into two sub‑questions.
Corresponding to the question of catch‑up, my first research sub‑question is
“Is there economic development in China?” After confirming that China has
economic development, I further question, “Is there developmental catch‑up
in China?” Corresponding to the second research question with regard to the
development model of China, I first examine “Is Chinese political economy
capitalist?” Subsequently, I seek to understand “If Chinese political economy
is capitalist, what variety of capitalism it is?” The two main research ques
tions were derived through a critical examination of the existing literature on
Chinese development. Specifically, I find that there are two debates, closely
related to one another, which remain unresolved and require further investiga
tion in a guided and systematic manner. The findings for key research question
one indicate that China has the potential to fully catch up with the advanced
economies; however, there are obstacles to achieving this goal. Therefore, this
book also includes a discussion of the potential challenges that might hinder
China’s full catch‑up in Chapter 7.
The period of active decolonisation following the end of the Second World
War garnered massive discussion on how to undertake development, particu
larly in less developed countries. This book engages with development theories
that emerged or were popularised after World War II, although the popularity
of some theories may have been reduced over the years. The selection of the
theories is also directed towards those most commonly engaged within the
existing development literature, most notably on Chinese development. Based

on these selection criteria, the four most relevant development theories are
identified. These development theories are Modernisation Theory, Depend
ency Theory, Developmental State Theory, and the Theory of Uneven and
Combined Development. Therefore, this book uses theoretical frameworks
built upon these four theories of development to help us assess the political
economy of China (see Chapter 2).
1.3 Concept of Development

A precise definition of development is difficult to reach because this con
cept is often associated with values, which, at times, can be politically ori
ented (Barnett, 1988). This is argued by Chambers, who contends that
“[d]evelopment has been taken to mean different things at different times, in
different places, and by different people in different professions and organisa
tions” (Chambers, 2004, p. 2). Nevertheless, the definition of “good change”
provided by Chambers (2004, pp. 2–3) is one that resonates with many. How
ever, this definition also poses a problem when the nature of good change is
perceived differently by different cultures. Conventionally, the idea of devel
opment is associated with a country’s economic growth. As such, GDP is the
most frequently used indicator to assess a country’s development. A high GDP
per capita undoubtedly signifies that this particular country is doing well and
growing significantly (Tucker, 2010). However, Willis (2005, p. 17) argues
that “the emphasis on the economic, rather than other possible dimensions
of development, could be regarded as implying that economic factors are the
most important aspects of ‘development’”.
Therefore, over time, the understanding of development has evolved to
encompass a more comprehensive meaning. In 1990, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) introduced the concept of “human de
velopment” (Matthias, 2008, p. 3). This concept encompasses three dimen
sions that are essential in enlarging people’s capabilities: health, education, and
standard of living. Scholars argue that empowering these three dimensions
would allow individuals to have sufficient capabilities to achieve their desired
state of being (Stanton, 2007). In other words, these three dimensions are
the fundamental determinants of the enhancement of individual capabilities.
The dimensions are, respectively, measured by four values, which are life ex
pectancy at birth, adult literacy rates and mean years of schooling, and lastly,
real GDP per capita, later replaced by real Gross National Product (GNP) per
capita (Bellù, 2011; Engerman, 2007). Although others (Seers, 1972; Sen,
1988) had broadly discussed the need for social development alongside eco
nomic development at an earlier period, UNDP’s initiative arguably did result
in a paradigm shift for development.
In order to operationalise the concept of human development, UNDP de
vised a composite index, which was named the Human Development Index
(HDI), an alternative to the GDP approach. This index was built based on
the belief that high economic growth not translated into enlarging people’s
capabilities is meaningless. Furthermore, according to the Human Develop
ment Report by the UNDP (1996, p. 1), “human development is the end—
economic growth a means”. In layman’s terms, this means that the purpose of
growth is to improve people’s lives. This process of translating growth into
development may not happen spontaneously.
There are many cases whereby countries that achieve considerable success
in their economic growth have lower life expectancy than countries that have
less economic growth. Referring to the work of Amartya Sen (1988), the
study shows that China had USD 310 per capita GNP with 69‑year life expec
tancy in 1984, but South Africa with a higher GNP per capita (USD 2340)
unexpectedly had a shorter life expectancy of only 54 years. Many other vari
ables that could also possibly influence the living conditions should be taken
into account. Despite this, Sen (1988) agrees that a good economic founda
tion is essential to the general well‑being of humans. Sen’s idea was affirmed
by the Human Development Report in 1996. It reported that more economic
growth is required as we step into the 21st century, but that growth ought
to be channelled into improving people’s living conditions. Only then can
countries achieve real development. The Human Development Report pub
lished in 2010 further found that “there is a strong relation between national
levels of income and national levels of health and education” (UNDP, 2010,
pp. 47–48). It was found that this is also applicable at the individual and
household levels. Overall, the HDI is essential to capture the multi‑faceted
nature of development. The results in terms of HDI can also help countries to
design policies more effectively, especially policies towards the eradication of
poverty, one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the UN
and now replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The concept of development has evolved over the years, and when dis
cussing development in general terms, the concept of human development is
much more well‑received. However, as indicated, this book assesses Chinese
development using theoretical frameworks built upon existing development
theories, and as such, it is more appropriate to use the concept of development
as defined by these theories as found in political economy literature. In general,
the political economy literature defines “development” as “something that oc
curs in the developing world, describing the processes by which poorer coun
tries catch up with richer, developed, countries” (Kiely, 2007a, p. 9). This idea
of development was popularised post‑1945. The root of the idea, however,
dates back to the 18th century and was characterised by debates about mo
dernity and progress (Kiely, 2007a). Post‑development theorists would argue
that this concept of development is Eurocentric (Willis, 2005). Nevertheless,
according to Barnett (1988, p. 179), Weber believes a development concept
which is ascribed with values is not a major problem if the “form of the argu
ment, the definitions of the concepts, the method of measurement, is made
clear to others”. Concurring with Weber’s position that a concept ascribed
with values is less of a problem if clearly presented, this book aligns with the
concept of development used in the main political economy literature after the
Second World War. In that sense, development generally refers to the process
of catching up of poorer countries with richer and more advanced countries
(Kiely, 2007a). Likewise, such a conceptualisation of development is also one
that is widely adopted in the Chinese development literature. However, there
is minimal literature that discusses the operationalisation of catch‑up, which
makes it an abstract concept. In essence, the operationalisation of catch‑up
would require a comparison of the level of development of China with devel
oped countries.
Therefore, this book will assess China’s level of development in terms of its
economic progress and the advancement of technology in relation to devel
oped countries, especially the US. The economic progress of China is assessed
by economic indicators such as GDP and GDP per capita, trade balance, total
amount of foreign reserves, household income, poverty rate, and other related
indicators. When discussing the developmental catch‑up of China, I will also
assess the level of technological advancement by examining Chinese Research
and Development (R&D) expenditure, the number of patents Chinese firms
produce, domestic value‑added content in trade, and other related indicators.
A large improvement in productivity is closely related to a country’s techno
logical prowess. Therefore, Total Factor Productivity (TFP) is an important
indicator for evaluating Chinese technological advancement.
1.4 Scientific Contributions

The belief in the rise of China has prompted many scholarly studies about
China, but there is minimal literature that has employed a theoretical as
sessment of Chinese political economy and development. In the absence of
such scholarship, this study proposes a comparative analysis of the competing
theoretical perspectives for a refined understanding of the Chinese political
economy. Four development theories, notably Modernisation Theory, De
pendency Theory, the Theory of Uneven and Combined Development, and
Developmental State Theory, were used to examine two key research ques
tions. This new approach eliminates confirmation bias as well as avoids a sim
plistic understanding of Chinese development. Theories are essential because
they provide concepts to grasp the complexity of the world. This book sheds
light on general mechanisms and processes of change, specifically dynamic
changes in the international division of labour through the lens of develop
ment theories. This, I argue, is one of the fundamental contributions this book
makes to the existing body of knowledge.
This book also revives the Dependency Theory, arguing that it raises some
valid concerns which remain relevant today. In particular, the theory high
lights how opening up an economy to core countries will invite many forms of
exploitation in peripheral countries. Engaging with the Dependency Theory’s
assumptions creates awareness of the forms of exploitation and dependency
that can be faced by peripheral countries in the process of integration into the
world economy. This serves as a reminder for peripheral countries to take a

more cautious approach when opening up their economy to the outside world.
Another fundamental contribution this book makes is in acknowledg
ing the importance of a theoretical understanding of Chinese development
but, at the same time, recognising that there is often a discrepancy between
theoretical predictions and empirical investigations. My observation of China
and its development is a case in point. In Chapter 4, I confirmed that after
the reforms in the late 1970s, China has been catching up with advanced
industrialised countries. This developmental outcome is in line with the argu
ment made by Modernisation Theory. These reforms brought market forces
into the economy, but it must be noted that this was done through constant
guidance by the state. Despite agreeing that the Maoist era had laid a strong
foundation for China’s “take‑off” in later years, the Chinese government has
never pushed for full liberalisation of the economy as suggested by Moderni
sation Theory. My empirical observation reveals that not only has China not
adopted free‑market policies, but throughout its development process, there
were times when liberalisation was reversed.
In Chapter 4, the empirical findings indicate that China did indeed develop
in an uneven and combined way as predicted by the Theory of Uneven and
Combined Development, yet my analysis reveals that this theory fails to capture
how the interaction and competition of different social forces within China has
played out, which has partly influenced the decision of the Chinese state to ab
stain from fully integrating into the global political economy. Specifically, the
decision has retained the financial sector under the watchful eyes of the state.
The partial integration of China into the global economy has allowed her to
retain some forms of autonomy to shape her economy, which I argue, and later
demonstrate, is a crucial factor that makes developmental catch‑up possible for
China, albeit not without challenges. Moreover, social forces within China,
notably domestic capitalists, who have become increasingly powerful, will urge
the state to pursue high value‑added production, which the Theory of Uneven
and Combined Development is not able to account for. This is another factor
why I argue China has the potential to catch up.
The book’s final contribution is to highlight different potential challenges
China faces in order to fully catch up with the advanced industrialised econo
mies. Such inclusion creates a basis for future research to explore ways to
overcome these challenges. Ultimately, this book maintains that the theoreti
cal frameworks proposed allow the assessment of the key debates surrounding
Chinese development to be more systematic and comprehensive.
1.5 Research Methodology

The main objective of this book is to examine and understand several continu
ing and unresolved debates surrounding Chinese development. In general,
there are two unresolved debates surrounding Chinese development. On the
one hand, much literature has agreed that China’s economic growth has been
remarkable. However, there are still doubts about whether the impressive
economic figures reflect China’s catch‑up with developed countries. The sec
ond debate arises from the mixed opinions of scholars regarding China’s eco
nomic development model. Certain scholars have associated the China model
with the East Asian Model or Developmental State Model (Arrighi, 2007;
Boltho & Weber, 2009), but others tend to disagree with this association.
Based on the two key debates, there are five research sub‑questions that
need to be addressed. The first research sub‑question, “Is there economic
development in China?” is addressed through the lenses of Modernisation
Theory and Dependency Theory. The second research sub‑question, “Is
there developmental catch‑up in China?” is addressed through the lenses of
Modernisation Theory and the Theory of Uneven and Combined Develop
ment. As for the third research sub‑question, “Is Chinese political economy
capitalist?” no relevant development theories could be used to assess the
question. Therefore, the third research sub‑question is addressed through
the assessment of work reports of the Chinese government, speeches of
Chinese leaders and other scholarly literature. The fourth research sub‑
question, “If Chinese political economy is capitalist, what variety of capital
ism it is?” is addressed through the lens of Modernisation Theory and De
velopmental State Theory. The fifth research sub‑question, “What are the
potential challenges that might hinder China’s full catch‑up?” is addressed
using scholarly articles, news reports, and policy documents. As this book
is qualitative in nature, the main method employed to achieve the objective
is document analysis.
1.5.1 Document Analysis
This book primarily relies on primary sources (government documents, sta

tistical data from government agencies, and intergovernmental organisation
reports) and secondary sources (books, academic journals, and international
financial institution reports) to analyse the propositions put forth by develop
ment theories in relation to the research questions. The triangulation of data
from various sources is important to assert the credibility of the findings, and
for this book, document analysis is particularly useful to trace the change and
development of Chinese government policies (Bowen, 2009).
In this book, I engaged with the extensive scholarly literature on Chinese
development. This book made most reference to the work of Yasheng Huang,
Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics and Ray Kiely’s work on The BRICs,
US “Decline” and Global Transformation. The study by Huang (2008) is ar
guably one of the most cited pieces of work to understand the inner workings
of the Chinese political economy. Other books this research drew on include
China Since 1949, Subsidies to Chinese Industry: State Capitalism, Business
Strategy and Trade Policy and Demystifying the Chinese Economy. Additionally,
this book also refers to journal articles published in the area of Chinese politi
cal development.
This book derived other essential data from the website of the National
Bureau of Statistics of China. Specifically, this book draws data from various
years of the China Statistical Yearbook found on the website. This includes data
ranging from basic statistics on science and technology activities to foreign
trade and economic cooperation with other countries. To compare China’s
level of development with other countries, this book also uses the World Bank
database for aggregate time‑series data that allows cross‑country comparison.
The China Household Finance Survey conducted by Southwestern University
of Finance and Economics in Chengdu with Mr. Gan Li of Texas A&M Uni
versity further complemented data from the Statistical Yearbook. This survey
collects household‑level data which was used to measure and estimate the Gini
coefficient of rural and urban areas.
This book also draws information from reports produced by intergovern
mental organisations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), IMF,
OECD, and UNCTAD as well as from international financial institutions such
as PwC, Deloitte, and Goldman Sachs. This book refers to World Investment
Reports for various years published by UNCTAD for data concerning China’s
trade and investment. Since the Chinese economy has always been bench
marked against the US, this book has also identified the opinions and evalua
tions of various US government agencies towards China and its development
by examining authoritative reports or press releases by the CIA, United States
Trade Representative, US Department of State, and US‑China Economic and
Security Review Commission.
I also studied and drew extensively on speeches of Deng Xiaoping, com
piled in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping across three volumes to understand
the underlying meaning of “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics”. Subse
quently, how other top national leaders such as former President Jiang Zem
ing, President Hu Jintao, and current President Xi Jinping justify the concept
of “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics” was also examined.
1.6 The Structure of the Book

This book comprises eight chapters. Chapter 1 establishes the background
context of China, addressing unsettled debates, defining the concept of de
velopment, presenting the scientific contributions of the book, and discussing
its research methodology and structure. Chapter 2 explores four development
theories and examines their assumptions about the Chinese political economy
and development. In Chapter 3, I investigate whether China’s integration into
the economy leads to progress or underdevelopment, as argued by rival theo
ries, Modernisation Theory, and Dependency Theory. Chapter 4 addresses the
question of China’s catch‑up, evaluating the assumptions presented by Mod
ernisation Theory and the Theory of Uneven and Combined Development
through a comparison with empirical evidence on the ground. Chapters 5 and
6 aim to understand the nature of China’s political economy. In Chapter 5,
I examine the official narrative of “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics”
and how it has entered a new era. Additionally, we delve into scholarly debates
about the nature of the Chinese political economy, ultimately concluding that
it is capitalist. Chapter 6 then seeks to answer the question of what variety
of capitalism defines China’s political economy. Moving on, Chapter 7 dis
cusses various potential challenges that might impede China from achieving
full catch‑up. Finally, the last chapter summarises the findings of this book.
Note
1 CPC will be used interchangeably with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
References
Abramovitz, M. (1986). Catching Up, Forging Ahead, and Falling Behind. The Journal of
Economic History, 46 (2), pp. 385–406. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700046209
Abu Bakar, A. , Che Mat, S. H. , & Harun, M. (2012). The Impact of Infrastructure on Foreign
Direct Investment: The Case of Malaysia. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 65 ,
205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.112.
Ahmad, E. , Li, K. , & Richardson, T. (2000, November). Recentralization in China? In N. Stern
(Chair). Transition Economies. [Symposium]. Conference on Decentralisation of IMF,
Washington, DC.
Akyuz, Y. (2012, March). The Staggering Rise of the South? South Centre Research Paper No.
44. https://www.southcentre.int/research-paper-44-march-2012/
Allen, G. C. (2022). Choking Off China’s Access to the Future of AI. Center for Strategic and
International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/choking-chinas-access-future-ai
Allinson, J. C. , & Anievas, A. (2010). The Uneven and Combined Development of the Meiji
Restoration: A Passive Revolutionary Road to Capitalist Modernity. Capital & Class, 34 (3), pp.
469–490. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309816810378723
Allison, G. (2019, March 29). Escaping the Thucydides Trap. China-US Focus.
https://www.chinausfocus.com/foreign-policy/escaping-the-thucydides-trap
Amin, S. (2013). China 2013. Monthly Review. https://monthlyreview.org/2013/03/01/china-
2013/
Amin, S. (1976). Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral
Capitalism ( B. Pearce , Trans.). The Harvester Press Limited.
Amsden, A. H. (1989). Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialisation. Oxford
University Press.
Anderlini, J. , & Hornby, L. (2014, January 10). China Overtakes US as World’s Largest Goods
Trader. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/7c2dbd70-79a6-11e3-b381-00144feabdc0
Anderson, J. (2009, April 3). 2009 Tax Misery & Reform Index. Forbes.
https://www.forbes.com/global/2009/0413/034-tax-misery-reform-index.html#2e9e800043b3
Anievas, A. , & Nisancioglu, K. (2015). How the West Came to Rule: The Geopolitical Origins of
Capitalism. Pluto Press.
Appel, T. (2014). Just How Capitalist Is China? Brazilian Journal of Political Economy, 34 (4),
pp. 656–669. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-31572014000400009
Arežina, S. (2019). U.S.-China Relations Under the Trump Administration: Changes and
Challenges. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 5 (3), pp. 289–315.
https://doi.org/10.1142/s2377740019500210
Armstrong, S. , & Westland, T. (2016). Escaping the Middle Income Trap. East Asia Forum.
https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2016/03/28/escaping-the-middle-income-trap/
Arnold, W. (1989, April). Bureaucratic Politics, State Capacity, and Taiwan’s Automobile
Industrial Policy. Modern China, 15 (2), pp. 178–214.
https://doi.org/10.1177/009770048901500203
Arora, R. (2009). Globalisation and Stages of Development: An Exploratory Analysis. Review of
Urban and Regional Development Studies, 21 (2–3), pp. 124–142.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-940x.2010.00164.x
Arrighi, G. (2007). Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century. Verso.
Ashman, S. (2010). Capitalism, Uneven and Combined Development, and the Transhistoric. In
A. Anievas (Ed.), Marxism and World Politics: Contesting Global Capitalism (pp. 183–196).
Routledge.
Asia Society . (2016). George Soros: “Eerie resemblance” Between China Now and Pre-
financial Crisis U.S. https://asiasociety.org/blog/asia/george-soros-eerie-resemblance-between-
china-now-and-pre-financial-crisis-us
Asian Productivity Organisation . (2015). APO Productivity Databook. Kelo University Press.
Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade . (n.d.). Indo-Pacific Economic Framework.
https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/organisations/wto-g20-oecd-apec/indo-pacific-economic-
framework
Barabantseva, E. (2009, December). The Quest for Modernisation and the Production of the
Chinese Nation. British Inter-University China Center Working Paper Series No. 14.
Barbier, E. B. (1987). The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development. Environmental
Conservation, 14 (2), pp. 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900011449
Barboza, D. (2008, November 9). China Plans $586 Billion Economic Stimulus. New York
Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/business/worldbusiness/09iht-
yuan.4.17664544.html
Bardhan, P. (2010). The Paradigm of Capitalism under a Developmental State: Does it Fit
China and India? The Singapore Economic Review, 55 (2), pp. 243–251.
https://doi.org/10.1142/s0217590810003699
Barnett, T. (1988). Sociology and Development. Hutchinson Education.
Bateman, J. (2022). U.S.-China Technological “decoupling”: A Strategy and Policy Framework.
Report by Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/04/25/u.s.-china-technological-decoupling-strategy-and-
policy-framework-pub-86897
BBC. (2021, February 25). China’s Xi Declares Victory in Ending Extreme Poverty.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-56194622
Beausang, F. (2012). Globalisation and the BRICs. Palgrave.
Beer, L. (1999). Income Inequality and Transnational Corporate Penetration, Journal of World
Systems Research, 5 (1), pp. 1–25.
Beeson, M. (2004). The Rise and Fall (?) of the Developmental State: The Vicissitudes and
Implications of East Asian Interventionism. In L. Low (Ed.), Developmental States: Relevancy,
Redundancy or Reconfiguration? (pp. 29–40). Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Bell, D. A. (2015). The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy.
Princeton University Press.
Bellù, L. G. (2011, May). Development and Development Paradigms: A (Reasoned) Review of
Prevailing Visions. Issue Papers by Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
(FAO). E-ISBN 978-92-5-106875-5
Benjamin, D. , Brandt, L. , & Giles, J. (2005). The Evolution of Income Inequality in Rural China.
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 53 (4), pp. 769–824.
https://doi.org/10.1086/428713
Benson, L. (2016). China Since 1949 (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Benson, L. (2013). China Since 1949 (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Bernal, R. (1980). Emmanuel’s Unequal Exchange as a Theory of Underdevelopment. Social
and Economic Studies, 29 , pp. 152–174. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27861914
Bieler, A. , & Lee, C.-Y. (2017a). Chinese Labour in the Global Economy: An Introduction.
Globalizations, 14 (2), pp. 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2016.1207934
Bieler, A. , & Lee, C.-Y. (2017b). Exploitation and Resistance: A Comparative Analysis of the
Chinese Cheap Labour Electronics and High-Value Added IT Sectors. Globalizations, 14 (2),
pp. 202–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2016.1204698
Bieler, A. , & Morton, A. D. (2018). Global Capitalism, Global War, Global Crisis. Cambridge
University Press.
Bieler, A. , & Morton, A. D. (2014). Uneven and Combined Development and Unequal
Exchange: The Second Wind of Neoliberal “Free Trade”? Globalizations, 11 (1), pp. 35–45.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2014.860334
Bloomberg. (2018, May 31). ZTE to Replace Top Exec as China Seeks to Lift U.S. Ban.
Retrieved June 27, 2018 from Bloomberg News Web site:
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-31/zte-is-said-to-replace-top-exec-as-china-
seeks-to-lift-u-s-ban
Bolesta, A. (2007). China as a Developmental State. Montenegrin Journal of Economics,
Economic Laboratory for Transition Research (ELIT), 3 (5), pp. 105–111.
Boltho, A. , & Weber, M. (2009). Did China Follow the East Asian Development Model? The
European Journal of Comparative Economics, 6 (2), pp. 267–286.
Bound, K. , Saunders, T. , Wilsdon, J. , & Adams, J. (2013). China’s Absorptive State:
Research, Innovation and the Prospects for China-UK Collaboration. NESTA.
https://www.nesta.org.uk/report/chinas-absorptive-state-innovation-and-research-in-china/
Bowen, G. (2009). Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research
Journal, 9 (2), pp. 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027
Bown, C. P. (2021). US-China Trade War Tariffs: An Up-to-Date Chart. Peterson Institute for
International Economics. https://www.piie.com/research/piie-charts/us-china-trade-war-tariffs-
date-chart
Boylan, B. M. , McBeath, J. , & Wang, B. (2021). US-China Relations: Nationalism, the Trade
War, and COVID-19. Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 14 , pp. 23–40.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-020-00302-6
Bradsher, K. (2017, November 10). China Eases Limits on Foreign Stakes in Financial Firms.
New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/10/business/china-foreign-investment-
limits.html
Branstetter, L. , & Lardy, N. (2008). China’s Embrace of Globalization. In L. Brandt , & T.
Rawski (Eds.), China’s Great Economic Transformation (pp. 633–682). Cambridge University
Press.
Bremmer, I. (2009, May/June). State Capitalism Comes of Age: The End of the Free Market.
Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2009-05-01/state-
capitalism-comes-age
Breslin, S. (2005). Power and Production: Rethinking China’s Global Economic Role. Review of
International Studies, 31 (4), pp. 735–753. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40072118
Broadman, H. , & Sun, X. (1997, February). The Distribution of Foreign Direct Investment in
China. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 1720.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/236351468770439451/The-distribution-of-foreign-
direct-investment-in-China
Buchan, P. G. , & Rimland, B. (2020, March 16). Defining the Diamond: The Past, Present, and
Future of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue. Center for Strategic and International Studies
Briefs. https://www.csis.org/analysis/defining-diamond-past-present-and-future-quadrilateral-
security-dialogue
Budd, E. (2004). Democratization, Development, and the Patrimonial State in the Age of
Globalisation. Lexington Books.
Cao, C. (2004). Challenges for Technological Development in China’s Industry: Foreign
Investors Are the Main Providers of Technology. China Perspectives, 54 , pp. 4–22.
https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.924
Cao, C. , Simon, D. F. , & Suttmeier, R. P. (2014). China’s Innovation Challenge. Innovation, 11
(2), pp. 253–259. https://doi.org/10.5172/impp.11.2.253
Cao, F. (2014). Modernisation Theory and China’s Road to Modernisation. Chinese Studies in
History, 43 (1), pp. 7–16. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSH0009-4633430101
Casarini, N. (2016). When All Roads Lead to Beijing. Assessing China’s New Silk Road and its
Implication for Europe. The International Spectator, 51 (4), pp. 95–108.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2016.1224491
Central Intelligence Agency . (1959). Economic Relations of the Communist China with the
USSR Since 1950. (CIA Economic Intelligence Report Office of Research and Reports).
https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000313442.pdf
CGTN. (2021a, July 1). Full Text: Speech by Xi Jinping at Gathering Marking CPC’s Centenary.
https://news.cgtn.com/news/2021-07-01/Full-Text-Speech-by-Xi-Jinping-at-gathering-marking-
CPC-s-centenary-11xEAN3GOrK/index.html
CGTN. (2021b, April 21). Bridging Asia and the World: What does China’s ‘dual circulation’
Economy Look Like in Practice? https://news.cgtn.com/news/2021-04-
21/VHJhbnNjcmlwdDU0MDcy/index.html
CGTN. (2018, January 11). Targeted Poverty Alleviation II: Why “targeted”? What’s “precision”?
https://news.cgtn.com/news/344d444d78677a6333566d54/share_p.html
Chamberlain, G. (2011, April 30). Apple Factories Accused of Exploiting Chinese Workers. The
Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/apr/30/apple-chinese-factory-workers-
suicides-humiliation
Chambers, R. (2004, January 1). Ideas for Development. Institute of Development Studies
Working Paper Issue 238. https://www.ids.ac.uk/publications/ideas-for-development-reflecting-
forwards/
Chan, A. (2003). A “Race to the Bottom”: Globalisation and China’s Labour Standards. China
Perspectives, 46, pp. 59–71. https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.259
Chan, F. T. (2017, November 22). 1.5 Million People Signed up for a Brutal 5-hour Test to Land
a Coveted Government Job in China. Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.my/china-
civil-service-exam-2017-11/?r=US&IR=T
Chang, H.- J. (2010). How to “do” a Developmental State: Political, Organisation, and Human
Resource Requirements for the Developmental State. In O. Edigheji (Ed.), Constructing a
Democratic Developmental State in South Africa: Potential and Challenges. HSRC Press.
Chang, H.-J. (1993). The Political Economy of Industrial Policy in Korea. Cambridge Journal of
Economics, 17 (2), pp. 131–157. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23599704
Chen, A. W. , Chen, J. , & Dondeti, V. R. (2020). The US–China Trade War: Dominance of
Trade or Technology? Applied Economics Letters, 27 (11), pp. 904–909.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2019.1646860
Chen, C. , Lawrence, C. , & Zhang, Y. (1995). The Role of Foreign Direct Investment in China’s
Post-1978 Economic Development. World Development, 23 (4), pp. 691–703.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(94)00143-M
Chen, J. , & Wang, Q. (2010). The Reform, Opening, and Development of China’s Industrial
Economy. In F. Cai (Ed.), Transforming the Chinese Economy (pp. 39–84). Koninklijke Brill NV
and Social Sciences Academic Press
Chen, S. , Ravallion, M. , & Wang, Y. (2006, January). Di Bao: A Guaranteed Minimum Income
in China’s Cities? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3805.
Chen, Y.-F. (2011). Rejuvenating the Developmental State in Taiwan: The Impacts of the EIA
as an Environmental Governance (2006–2011). [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland].
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Rejuvenating-the-Developmental-State-in-Taiwan%3A-
the-Chen/bcf8c7195604ae04b85f62475a91ad7c870fd308
Cheng, S. (2006). From East to West: The Evolution of China’s FDI Preferential Policies.
Journal of the Washington Institute of China Studies, 1 (1), pp. 60–77.
Cheng, T. F. (2023, June 22). ASML Says Decoupling Chip Supply Chain Is Practically
Impossible. Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Tech/Semiconductors/ASML-says-
decoupling-chip-supply-chain-is-practically-impossible
China Daily. (2018a, July 16). China Refutes US Criticism on Unfair Trade.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201807/16/WS5b4c83f3a310796df4df6bba.html
China Daily. (2018b, June 13). New NEV Subsidy Policy to Boost High-Quality Development.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201806/13/WS5b20dcf2a31001b8257216e3.html
China Daily. (2012, October 4). China to Spend 4% of GDP on Education.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-10/04/content_15796868.htm
China Daily. (2010, December 23). US Accuses China of Subsidising at WTO.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2010-12/23/content_11746128.htm
China Daily. (2007, December 21). Getting the Most from Vertical Management. The China
Internet Information Center. http://www.china.org.cn/english/GS-e/236456.htm
China Labour Bulletin. (2020, September 15). Construction Worker Protests on the Rise as
Economic Uncertainties Persist in China. https://clb.org.hk/en/content/construction-worker-
protests-rise-economic-uncertainties-persist-china
China Power Team . (2023a). Are Patents Indicative of Chinese Innovation? Retrieved
December 7, 2023 from https://chinapower.csis.org/patents/
China Power Team . (2023b). How Severe Are China’s Demographic Challenges? Retrieved
June 3, 2023 from https://chinapower.csis.org/china-demographics-challenges/
China Power Team . (2016). Are Patents Indicative of Chinese Innovation? Retrieved May 22,
2016 from http://chinapower.csis.org/patents/
Chinese Enterprises Enter “Go Global” Era 4.0. (2016, April 11). The State Council the PRC.
http://english.gov.cn/news/top_news/2016/04/11/content_281475325205328.htm
Chou, B. (2009). Government and Policy-Making Reform in China: The Implications of
Governing Capacity. Routledge.
Chow, D. C. K. (2000, January). Counterfeiting in the People’s Republic of China. Washington
University Law Quarterly, 78 (1), pp. 1–57.
https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_lawreview/vol78/iss1/1
Chu, W.-W. (2017). Industry Policy with Chinese Characteristics: A Multi-Layered Model. China
Economic Journal, 10 (3), pp. 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538963.2017.1368903
Chung, J. H. (2016, January). China’s Local Governance in Perspective: Instruments of Central
Government Control. China Journal, 75 , pp. 38–62. https://doi.org/10.1086/683210
Clarke, D. (2017, May 16). Has China Restored Private Land Ownership? The Implications of
Beijing’s New Policy. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2017-05-
16/has-china-restored-private-land-ownership
Clover, C. , & Mitchell, T. (2017, December 31). China Steps Up Capital Controls with Overseas
Withdrawal Cap. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/b69166fa-ee01-11e7-b220-
857e26d1aca4
CNBC. (2016, February 28). China Expects to Lay Off 1.8 Million Workers in Coal, Steel
Sectors. http://www.cnbc.com/2016/02/28/china-expects-to-lay-off-18-million-workers-in-coal-
steel-sectors.html
Coase, R. , & Wang, N. (2013, January/February). How China Became Capitalist. Cato Institute.
[Policy Report]. https://www.cato.org/policy-report/januaryfebruary-2013/how-china-became-
capitalist
Coase, R. , & Wang, N. (2012). How China Became Capitalist. Palgrave Macmillan.
Cody, E. (2004, October 5). China’s Land Grabs Raise Specter of Popular Unrest: Peasants
Resist Developers, Local Officials. Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/articles/A6968-2004Oct4.html
Colby, W. H. , Crook, F. W. , & Webb, S.-E. H. (1992). Agricultural Statistics of the People’s
Republic of China. Statistical Bulletin 154783. United States Department of Agriculture,
Economic Research Service.
Congressional-Executive Commission on China . (2017). Annual Report 2017.
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-115jhrg26811/html/CHRG-115jhrg26811.htm
Cooper, R. N. (2018). Can China’s High Growth Continue? In J. Rudolph , & M. Szonyi (Eds.),
The China Questions: Critical Insights into a Rising Power (pp. 119–125). Harvard University
Press.
Das, M. , & N'Diaye, P. (2013, January). Chronicle of a Decline Foretold: Has China Reached
the Lewis Turning Point? IMF Working Paper.
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2013/wp1326.pdf
Davidson, N. (2010). From Deflected Permanent Revolution to the Law of Uneven and
Combined Development. International Socialism Journal (128). http://isj.org.uk/from-deflected-
permanent-revolution-to-the-law-of-uneven-and-combined-development/
Davidson, N. (2009). Putting the Nation Back into “the international”. Cambridge Review of
International Affairs, 22 (1), pp. 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557570802683920
Davidson, N. (2006a). From Uneven to Combined Development. In B. Dunn , & H. Radice
(Eds.), 100 Years of Permanent Revolution: Results and Prospects (pp. 10–26). Pluto Press.
Davidson, N. (2006b). China: Unevenness, Combination, Revolution? In B. Dunn , & H. Radice
(Eds.), 100 Years of Permanent Revolution: Results and Prospects (pp. 211–229). Pluto Press.
Davies, K. (2013). China Investment Policy: An Update. OECD Working Papers on International
Investment 2013/01. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k469l1hmvbt-en
de Janvry, A. , Sadoulet, E. , & Zhu, N. (2005, March). The Role of Non-Farm Incomes in
Reducing Rural Poverty and Inequality in China. CUDARE Working Papers.
https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7ts2z766
Deng, X. (1992, January 18–February 21). Excerpts from Talks Given in Wuchang, Shenzhen,
Zhuhai and Shanghai. Selected Works of Deng XiaoPing Vol. III. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1984, June 30). Building a Socialism with a Specifically Chinese Character. Selected
Works of Deng Xiaoping Vol. III. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1983, June 18). We Are on the Right Track and Our Policies Will Not Change:
Excerpt from a Talk with Foreign Experts Attending a Symposium on Science and Technology
Policies in Beijing. In Selected Works of Deng Xiao Ping, Volume 3 (1982–1992). Foreign
Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1983, January 12). Our Work in All Fields Should Contribute to the Building of
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. Selected Works of Deng XiaoPing Vol. III. Foreign
Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1983, October 12). The Party’s Urgent Tasks on the Organisational and Ideological
Fronts. Selected Works of Deng Xiao Ping Vol. III. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1980, January 16). The Present Situation and the Tasks Before Us. Selected Works
of Deng XiaoPing Vol. II. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1979, November 26). We Can Develop a Market Economy under Socialism. Selected
Works of Deng XiaoPing Vol. II. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1979, October 4). Some Comments on Economic Work. Selected Works of Deng
XiaoPing Vol. II. Foreign Languages Press.
Deng, X. (1978, October 10). Carry Out the Policy of Opening to the Outside World and Learn.
Selected Works of Deng Xiao Ping Vol. II. Foreign Languages Press.
DikÖtter, F. (2010, December 15). Mao’s Great Leap to Famine. New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/16/opinion/16iht-eddikotter16.html
Dodwell, D. (2018, September 5). The Real Target of Trump’s Trade War Is “Made in China
2025”. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/business/global-
economy/article/2151177/real-target-trumps-trade-war-made-china-2025
Dos Santos, T. (1970). The Structure of Dependence. The American Economic Review, 60 (2),
pp. 231–236. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1815811
Duan, Y. , & Zhang, G. (2021). The Emerging Consciousness of Citizens’ Rights in China:
Interest Recognition and Generational Variation. Journal of Contemporary China, 30 (127), pp.
152–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1766905
Dumbaugh, K. , & Martin, M. F. (2009, December 31). Understanding China’s Political System.
Congressional Research Service Report for Congress.
https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4b73cd512.pdf
Dunford, M. , & Liu, W. (2017). Uneven and Combined Development. Regional Studies, 51 (1),
pp. 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1262946
Eloot, K. , Huang, A. , & Lehnich, M. (2013, June 1). A New Era for Manufacturing in China.
McKinsey Quarterly. https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/operations/our-insights/a-new-era-
for-manufacturing-in-china
Embassy of the PRC in the Commonwealth of the Bahamas . (2012, November 25). China’s
Political Party System. http://bs.china-embassy.org/eng/sbgxyw/t992474.htm
Engerman, S. L. (2007). The Standard of Living Debate in International Perspective: Measures
and Indicators. In R. H. Steckel , & R. Floud (Eds.), Health and Welfare during Industrialisation
(pp. 17–46). University of Chicago Press. http://www.nber.org/chapters/c7427.pdf
Europe-Asia Foundation . (n.d.). Can China Escape the Middle Income Trap?
https://europeasiafoundation.org/insights/can-china-escape-the-middle-income-trap
Faheem, M. , Dost, M. , Hussnain, A. , Izhar, S. , Raza, A. , & Shakeel, A. (2011). Factors
Attracting FDI Inflow in China. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management
Review, 1 (4), pp. 128–137.
Fan, C. , & Sun, M. (2008). Regional Inequality in China, 1978–2006. Eurasian Geography and
Economics, 49 (1), pp. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2747/1539-7216.49.1.1
Fang, L. , Lerner, J. , & Wu, C. (2017, July). Intellectual Property Rights Protection, Ownership,
and Innovation: Evidence from China. The Review of Financial Studies, 30 (7), pp. 2446–2477.
https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhx023
Fannin, R. (2018, May 22). China’s Secret Goal Is to Crush Silicon Valley. CNBC News.
Retrieved July 5, 2018 from https://www.cnbc.com/2018/05/22/chinas-secret-goal-is-to-crush-
silicon-valley.html
Feenstra, R. C. , & Hamilton, G. G. (2006). Emergent Economies, Divergent Paths: Economic
Organisation and International Trade in South Korea and Taiwan. Cambridge University Press.
Ford, A. (2009). China – Capitalist or Not? Socialism Today, (131).
http://www.socialismtoday.org/131/china.html
Fortune . (2016). Fortune Global 500. Fortune. http://fortune.com/global500/2016/
Fortune . (2010). Fortune Global 500. Fortune. http://fortune.com/global500/2010/
Frank, A. G. (1967). Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of
Chile and Brazil. Monthly Review Press.
Frank, A. G. (1966). The Development of Underdevelopment. Monthly Review Press.
Friedman, G. (2010). The Next 100 Years: A Forecast for the 21st Century. Anchor Books.
Friedmann, H. , & Wayne, J. (1977). Dependency Theory: A Critique. The Canadian Journal of
Sociology, 2 (4), pp. 399–416. https://doi.org/10.2307/3340297
Fritz, V. , & Menocal, R. (2007). Developmental States in the New Millennium: Concepts and
Challenges for a New Aid Agenda. Development Policy Review, 25 (5), pp. 531–552.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2007.00384.x
Galloway, T. (2011, July). Chinese Five Year Plans: An Economic Catalyst? CSL Issue Paper,
Volume 11-11. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA568669
Gao, L. , & Woo, R. (2023). China’s Property Sector Set to be Persistently Weak for Years,
Goldman Sachs Says. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-property-sector-
set-be-persistently-weak-years-goldman-2023-06-12/
Gao, Y. (2016, January 4). Tech Companies Chip Away at Foreign Rivals. China Daily USA.
Retrieved June 8, 2017 from http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2016-
01/04/content_22924865.htm
Gassman, O. , Beckenbauer, A. , & Friesike, S. (2012). Profiting from Innovation in China.
Springer.
Garrigues . (2022, January 10). China Issues New Versions of Negative Lists for Foreign
Investment. https://www.garrigues.com/en_GB/new/china-issues-new-versions-negative-lists-
foreign-investment
General Administration of Customs People’s Republic of China . (2017). Review of China’s
Foreign Trade in the First Half of 2016. http://english.customs.gov.cn/statics/a05eaafe-5a50-
4482-8606-0be07bf4b3b7.html
Gewirtz, P. (2023, May 30). Words and Policies: “De-risking” and China Policy. Brookings.
https://www.brookings.edu/articles/words-and-policies-de-risking-and-china-policy/
Glenn, E. (2017, October 18). Xi says China will Continue to Open its Economy, Deepen
Financial Reforms. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-congress-economy-
reforms/xi-says-china-will-continue-to-open-its-economy-deepen-financial-reforms-
idUSKBN1CN09K
Glenn, E. , & Cadell, C. (2018, April 19). Exclusive: China Looks to Speed Up Chip Plans as US
Trade Tensions Boil - Sources. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-
chips-exclusive/exclusive-china-looks-to-speed-up-chip-plans-as-u-s-trade-tensions-boil-
sources-idUSKBN1HQ1QP
Global Times. (2023, January 18). China’s FDI up 8% in 2022, Continuing Upward Trend for
Three Consecutive Years. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202301/1284004.shtml
Global Times. (2022, November 14). Xi told Biden Taiwan Is First Red Line that Must Not be
Crossed, Urging US to Respect China’s Path, System.
https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202211/1279456.shtml
Global Times. (2018, November 5). Government to Keep Solar Power Subsidies.
http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1125978.shtml
Göbel, C. (2021). The Political Logic of Protest Repression in China. Journal of Contemporary
China, 30 (128), pp. 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1790897
Goddard, G. J. , & Ajami, R. A. (2022). Evergrande and Real Estate Value Subjectivity. Journal
of Asia-Pacific Business, 23 (1), pp. 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1080/10599231.2022.2052448
Goldman Sachs . (2010, May). Is this the “BRICs Decade”? BRICs Monthly Issue No. 10/03.
https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/archive/brics-decade.html
Goodbar, E. S. (2017). China’s Growth: A Long-Term Perspective. BNY Mellon.
Grabowski, R. (2011). China’s Economic Takeoff: A Few Similarities with Japan. The Chinese
Economy, 44 (2), pp. 5–24. https://doi.org/10.2753/1097-1475440201
Gray, A. (2017, March 9). The World’s 10 Biggest Economies in 2017. World Economic Forum.
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/worlds-biggest-economies-in-
2017?utm_content=buffer5dacd&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campa
ign=buffer
Gray, K. (2011). Taiwan and the Geopolitics of Late Development. The Pacific Review, 24 (5),
pp. 577–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2011.634077
Griffiths, J. (2016, March 30). China on Strike. CNN News.
http://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/28/asia/china-strike-worker-protest-trade-union/
Grimes, S. , & Yang, C. (2018). From Foreign Technology Dependence towards Greater
Innovation Autonomy: China’s Integration into the Information and Communications Technology
(ICT) Global Value Chain (GVC). Area Development and Policy, 3 (1), pp. 132–148.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2017.1305870
Haley, U. , & Haley, G. (2013). Subsidies to Chinese Industry: State Capitalism, Business
Strategy and Trade Policy. Oxford University Press.
Han, D. (2009). Farmers, Mao, and Discontent in China: From the Great Leap Forward to the
Present. Monthly Review. http://monthlyreview.org/2009/12/01/farmers-mao-and-discontent-in-
china/#en3
Han, J. , Zhao, Q. , & Zhang, M. (2016). China’s Income Inequality in the Global Context.
Perspectives in Science, 7 , pp. 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pisc.2015.11.006
Han, Q. (2015). Tao lun zhong guo te se she hui zhu yi ji ben li lun (On the Fundamentals of
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics). Beijing da xue xue bao (Ze Xue She Hui Ke Xue Ban),
52 , pp. 42–49.
Harding, H. , Whiting, A. , & Ross, R. (December 1990). China’s Foreign Relations After
Tiananmen: Challenges for the US. (NBS Analysis Volume 1, No. 3).
https://www.nbr.org/publication/chinas-foreign-relations-after-tiananmen-challenges-for-the-u-s/
Hardy, J. (2017). China’s Place in the Global Divisions of Labour: An Uneven and Combined
Development Perspective. Globalizations, 14 (2), pp. 189–201.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2016.1200264
Hardy, J. , & Budd, A. (2012). China’s Capitalism and the Crisis. International Socialism Journal,
(133). http://isj.org.uk/chinas-capitalism-and-the-crisis/
Harman, C. (1990). From Trotsky to State Capitalism. Marxist Internet Archive.
https://www.marxists.org/archive/harman/1990/xx/trotstatecap.html
Harris, N. (2015). The Mandate of Heaven: Marx and Mao in Modern China. Haymarket Books.
Hart-Landsberg, M. (2015). From the Claw to the Lion: A Critical Look at Capitalist
Globalization. Critical Asian Studies, 47 (1), pp. 1–23.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2015.997024
Hart-Landsberg, M. (2013). Capitalist Globalisation: Consequences, Resistance, and
Alternatives. Monthly Review Press.
Harvey, D. (2007, March). Neoliberalism as Creative Destruction. The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 610 , pp. 22–44.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25097888
Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford University Press.
Hebert, B. (2020). Is Reform on the Horizon for China’s Weak Social Safety Net? Center for
Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/reform-
horizon-chinas-weak-social-safety-net
Heilmann, S. , & Shih, L. (2013). The Rise of Industrial Policy in China, 1978–2012. Harvard-
Yenching.
He, L. (2023a, May 25). Why China and Japan Are Praying the US Won’t Default. CNN
Business. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/05/25/economy/japan-china-us-debt-default-intl-
hk/index.html
He, L. (2023b, March 6). China Sets Lowest GDP Growth Target in Decades as Beijing
Tightens its Belt. CNN News. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/06/economy/china-two-sessions-
lowest-gdp-target-analysis-intl-hnk/index.html
He, L. (2019, September 24). China Is Sending Government Officials into Companies like
Alibaba and Geely. CNN News. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/24/business/china-government-
officials-companies/index.html
Helbling, T. (2023, February 3). Opening Remarks for the Press Briefing of the 2022 China
Article IV Staff Report. IMF. [Press Release].
https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2023/02/01/sp-china-aiv-press-briefing-opening-remarks
Hettne, B. (1983). The Development of Development Theory. Acta Sociologica, 26 (3/4), pp.
247–266. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4194484
Hettne, B. (1982). Report from Development Theory and the Third World. Swedish Agency for
Research Cooperation with Developing Countries.
Ho, S. P. (1987). Economics, Economic Bureaucracy, and Taiwan’s Economic Development.
Pacific Affairs, 60 (2), pp. 226–247. https://doi.org/10.2307/2758133
Holz, C. (2006). Measuring Chinese Productivity Growth 1952–2005 (Draft). OECD.
http://www.oecd.org/sdd/na/37601286.pdf
Hong Kong Trade Development Council . (2017, April 3). Trade Regulations of China. HKTDC
Research. http://hong-kong-economy-research.hktdc.com/business-news/article/Small-
Business-Resources/Trade-Regulations-of-China/sbr/en/1/1X000000/1X006MY8.htm
Hou, L. (2017a, January 26). Government Helps 3.7m Workers Get Unpaid Wages. China
Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-01/26/content_28058498.htm
Hou, L. (2017b, November 10). China Sees Record Applicants for National Civil Service Exams.
China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-11/10/content_34373577.htm
Hou, L. (2010, May 12). Official: Wage Share Decreases 22 Years in a Row. China Daily.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-05/12/content_9841109.htm
Hout, T. , & Ghemawat, P. (2010, December). China vs the World: Whose Technology Is It?
Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2010/12/china-vs-the-world-whose-technology-is-it
Howard, M. , & King, J. (2001). “State Capitalism” in the Soviet Union. History of Economics
Review, 34 (1), pp. 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10370196.2001.11733360
Howell, J. (2006). Reflections on the Chinese State. Development and Change, 37 (2), pp.
273–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2006.00478.x
Hsiao, H.-H. M. (1993). The Political Economy of State-Business Relations in Taiwan. Acta
Oeconomica, 45 (1/2), pp. 145–171. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40729537
Hsu, J. (2018). The Developmental State of the Twenty-First Century: Accounting for State and
Society. Third World Quarterly, 39 (6), pp. 1098–1114.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1357115
Hsu, J. (2015). China’s Development: A New Development Paradigm? Third World Quarterly,
36 (9), pp. 1754–1769. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24523148
Hsu, S. (2021, November). China’s Regulatory Clampdown on Big Tech. The Institute for
China-America Studies (ICAS). https://chinaus-icas.org/research/chinas-regulatory-clampdown-
on-big-tech/
Hsu, S. (2016, December 28). China’s Urbanization Plans Need to Move Faster in 2017.
Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahsu/2016/12/28/chinas-urbanization-plans-need-to-
move-faster-in-2017/#3820cbe574db
Hu, J. (2007, October 15). Full Text of Hu Jintao’s Report at 17th Party Congress. The Central
People’s Government of the PRC. http://www.gov.cn/english/2007-10/24/content_785505.htm
Hu, J. (2007, October 15). Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese
Characteristics and Strive for New Victories in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in all.
China Internet Information Center. http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm
Huang, C. (2012, December 20). Land Grabs Are Main Cause of Mainland Protests, Experts
Say. South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1108543/land-grabs-
are-main-cause-mainland-protests-experts-say
Huang, J. , Kuo, C. C. , & Kao, A. (2010). The Inequality of Regional Economic Development in
China between 1991 and 2001. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 1 (3), pp.
273–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/476828032000108553
Huang, Y. (2016). Can China Escape the Middle-Income Trap? China Economic Journal, 9 (1),
pp. 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538963.2015.1122882
Huang, Y. (2012). How Did China Take-off? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26 (4), pp.
147–170. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.26.4.147
Huang, Y. (2008). Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics: Entrepreneurship and the State.
Cambridge University Press.
Ikegami, J. (1966). Social Overhead Capital and Public Finance. Kyoto University Economic
Review, 36 (1), pp. 39–71. https://doi.org/10.11179/ker1926.36.39
Ikenberry, G. J. (2021, December). Systemic Rivals: America’s Emerging Grand Strategy
toward China. Global Asia, 16 . https://www.globalasia.org/v16no4/cover/systemic-rivals-
americas-emerging-grand-strategy-toward-china_g-john-ikenberry
Imagawa, E. (1993). The Role of Government in Economic Development: An Asian View. The
Soka Economic Studies Quarterly, XXII (4), pp. 35–50.
IMF . (2016). World Economic Outlook - Subdued Demand: Symptoms and Remedies. IMF
Working Paper. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2016/12/31/World-Economic-
Outlook-October-2016-Subdued-Demand-Symptoms-and-Remedies-44024
International Business Publication . (2017). Korea South: Doing Business and Investing in
Korea South Guide Volume 1 Strategic, Practical Information and Contacts. International
Business Publication, USA.
Jarreau, J. , & Poncet, S. (2009, December). Export Sophistication and Economic Performance:
evidence from Chinese provinces. Centre D’études Prospectives Et D’informations
Internationales. Working paper No. 2009-34.
Jett, J. (2021, September 23). What Is Evergrande? The Chinese Property Giant behind Global
Sell-off Fears. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/what-evergrande-chinese-
property-giant-behind-global-selloff-fears-n1279929
Jiang, Z. (2002). Full Text of Jiang Zemin’s Report at 16th Party Congress. The China Internet
Information Center. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/49007.htm#2
Jiang, Z. (1998). China’s Tax Preferences to Foreign Investment: Policy, Culture and Modern
Concepts. Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, 18 (3), pp. 549–654.
https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njilb/vol18/iss3/22
Jie, C. , Sun, H. , Xu, D. , Xie, D. , & Zhu, B. (1986). China’s Socialist Economy - An Outline
History (1949–1984) ( S. Liu & Q. Wu , eds.). Beijing Review.
Jin, F. , Ding, J. , Wang, J. ; Liu, D., & Wang, C. (2012). Transportation Development Transition
in China. Chinese Geographical Science, 22 (3), pp. 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-
012-0538-9
Johansson, A. C. (2012, August 25). Financial Repression and China’s Economic Imbalances.
East Asia Forum. https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2012/08/25/financial-repression-and-chinas-
economic-imbalances/
Johnson, C. (1999). The Developmental State: Odyssey of a Concept. In M. Woo- Cumings
(Ed.), The Developmental State (pp. 32–60). Cornell University Press.
Johnson, C. (1982). MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy,
1925–1975. Stanford University Press.
JR. Wolf, C. (2001, August 13). China’s Capitalists Join the Party. New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/13/opinion/chinas-capitalists-join-the-party.html
Ju, S. W. (2000). The Economic Development Models and the Confucian Market Economy
Model of East Asia. Global Economic Review, 29 (3), pp. 98–118.
https://doi.org/10.1080/12265080008449798
Kahn, J. (2002, November 4). China’s Communist Party, “to Survive,” Opens Its Doors to
Capitalists. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/04/world/china-s-communist-
party-to-survive-opens-its-doors-to-capitalists.html
Kahn, L. (2023, June 12). AUKUS Explained: How Will the Trilateral Pact Shape Indo-Pacific
Security? Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/aukus-explained-how-will-
trilateral-pact-shape-indo-pacific-security
Karadjis, M. (2007). Socialism and the Market: China and Vietnam Compared. Links
International Journal of Socialist Renewal. http://links.org.au/node/14
Kasahara, S. (2013). The Asian Developmental State and the Flying Geese Paradigm.
(Discussion Papers No. 213). UNCTAD. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/765859?ln=en
Kelter, F. (2023, March 27). China’s Rich Flee Crackdowns for “Asia’s Switzerland” Singapore.
Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2023/3/27/chinas-rich-flee-crackdowns-for-
asias-switzerland-singapore
Kennedy, S. (2015, June 1). Made in China 2025. Center for Strategic and International
Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/made-china-2025
Kennedy, S. (2010). The Myth of the Beijing Consensus. Journal of Contemporary China, 19
(65), pp. 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670561003666087
Kerswell, T. , & Lin, J. (2017). Capitalism Denied with Chinese Characteristics. Socialism and
Democracy, 31 (2), pp. 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/08854300.2017.1332262
Kharpal, A. (2023, September 19). Huawei’s Chip Breakthrough Poses New Threat to Apple in
China—and Questions for Washington. CNBC News.
https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/19/huaweis-chip-breakthrough-poses-new-threat-to-apple-in-
china.html
Khosla, A. (2000). State and Economy: Some Observations and Inferences from the Japanese
Experiences. In K. Brødsgaard , & S. Young (Eds.), State Capacity in East Asia: Japan, Taiwan,
China, and Vietnam (pp. 37–60). Oxford University Press.
Kiely, R. (2016). The Rise and Fall of Emerging Powers: Globalisation, US Power and the
Global North-South Divide. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kiely, R. (2015). The BRICs, US “Decline” and Global Transformations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kiely, R. (2012). Spatial Hierarchy and/or Contemporary Geopolitics: What Can and Can’t
Uneven and Combined Development Explain? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25
(2), pp. 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2012.678299
Kiely, R. (2007a). The New Political Economy of Development: Globalisation, Imperialism and
Hegemony. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kiely, R. (2007b). Poverty Reduction through Liberalisation? Neoliberalism and the Myth of
Global Convergence. Review of International Studies, 33 (3), pp. 415–434.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210507007589
Kiely, R. (2005). Globalisation and Poverty, and the Poverty of Globalisation Theory. Current
Sociology, 53 (6), pp. 895–914. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392105057154
Kim, W. (2009). Rethinking Colonialism and the Origins of the Developmental State in East
Asia. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 39 (3), pp. 382–399.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00472330902944446
Knight, J. B. (2014). China as a Developmental State. The World Economy, 37 (10), pp.
1335–1347. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12215
Koh, E. (2023, June 23). China’s Solution to Inequality? Cracking Down on Displays of Wealth
and Poverty. Time. https://time.com/6289559/china-inequality-wealth-flaunting-common-
prosperity/
Kollewe, J. (2017, September 25). UK Chip Maker Imagination Bought for £550m by China-
Backed Tech Firm. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/sep/25/imagination-technologies-shares-canyon-
bridge-takeover
Kolo, V. (2007). China’s Capitalist Counter-Revolution. Socialism Today, (114).
Koopman, R. , Wang, Z. , & Wei, S.-J. (2008). How Much of Chinese Exports Is Really Made in
China? Assessing Foreign and Domestic Value-Added in Gross Exports. Office of Economics of
the U.S International Trade Commission.
Kucik, J. (2022, January 11). Analysis: Can the United States Really Decouple from China?
Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/11/us-china-economic-decoupling-trump-
biden/
Lai, H. (2016). China’s Governance Model: Flexibility and Durability of Pragmatic
Authoritarianism. Routledge.
Lambert, R. , & Webster, E. (2017). The China Price: The All-China Federation of Trade Unions
and the Repressed Question of International Labour Standards. Globalizations, 14 (2), pp.
313–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2016.1205820
Lan, X. (2013, November 5). Silk Road Resurection: New Economic Belt Brings a Wealth of
Opportunity for China, Central Asia and Europe. Beijing Review.
http://www.bjreview.com.cn/Cover_Stories_Series_2014/2013-11/05/content_609246.htm
Lardy, N. (2014, September 2). Writing China: Nicholas Lardy, “Markets Over Mao”. Wall Street
Journal Blog. https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/09/02/writing-china-nick-lardy-combats-
conventional-wisdom-in-markets-over-mao/
Lee, J. (2009). State Owned Enterprises in China: Reviewing the Evidence. (Ocassional
Papers). OECD Working Group on Privatisation and Corporate Governance of State Owned
Assets
Lee, P. M. , & Zulkefli, N. N. (2021). US-China Relations: Trade War and the Quest for Global
Hegemony. Journal of International Studies, 17 , pp. 131–155.
https://doi.org/10.32890/jis2021.17.6
Lee, W.-C. (2010). Yours, Mine, or Everyone’s Property? China’s Property Law in 2007. Journal
of Chinese Political Science, 15 (1), pp. 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-009-9081-7
Lee, Y. N. (2021, January 22). China Failed to Buy Agreed Amounts of U.S. Goods Under
“phase one” Trade Deal, Data Shows. CNBC News. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/22/china-
failed-to-buy-agreed-amounts-of-us-goods-in-phase-one-trade-deal-data.html
Lester, S. , & Zhu, H. (2021, March 22). The U.S.-China Phase One Trade Deal: On to Phase
Two, or Time to Phase It Out? CATO Institute. https://www.cato.org/blog/us-china-phase-one-
deal-phase-two-or-time-phase-it-out
Levi-Faur, D. (1998, March). The Developmental State: Israel, South Korea, and Taiwan
Compared. Studies in Comparative International Development, 33 (1), pp. 65–93.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02788195
Li, B. (2017, May 19). China Going Nowhere on Hukou Reform. East Asia Forum.
http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/05/19/china-going-nowhere-on-hukou-reform/
Li, C. (2010). Chinese Scholarship on the Middle Class: From Social Stratification to Political
Potential. In C. Li (Ed.), China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation (pp.
55–83). Brookings Institution Press.
Li, G. (2013, August). Income Inequality and Consumption in China. The University of Iowa.
Li, M. (2008). Socialism, Capitalism, and Class Struggle: The Political Economy of Modern
China. Economic & Political Weekly, 43 (52), pp. 77–85. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40278337
Li, S. (2016). Recent Changes in Income Inequality in China. Challenging Inequalities:
Pathways to a Just World (World Social Science Report), pp. 84–88.
Li, S. , & Sicular, T. (2014). The Distribution of Household Income in China: Inequality, Poverty
and Policies. The China Quarterly, 217 , pp. 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741014000290
Li, Y. (2008, August). China’s Growth Miracle: Past, Present, and Future. United Nations
Research Institute for Social Development.
http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BD6AB/(httpAuxPages)/2893F14F41998392C1257BC6003
85B21/$file/China’s%20growth%20miracle%200808.pdf
Li, Y. , & Elfstrom, M. (2021). Does Greater Coercive Capacity Increase Overt Repression?
Evidence from China. Journal of Contemporary China, 30 (128), pp. 186–211.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1790898
Li, X. , & Shaw, T. M. (2013). The Political Economy of Chinese State Capitalism. Journal of
China and International Relations, 1 (1), pp. 88–113.
https://journals.aau.dk/index.php/jcir/article/view/218/155
Li, Z. (2022, March 17). What Doomed China’s Much-Anticipated Property Market Reform Plan?
The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2022/03/what-doomed-chinas-much-anticipated-
property-market-reform-plan/
Lieberthal, K. (2010, August). Opinion: Is China Catching Up with the US? Brookings Institution.
https://www.brookings.edu/articles/is-china-catching-up-with-the-united-states/
Linden, M. v. (2007). The “Law” of Uneven and Combined Development: Some
Underdeveloped Thoughts. Historical Materialism, 15 (1), pp. 145–165.
https://doi.org/10.1163/156920607X171627
Lin, J. Y. (2012a). Demystifying the Chinese Economy. Cambridge University Press.
Lin, J. Y. (2012b). China and the Global Economy. Paper at Asia Economic Policy Conference
on Asia’s Role in the Post-Crisis Global Economy, pp. 213–229.
https://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/files/Lin.pdf
Lin. J. Y. , & Wang, X. (2022). Dual Circulation: A New Structural Economics View of
Development. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 20 (4), 303–322.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14765284.2021.1929793
Lin, S. (2009). The Rise and Fall of China’s Government Revenue. East Asian Institute,
National University of Singapore.
Lin, S. (2001). Public Infrastructure Development in China. Comparative Economic Studies, 43 ,
pp. 83–109. https://doi.org/10.1057/ces.2001.9
Liu, K. , & Daly, K. (2011). Foreign Direct Investment in China Manufacturing
Industry–Transformation from a Low-Tech to High-Tech. International Journal of Business and
Management, 6 (7), pp. 15–27. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v6n7p15
Liu, T. , Holmes, K. , & Zhang, M. (2018). Better Educational Inclusion of Migrant Children in
Urban Schools? Exploring the Influences of the Population Control Policy in Large Chinese
Cities. Asian Social Work and Policy, 12 (1), pp. 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/aswp.12138
Liu, X. (2008). China’s Development Model: An Alternative Strategy for Technological Catch-up.
SLPTMD Working Paper Series (Department of International Development, University of
Oxford).
Liu, Z. (2017, October 18). China has “halted intervention in yuan exchange rate market”. South
China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2115885/china-has-
halted-intervention-yuan-exchange-rate-market
Long, G. (2005). China’s Policies on FDI: Review and Evaluation. In T. H. Moran , E. M.
Graham , & M. Blomstrom (Eds.), Does Foreign Direct Investment Promote Investment (pp.
315–336). Center for Global Development.
Loungani, P. , & Razin, A. (2001, June). How Beneficial Is Foreign Direct Investment for
Developing Countries? IMF. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/06/loungani.htm
Lubin, D. (2022). Why a More Inward-Looking China Is Bad News for the World Economy.
Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/10/why-more-inward-looking-china-bad-
news-world-economy
Lynch, D. J. , & Hornby, L. (2016, April 15). China Eliminates Subsidies for its Exporters.
Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/4f4d1240-024a-11e6-99cb-83242733f755
Ma, G. , McCauley, R. , & Lam, L. (2012). Narrowing China’s Current Account Surplus: The
Role of Saving, Investment and the Renminbi. In H. McKay , & L. Song (Eds.), Rebalancing and
Sustaining Growth in China (pp. 65–91). ANU E-Press.
Ma, G. , & Yi, W. (2010). China’s High Saving Rate: Myth and Reality. Bank for International
Settlements.
Ma, J. (2000). The Chinese Economy in the 1990s. Macmillan Press Ltd.
Mac, R. (2015, May 6). Bow To Your Billionaire Drone Overlord: Frank Wang’s Quest to Put DJI
Robots into the Sky. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/ryanmac/2015/05/06/dji-drones-
frank-wang-china-billionaire/#5c9fe0f5b48f
Maddison, A. (2010). Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1-2008 AD. Figure 8 data set.
Retrieved May 17, 2018 from https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/
Maddison, A. (2007). Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run: 960-2030 AD (2nd ed.).
OECD.
Maddison, A. , & Wu, H. X. (2007, February). China’s Economic Performance: How Fast Has
GDP Grown; How Big Is It Compared to the US?
http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/articles/China_Maddison_Wu_22_Feb_07.pdf
Manfred, E. , & Sarosh, K. (2014). The Changing Nature of Labor Unrest in China. Industrial
and Labor Relations Review, 67 (2), pp. 453–480. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24369765.
Maréchal, J.-P. (2009). Book Review: Angus Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the
Long Run, 960–2030 AD. China Perspectives, 2009 (4). pp. 43–45.
https://doi.org/10.4000/chinaperspectives.4956
Margot, Schüller . (2023). Disengagement from China: United States and European Union
Policies Compared. Working Paper of GIGA Focus Asien No. 1. https://doi.org/10.57671/gfas-
23012
Martin, J. (1911). An Attempt to Define Socialism. The American Economic Review, 1 (2), pp.
347–354. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1814940
Martina, M. (2017, August 24). Exclusive: In China, the Party’s Push for Influence Inside
Foreign Firms Stirs Fears. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-congress-
companies/exclusive-in-china-the-partys-push-for-influence-inside-foreign-firms-stirs-fears-
idUSKCN1B40JU
Masson, P. , Dobson, W. , & Lafrance, R. (2008, Summer). China’s Integration into the Global
Financial System. Bank of Canada Review.
Matthias, S. (2008). The Evolution of the Concept of Development: from Economic Growth to
Human Development (Draft Version). Research Carried Out By the Inter-University Attraction
Poles Programme Funded by Belgian Science Policy IAP VI/06.
http://iap6.cpdr.ucl.ac.be/docs/FDI-HD/WP-PAI.VI.06-FDI-HD-6.pdf
Matunhu, J. (2011). Review: A Critique of Modernisation and Dependency Theories in Africa:
Critical Assessment. African Journal of History and Culture, 3 (5), pp. 65–72.
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJHC
McFarlane, B. (1984). Political Economy of Class Struggle and Economic Growth in China,
1950–1982. In N. Maxwell , B. McFarlane , N. Maxwell , & B. McFarlane (Eds.), China’s
Changed Road to Development (pp. 21–34). Pergamon Press Ltd.
McGregor, J. (2012). No Ancient Wisdom, No Followers: The Challenges of Chinese
Authoritarian Capitalism. Prospecta Press.
McGregor, J. (2010). China’s Drive for “Indigeneous Innovation”: A Web of Industrial Policies.
US Chamber of Commerce.
McNally, C. (2012). Sino-Capitalism: China’s Reemergence and the International Political
Economy. World Politics, 64 (4), pp. 741–776. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887112000202
Mearsheimer, J. J. (2010). The Gathering Storm: China’s Challenge to US Power in Asia. The
Chinese Journal of International Politics, 3 (4), pp. 381–396. https://doi.org/10.1093/cjip/poq016
Meisner, M. (1999). Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic. The Free Press.
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China . (n.d.). Organisation:
Leadership. http://www.most.gov.cn/eng/organization/leadership/
Minns, J. (2001). Of Miracles and Models: The Rise and Decline of the Developmental State in
South Korea. Third World Quarterly, 22 (6), pp. 1025–1043.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590120099777
MOFCOM . (2013, July 15). Import and Export Statistics of High-tech Products in January–May
2013. http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/statistic/ieindicators/201310/20131000344017.shtml
MOFCOM . (2003, January 14). Law on Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprises.
http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/lawsdata/chineselaw/200301/20030100062858.html
Montinola, G. , Qian, Y. , & Weingast, B. R. (1995). Federalism, Chinese Style: The Political
Basis for Economic Success in China. World Politics, 48 (1), pp. 50–81.
https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.1995.0003
Moon, A. (2019, May 20). Exclusive: Google Suspends Some Business with Huawei After
Trump Blacklist - Source. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-huawei-tech-alphabet-
exclusive/exclusive-google-suspends-some-business-with-huawei-after-trump-blacklist-source-
idUKKCN1SP0NB
Morton, A. (2010). Reflections on Uneven Development: Mexican Revolution, Primitive
Accumulation, Passive Revolution. Latin American Perspectives, 37 (1), pp. 7–34.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X09350767
Morrison, W. M. (2012). China’s Economic Conditions. Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade
Division. Congressional Research Service.
Myers, J. (2016, October 19). How Do the World’s Biggest Companies Compare to the Biggest
Economies? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/10/corporations-
not-countries-dominate-the-list-of-the-world-s-biggest-economic-
entities/?utm_content=buffer18fea&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_cam
paign=buffer
Nabar, M. , & Yan, K. (2013, November). Sector-Level Productivity, Structural Change, and
Rebalancing in China. IMF Working Paper No. 2013/240.
https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Sector-Level-Productivity-Structural-
Change-and-Rebalancing-in-China-41073
Nafziger, E. W. (2006). Economic Development. Cambridge University Press.
Nan, R. (2016). Research on Social Security for Migrant Workers in China. Asian Social
Science, 12 (12), pp. 120–126. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v12n12p120
National Bureau of Statistics of China . (2022). China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics
Press.
Press.
Press.
Press.
National Bureau of Statistics of China . (2014). National Data [Data set]. Retrieved May 17,
2018, from National Bureau of Statistics of China Database:
http://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=C01
National Bureau Statistics of China . (1998). China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press.
National Bureau Statistics of China . (1996). China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press.
Press.
National Bureau of Statistics China . (1986). China Statistical Yearbook 1986. China Statistics
Press.
Press.
Press.
National Development and Reform Commission PRC . (2015, March 28). Vision and Actions on
Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road.
http://en.ndrc.gov.cn/newsrelease/201503/t20150330_669367.html
National People’s Congress of China . (2016). China NPC Approves 13th Five-Year Plan. Issue
1. The People’s Congresses Journal
National People’s Congress of China . (2014, August 23). Property Law of the People’s
Republic of China. The State Council, The PRC.
http://english.gov.cn/services/investment/2014/08/23/content_281474982978047.htm
Naughton, B. (2017). Is China Socialist? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31 (1), pp. 3–24.
https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.1.3
Naughton, B. (2016a). Economic Growth from High-Speed to High-Quality. In D. Shambaugh
(Ed.), The China Reader: Rising Power (pp. 104–116). Oxford University Press.
Naughton, B. (2016b). The Challenges of Economic Growth and Reform. In R. S. Ross , & J. I.
Bekkevold (Eds.), China in the era of Xi Jinping: Domestic and Foreign Policy Challenges (pp.
102–133). Georgetown University Press.
Ni, V. (2022, March 22). China’s Huawei Reports Sales Fall Amid US Sanctions but Profits Hit
Record. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/mar/28/china-huawei-
sales-us-sanctions-profits-meng-
wanzhou#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20multiple%20rounds%20of%20sanctions,almost%2050
%25%20down%20from%202020
Nicita, A. (2019, November). Trade and Trade Diversion Effects of United States Tariffs on
China. UNCTAD Research Paper No. 37. United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development. https://unctad.org/publication/trade-and-trade-diversion-effects-united-states-
tariffs-china
Nikkei Asia. (2023, February 28). U.S. CHIPS Act Fund Bars Chipmakers from China
Expansion for 10 Years. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/US-China-
tensions/U.S.-CHIPS-Act-fund-bars-chipmakers-from-China-expansion-for-10-years
OECD . (2015). OECD Economic Surveys China. http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/China-2015-
overview.pdf
OECD . (2010). Shifting Wealth: Multilingual Summaries. OECD Rights and Translation unit
(PAC).
OECD . (2001). Measurement of Aggregate and Industry-Level Productivity Growth. OECD
OECD . (1998). The Economic Impact of Counterfeiting. OECD.
OECD Statistics . (2018). Level of GDP Per Capita and Productivity.
https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?DataSetCode=PDB_LV
OECD-WTO . (2015). Trade in Value Added: China. Retrieved September 19, 2018 from
https://www.oecd.org/sti/ind/tiva/CN_2015_China.pdf
Office of Public Affairs . (2023, April 17). Two Arrested for Operating Illegal Overseas Police
Station of the Chinese Government. US Department of Justice.
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/two-arrested-operating-illegal-overseas-police-station-chinese-
government
Ohno, K. (2006). The Economic Development of Japan: The Path Travelled by Japan as a
Developing Country. GRIPS Development Forum.
Olsen, R. (2021). Jack Ma Alibaba Hit with $2.8 Billion Fine for Abusing its Dominant Market
Position. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/robertolsen/2021/04/10/jack-mas-alibaba-hit-
with-28-billion-fine-for-abusing-its-dominant-market-position/?sh=412bdb6b37d1
Olson, P. (2016, April 22). Apple Feels a Chill in China as it Shuts Down iTunes Movies and
iBooks. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2016/04/22/apple-feels-a-chill-in-
china-as-it-shuts-down-itunes-movies-and-ibooks/#29cb68887426
O'Neill, J. , & Stupnytska, A. (2009). The Long Term Outlook for the BRICs and N-11 Post-
Crisis. Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper No. 192, pp. 1–28.
https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/archive/long-term-
outlook.html#:~:text=The%20BRIC%20and%20N%2D11,as%20the%20G7%20by%202032.
Onis, Z. (1991, October). Review: The Logic of Developmental State. Comparative Politics, 24
(1), pp. 109–126. https://doi.org/10.2307/422204
Orr, G. (2015, May 27). China’s New Initiative to Promote Homegrown Technology. McKinsey
China. http://mckinseychina.com/chinas-new-initiative-to-promote-homegrown-technology/
Osburg, J. (2013). Global Capitalisms in Asia: Beyond State and Market. The Journal of Asian
Studies, 72 (4), pp. 813–829. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911813001629
Ozyurt, S. (2007). Total Factor Productivity Growth in Chinese Industry. LAMETA.
Pagliery, J. (2015, April 10). Nuclear Worries Stop Intel from Selling Chips to Chinese
Supercomputers. CNN News. http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/10/technology/security/intel-
blocked-nuclear/
Palma, G. (1981). Dependency and Development: A Critical Overview. In D. Seers (Ed.),
Dependency Theory: A Critical Reassessment (pp. 20–78). Frances Pinter (Publishers) Ltd.
Pannekoek, A. (1936). State Capitalism and Dictatorship. Marxist Internet Archive.
https://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/1936/dictatorship.htm
Panitch, L. , & Gindin, S. (2013). The Integration of China into Global Capitalism. International
Critical Thought, 3 (2), pp. 146–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/21598282.2013.787248
Parker, C. (2017, January 20). The End of Globalisation? Davos Disagrees. World Economic
Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/the-end-of-globalization-davos-disagrees/
Peck, J. , & Zhang, J. (2013, May). A Variety of Capitalism … with Chinese Characteristics?
Journal of Economic Geography, 13 (3), pp. 357–396. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbs058
Peking Review. (1977). Mechanisation: Fundamental Way Out for Agriculture. Peking Review,
20 (9), pp. 1–32.
Perez, B. (2017, January 25). China’s Vivo, Xiaomi, Lenovo and Oppo Dominate Fast-Growing
Smartphone Market in India. South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/tech/china-
tech/article/2065467/chinas-vivo-xiaomi-lenovo-and-oppo-dominate-fast-growing-smartphone
Pempel, T. (1999). The Developmental Regime in a Changing World Economy. In M. Woo-
Cumings (Ed.), The Developmental State (pp. 137–181). Cornell University Press.
People’s Daily. (2007, September 30). Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.
http://en.people.cn/90002/92169/92211/6275043.html
Permanent Mission of the PRC to the UN . (2014, January 30). China Science and Technology
Newsletter (No. 20–21). http://www.china-
un.org/eng/chinaandun/economicdevelopment/kj/t1124786.htm
Pettis, M. (2020, July). China’s Economy Needs Institutional Reform rather than Additional
Capital Deepening. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Carnegie Endowment.
https://carnegieendowment.org/chinafinancialmarkets/82362
Phalkey, J. , & Wang, Z. (2016). Planning for Science and Technology in China and India. The
British Journal for the History of Science, 1 , pp. 83–113. https://doi.org/10.1017/bjt.2016.9
Philip Huang, C. (2012). Profit- Making State Firms and China’s Development Experience:
“State Capitalism” or “Socialist Market Economy”? Modern China, 38 (6), pp. 591–629.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700412455839
Phillips, N. (2014). Globalization and Development. In J. Ravenhill (Ed.), Global Political
Economy (pp. 344–371). Oxford University Press.
Phillips, T. (2016, April 28). China Passes Law Imposing Security Controls on Foreign NGOs.
The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/28/china-passes-law-imposing-
security-controls-on-foreign-ngos
Pomfret, J. (1998, August 1). Ex-Beijing Party Chief Convicted. The Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/08/01/ex-beijing-party-chief-
convicted/5f1ea877-1a90-4556-a53e-8da0b5b9afe7/?utm_term=.e2ab1a18165e
Prebisch, R. (1950). The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems.
United Nations Department of Economic Affairs.
Přibyla, B. (2011, May 22). Legitimising Taiwanese Regime: Kuomintang Quest for Legitimacy
and National Identity after 1949 (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved October 10, 2015 from
http://is.muni.cz/th/219739/fss_m/Thesis-final.pdf
PwC . (2017). Summary Report: The World in 2050. PwC.
PwC . (2016, February). China’s New Silk Route: The Long and Winding Route.
https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/growth-markets-center/assets/pdf/china-new-silk-route.pdf
Qi, H. (2014). The Labor Share Question in China. Monthly Review.
https://monthlyreview.org/2014/01/01/labor-share-question-china/
Qu, Y. , Cai, F. , & Zhang, X. (2012). Has the “Flying Geese” Phenomenon in Industrial
Transformation Occurred in China? In H. McKay , & L. Song (Eds.), Rebalancing and
Sustaining Growth in China (pp. 93–110). ANU E Press and Social Sciences Academic Press
(China).
Rajah, R. , & Leng, A. (2022, March 14). Revising Down the Rise of China. Lowy Institute
Analysis. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/revising-down-rise-china
Rapley, J. (2007). Understanding Development: Theory and Practice in the Third World (3rd
ed.). Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Rapley, J. (1997). Understanding Development: Theory and Practice in the Third World. UCL
Press.
Ravallion, M. , & Chen, S. (2007). China’s (Uneven) Progress against Poverty. Journal of
Development Economics, 82 (1), pp. 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003
Reid, B. (2016). China’s “South-South” Trade: Unequal Exchange and Uneven and Combined
Development. In R. Desai (Ed.), Analytical Gains of Geopolitical Economy (pp. 161–189).
Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Reuters. (2023, January 17). EU Must Seek to De-Risk Rather than Decouple from China, von
der Leyen Says. https://www.reuters.com/world/eu-must-seek-de-risk-rather-than-decouple-
china-von-der-leyen-2023-01-17/
Rodrik, D. (1995). Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich.
Economic Policy, 10 (20), pp. 53–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/1344538
Rogoff, K. S. , & Yang, Y. (2020, August). Peak China Housing. National Bureau of Economic
Research Working Paper 27697. http://www.nber.org/papers/w27697
Rostow, W. (2003). Text of W.W. Rostow’s Seoul National University Speech. In W. Rostow
(Ed.), Concept and Controversy: Sixty Years of Taking Ideas to Market (pp. 369–376).
University of Texas Press.
Rostow, W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge
University Press.
Rostow, W. (1959). The Stages of Economic Growth. Economic History Review, 12 (1), pp.
1–16. https://doi.org/10.2307/2591077
Rostow, W. (1956). The Take-Off into Self-Sustained Growth. The Economic Journal, 66 (261),
pp. 25–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/2227401
Rosenberg, J. (2013). The “philosophical premises” of Uneven and Combined Development.
Review of International Studies, 39 (3), pp. 569–597.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210512000381
Rosenberg, J. (2010). Basic Problems in the Theory of Uneven and Combined Development.
Part II: Unevenness and Political Multiplicity. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 23 (1),
pp. 165–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557570903524270
Rosenberg, J. (2006). Why There Is No Historical International Sociology? European Journal of
International Relations, 12 (3), pp. 307–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/135406610606734
Sable, D. P. (2017). Causuality Between Finance and Growth: With Special Reference to Indian
Economy. Educreation Publishing.
Sachs, J. (2004, June). Stages of Economic Development (Transcript). Speech at the Chinese
Academy of Arts and Sciences, Beijing, China.
http://www.earth.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/about/director/documents/china_speech061904.pdf
Sakoh, K. (1986). Privatising State-owned Enterprises: A Japanese Case Study. The Heritage
Foundation.
Santander Bank . (2016, November). Santander Trade Portal. Santander Bank.
https://en.portal.santandertrade.com/establish-overseas/china/foreign-investment
Schmidt, E. , Work, R. , Catz, S. Horvitz , E., Chien, S. , Jassy, A. , Clyburn, M. , Louie, G. ,
Darby, C. , Mark, W. , Ford, K. , Matheny, J. , Griffiths, J. , McFarland, K. , & Moore, A. (2021,
March). Final Report by National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence.
https://reports.nscai.gov/final-report/
Seers, D. (1972). What Are We Trying to Measure? Journal of Development Studies, 8 (3), pp.
21–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220387208421410
Selwyn, B. (2011). Trotsky, Gerschenkron and the Political Economy of Late Capitalist
Development. Economy and Society, 40 (3), pp. 421–450.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2011.574425
Sen, A. (1988). The Concept of Development. In H. Chenery , & T. N. Srinivasan (Eds),
Handbook of Development Economics, Volume I. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
Seto, K. C. (2013, November). What Should We Understand about Urbanisation in China? Yale
Insights. https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/what-should-we-understand-about-urbanization-
in-china
Shivakumar, S. , & Wessner, C. (2022, June 8). Semiconductors and National Defense: What
Are the Stakes? Center for Strategic and International Studies.
https://www.csis.org/analysis/semiconductors-and-national-defense-what-are-stakes
Sidel, M. (2022, June 23). Rebooting China’s Charity Law. USALI Perspectives, Volume 2, No.
25. https://usali.org/usali-perspectives-blog/rebooting-chinas-charity-law.
Sito, P. , & Liu, P. (2018, November 26). China Property: How the World’s Biggest Housing
Market Emerged. South China Morning Post.
https://www.scmp.com/business/article/2174886/american-dream-home-ownership-quickly-
swept-through-china-was-it-too-much
So, A. Y. (1990). Social Change and Development. SAGE Publications, Inc.
Solivet, L. M. (2005). W.W. Rostow and His Contribution to Development Studies: A Note.
Journal of Development Studies, 41 (4), pp. 719–724.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380500092903
Springut, M. , Schlaikjer, S. , & Chen, S. (2011). China’s Program for Science and Technology
Modernisation: Implications for American Competitiveness. CENTRA Technology, Inc.
Stanton, E. A. (2007, February). The Human Development Index: A History. Working Paper
Series Number 127. Political Economy Research Institute.
https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1101&context=peri_workingpapers
Steinbock . (2010). China’s Next Stage of Growth: Reassessing U.S. Policy toward China.
American Foreign Policy Interests, 32 (6), pp. 347–362.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10803920.2010.535761
Sterling, T. (2023, June 30). Dutch Curb Chip Equipment Exports, Drawing Chinese Ire.
Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/amid-us-pressure-dutch-announce-new-chip-
equipment-export-rules-2023-06-30/
Stuart, E. (2015, August 19). China has Almost Wiped Out Urban Poverty. Now it Must Tackle
Inequality. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-
blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals.
Sun, H. (2019). U.S.-China Tech War: Impacts and Prospects. China Quarterly of International
Strategic Studies, 5 (2), pp. 197–212. https://doi.org/10.1142/S237774001950012X
Tan, D. W. , & Law, E. (2023, June 20). “Disastrous” for US to Decouple from China, Blinken
Says After Meeting Xi during Beijing Trip to Salvage Ties. The Straits Times.
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/blinken-meets-xi-during-china-trip-to-salvage-ties
Tao, R. , & Qin, P. (2007). How has Rural Tax Reform Affected Farmers and Local Governance
in China? China & World Economy, 15 (3), pp. 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-
124X.2007.00066.x
Tausch, A. (2010). Globalisation and Development: The Relevance of Classical “dependency”
Theory for the World Today. International Social Science Journal, 61 (202), pp. 467–488.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2451.2011.01786.x
Teng, W. (1982). Socialist Modernisation and the Pattern of Foreign Trade. ( A. Watson ,
Trans.). In X. Dixin , L. Wensen , D. Fureng , X. Qiyuan , L. Jianxiang , Z. Qixian , & T. Weizao
(Eds.), China’s Search for Economic Growth: The Chinese Economy Since 1949 (pp. 167–192).
New World Press.
Teschke, B. , & Lacher, H. (2010). The Changing “logics” of Capitalist Competition. In A.
Anievas (Ed.), Marxism and World Politics: Contesting Global Capitalism (pp. 25–41).
Routledge.
Tian, J. (2016, July). “One Belt and One Road”: Connecting China and the World. Mc Kinsey.
http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/capital-projects-and-infrastructure/our-insights/one-belt-
and-one-road-connecting-china-and-the-world
The Economist. (2022, September 15). China’s Property Crisis Hasn’t Gone Away: It Is Getting
Worse. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2022/09/15/chinas-property-crisis-hasnt-gone-
away-it-is-getting-worse
The Economist. (2018, October 4). Why Protests Are so Common in China.
https://www.economist.com/china/2018/10/04/why-protests-are-so-common-in-china
The Economist. (2017, October 14). The Internationalisation of China’s Currency Has Stalled.
https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21730200-and-forthcoming-
communist-party-congress-unlikely-kick-start-it
The Economist. (2015, April 11). Commercial Drones - Up: A Chinese Firm Has Taken the Lead
in a Promising Market. https://www.economist.com/business/2015/04/11/up
The Economist. (2007, March 15). Rural Unrest in China.
http://www.economist.com/node/8864384
The Guardian. (2023, January 7). Jack Ma to Give Up Control of China’s Ant Group, Firm Says.
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/jan/07/jack-ma-to-give-up-control-of-chinas-ant-
group-firm-says
The Guardian. (2015, December 12). China to Ease Restrictions on Living in Cities for Millions.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/12/china-to-give-more-people-access-to-basic-
public-services-in-urban-areas
The Star. (2017, December 10). China’s Civil Service Exam: Can you Answer These
Questions? https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2017/12/10/chinas-civil-service-exam-
can-you-answer-these-questions/
The State Council PRC . (2023). China’s Spending on R&D Hits 3 trln yuan in 2022.
https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/statistics/202301/23/content_WS63ce3db8c6d0a757729e5f
e5.html
The State Council PRC . (2016a). China to Boost Scientific and Technological Innovation.
http://english.gov.cn/policies/latest_releases/2016/08/08/content_281475412096102.htm
The State Council PRC . (2016b). Premier’s Campaign for Upgrading ‘Made in China’.
http://english.gov.cn/premier/news/2016/08/13/content_281475416027923.htm
The White House . (2022, August 9). Fact Sheet: CHIPS and Science Act will Lower Costs,
Create Jobs, Strengthen Supply Chains, and Counter China. [Press Release].
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-
and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/
Toh, M. (2021, August 10). SoftBank’s CEO Went Big on China. Now he’s Pulling Back. CNN
Business. https://edition.cnn.com/2021/08/10/investing/softbank-vision-fund-china-tech-intl-
hnk/index.html
Tseng, W. , & Zebregs, H. (2002, February). Foreign Direct Investment in China: Some Lessons
for other Countries. IMF Policy Discussion Paper.
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pdp/2002/pdp03.pdf
Tsukamoto, T. (2012). Neoliberalisation of the Developmental State: Tokyo’s Bottom-up Politics
and State Rescaling in Japan. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 36 (1),
pp. 71–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01057.x
Tucker, I. (2010). Macroeconomics for Today (6th ed.). South-Western Cengage Learning.
Turner, G. , Tan, N. , & Sadeghian, D. (2012, September). The Chinese Banking System.
Reserve Bank of Australia.
Tyers, R. (2012). Looking Inward for Growth. In H. McKay , & L. Song (Eds.), Rebalancing and
Sustaining Growth in China (pp. 19–44). ANU E Press and Social Sciences Academic Press.
UN (2015). Income Convergence or Persistent Inequalities among Countries? Development
Issues No. 5. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_dev_issues/dsp_policy_05.pdf
UNCTAD . (2017). World Investment Report 2017: Investment and the Digital Economy. United
Nations. http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/wir2017_en.pdf
UNCTAD . (2015). World Investment Report 2015: Reforming International Investment
Governance. UNCTAD.
UNCTAD . (2013). Global Value Chains and Development: Investment and Value Added Trade
in the Global Economy. UNCTAD.
UNCTAD . (2010). Foreign Direct Investment, the Transfer and Diffusion of Technology, and
Sustainable Development. UNCTAD.
UNDP . (2010). The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development. Human
Development Report 2010. Palgrave Macmillan
UNDP . (1996). Economic Growth and Human Development. Human Development Report
1996. Oxford University Press.
UNDP China . (2015). Discussion Paper: China, the Millennium Development Goals, and the
Post-2015 Development Agenda.
http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH_discussionpaper-
MDGPost2015.pdf.
UNICEF . (2013, December 24). China Statistics.
https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/china_statistics.html
United States Trade Representative . (2016a). Chinese Export Subsidies Under the
“Demonstration Bases-Common Service Platform” Program Terminated Thanks to U.S.-China
Agreement. https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-
releases/2016/april/chinese-export-subsidies-under
United States Trade Representative . (2016b). Memorandum of Understanding Between the
People’s Republic of China and the United States of America Related to the Dispute China –
Measures Related to Demonstration Bases and Common Service Platforms Programs (DS489).
United States Trade Representative. https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/US-China-MOU-Fin.pdf
US - China Economic and Security Review Commission . (2017). 2017 Report to the Congress
of the U.S. - China Economic and Security Review Commission. https://www.uscc.gov/annual-
report/2017-annual-report-congress
US Department of State . (2023a). 2023 Investment Climate Statements: China. US Department
of State. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-investment-climate-statements/china/
US Department of State . (2023b, February 13). Marking One Year since the Release of the
Administration’s Indo-Pacific Strategy. [Press Release] https://www.state.gov/marking-one-year-
since-the-release-of-the-administrations-indo-pacific-strategy/
US Department of State . (2014). Department of State: 2014 Investment Climate Statement:
China. US Department of State.
Vanhonacker, W. R. (1997, March–April). Entering China: An Unconventional Approach.
Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/1997/03/entering-china-an-unconventional-approach
Vermeiren, M. , & Dierckx, S. (2012). Challenging Global Neoliberalism? The Global Political
Economy of China’s Capital Controls. Third World Quarterly, 33 (9), pp. 1647–1668.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2012.720841
Wade, R. (1990). Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East
Asian Industrialisation. Princeton University Press.
Walsh, L. (2009, October). China: A State of Transition. Socialism Today, (132).
Walsh, L. (2008, October). The Character of the Chinese State. Socialism Today, (122).
Walter, C. , & Howie, F. (2011). Red Capitalism: The Fragile Financial Foundation of China’s
Extraordinary Rise. John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd.
Wan, M. (2008). The Political Economy of East Asia. CQ Press.
Wang, O. (2022, December 16). US Adds 36 Chinese Companies to Export Blacklist, Including
Country’s Top Flash Memory Chip Maker. South China Morning Post.
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/3203494/us-adds-36-chinese-companies-export-
blacklist-including-countrys-top-flash-memory-chip-maker
Wang, O. (2018, August 13). Why China Cannot Rely on Consumers to Spend their Way Out of
the Trade War. South Morning China Post.
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2159225/why-china-cannot-rely-consumers-
spend-their-way-out-trade-war
Wang, J. (2017, September 25). China Should Reduce Restrictions on Foreign Capital, Senior
Economists Say. China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-
09/25/content_32448925.htm
Wang, W. (2009). Reform and Opening up Are a Powerful Motive Force for Developing
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. Social Sciences in China, 30 (1), pp. 5–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02529200802703888
Wang, Z. (2007, April 2). Illiteracy Returns to Haunt Country. China Daily.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/02/content_841161.htm
Wedeman, A. (2019). Unrest and Regime Survival. In T. Wright (Ed.), Handbook of Protest and
Resistance in China (pp. 12–26). Elward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Wedeman, A. (2012, March 26). Eight Questions: Andrew Wedeman, China’s Corruption
Paradox. Wall Street Journal. https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/03/26/eight-question-
andrew-wedeman-chinas-corruption-paradox/
Wei, H. (2016). Measuring the Technological Structure of Chinese Imports. Review of
Development Economics, 20 (1), pp. 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12203
Wei, K. , Yao, S. , & Liu, A. (2007). Foreign Direct Investment and Regional Inequality in China.
Research Paper Series: China and the World Economy by THE University of Nottingham.
Research Paper 2007/32. http://beta.nottingham.ac.uk/gep/documents/papers/2007/07-32.pdf
Wei, S.-J. (1995). Attracting Foreign Direct Investment: Has China reached its potential? China
Economic Review, 6 (2), pp. 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/1043-951X(95)90003-9
Wei, S.-J. (1996). Foreign Direct Investment in China: Sources and Consequences. In T. Ito , &
A. O. Krueger (Eds.), Financial Deregulation and Integration in East Asia (pp. 77–105). National
Bureau of Economic Research.
Wei, S.-J. , Xie, Z. , & Zhang, X. (2016, November). From “Made in China” to “Innovated in
China”: Necessity, Prospect, and Challenges. NBER Working Paper 22854.
http://www.nber.org/papers/w22854.pdf
Weiss, L. (2000). Developmental States in Transition: Adapting, Dismantling, Innovating, not
“normalizing”. The Pacific Review, 13 (1), pp. 21–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/095127400363631
Willis, K. (2005). Theories and Practices of Development. Routledge.
Wilson, D. , & Purushothaman, R. (2003). Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050. Goldman
Sachs Global Economics Paper No. 99.
https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/archive/archive-pdfs/brics-dream.pdf
Wilson, I. (1989). Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: China and the Theory of the Initial
Stage of Socialism. Politics, 24 (1), pp. 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00323268908402079
WIPO . (2017). Global Innovation Index 2017: Switzerland, Sweden, Netherlands, USA, UK Top
Annual Ranking. http://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2017/article_0006.html
WIPO . (2015). World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic
Growth. WIPO.
Woetzel, J. , Chen, Y. , Manyika, J. , Roth, E. , Seong, J. , & Lee, J. (2015). The China Effect on
Global Innovation. McKinsey Global Institute.
Wong, T. , & Tsoi, G. (2023, February 18). The Protesters Who’ve Gone Missing as China
Deepens Crackdown. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-64592333
Woollacott, E. (2016, February 19). China Bans Foreign Firms From Publishing Directly Online.
Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/emmawoollacott/2016/02/19/china-bans-foreign-firms-
from-publishing-directly-online/#535c038c43ca
World Bank . (2023a). Urban Population (% of Total Population) Retrieved from November 29,
2023 , from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2023b). GNI, PPP (Current International $) - China, United States Retrieved from
November 28, 2023 , from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US
World Bank . (2023c). Foreign Direct Investment, Net Outflows (% of GDP) - China. Retrieved
from November 25, 2023 , from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BM.KLT.DINV.WD.GD.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2023d). GDP Per Capita (Current US$) - China, United States. Retrieved from
November 20, 2023 , from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=CN-US
World Bank . (2018a). Trade (% of GDP). Retrieved from September 20, 2018 World Bank
Database: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.TRD.GNFS.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2018b). GDP Per Capita, PPP (Current International $). Retrieved July 3, 2018
from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US
World Bank . (2018c). GDP Per Capita (Current US$). Retrieved July 3, 2018 from World Bank
Database: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
World Bank . (2018d, April 19). China Overview. Retrieved August 19, 2018 from The World
Bank Web site: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview#1
World Bank . (2017a). Government Expenditure on Education, Total (% of GDP). Retrieved
September 19, 2018 from World Bank Database:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=IN-CN
World Bank . (2016a). Foreign Direct Investment, Net Inflows (BoP, Current US$). Retrieved
June 2, 2018 from World Bank Database:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016b). GDP Growth (Annual %). Retrieved June 2, 2018 from World Bank
Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CN)
World Bank . (2016c). Arable Land (% of Land Area). Retrieved June 2, 2018 from World Bank
Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016d). GDP Per Capita (Current US$). Retrieved August 2, 2017 from World
Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=CN-ZG-US
World Bank . (2016e). GNI, PPP (Current International $). Retrieved June 2, 2018 from World
Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US-
1W
World Bank . (2016f). China (Country Indicators). Retrieved May 1, 2018 from Poverty and
Equity Data Portal: http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/CHN.
World Bank . (2016g). Tax Revenue (% of GDP). Retrieved May 1, 2018 from World Bank
Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GC.TAX.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016h). Current Account Balance (BoP, Current US$). Retrieved May 1, 2018
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BN.CAB.XOKA.CD?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016i). Industry, Value Added (% of GDP). Retrieved May 1, 2018 from World
Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.TOTL.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016j). Services, etc., Value Added (% of GDP). Retrieved May 1, 2018 from
World Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.SRV.TETC.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016k). High-Technology Exports (% of Manufactured Exports). Retrieved May 1,
2018 from World Bank Database:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016l). GDP (Current US$). Retrieved July 2, 2018 from World Bank Database:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN-1W-DE-JP-IN
World Bank . (2016n). Access to Electricity (% of Population). Retrieved from World Bank
Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016o). Rural Population (% of Total Population). Retrieved May 3, 2018 from
World Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS
World Bank . (2016p). Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added (% of GDP). Retrieved
May 3, 2017 from World Bank Database:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016r). GDP Per Capita Growth (Annual %). Retrieved May 3, 2018 from World
Bank Database: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG?locations=CN
World Bank . (2016s). Total Reserves (Includes Gold, Current US$). Retrieved May 3, 2018
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FI.RES.TOTL.CD?locations=CN-US
Wright, T. (2018). Popular Protest in China. Polity Press.
WTO . (2016a). Trade Policy Review of China. Report by the Secretariat.
WTO . (2016b). DS489: China—Measures Related to Demonstration Bases and Common
Service Platforms Programmes.
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds489_e.htm
WTO . (2011, March 8). DS419: China — Measures Concerning Wind Power Equipment.
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds419_e.htm#
WTO . (n.d.). WTO Online Documents.
https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/FE_Search/FE_S_S006.aspx?Query=%40Symbol%3d+g%2f
scm%2fn%2f*+and++%40Symbol%3d+chn&Language=ENGLISH&Context=FomerScriptedSea
rch&languageUIChanged=true
WTO Secretariat . (2016, June 15). Trade Policy Review: China.
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/s342_e.pdf
Wu, G. (2016, September 10). Ending poverty in China: What Explains Great Poverty Reduction
and a Simultaneous Increase in Inequality in Rural Areas? World Bank.
http://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/ending-poverty-in-china-what-explains-great-poverty-
reduction-and-a-simultaneous-increase-in-inequality-in-rural-areas
Wu, Y. (2004). Rethinking the Taiwanese Developmental State. The China Quarterly, 177 , pp.
91–114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741004000062
Xi, J. (2017, October 18). Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous
Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese
Characteristics for a New Era. Xinhuanet. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/special/2021-
07/01/c_1310038244.htm
Xi, J. (2017, November 3). Full Text of Xi Jinping’s Report at 19th CPC National Congress:
Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in all Respects and
Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.
Xinhuanet.
http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/download/Xi_Jinping’s_report_at_19th_CPC_National_Congr
ess.pdf
Xia, C. (2016). Wages, Productivity and Labour Share in China. ILO Regional Office for Asia
and the Pacific.
Xing, C. , & Xu, J. (2015, March). Regional Variation of the Minimum Wages in China. IZA
Discussion Paper No. 8931 (Institute for the Study of Labour).
https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/8931/regional-variation-of-the-minimum-wages-in-china
Xing, Y. (2014, August). Measuring Value Added in the People’s Republic of China’s Exports: A
Direct Approach. Asian Development Bank Institute Working Paper Series No. 493.
Xing, Y. (2012). The People’s Republic of China’s High-Tech Exports: Myth and Reality. Asian
Development Bank Institute Working Paper Series No. 357.
Xinhua. (2023, January 9). Xi Stresses Need to Promote Full, Rigorous Party Self-governance.
https://english.news.cn/20230109/1a48ef121feb47ad8f3b015ea205350b/c.html
Xinhua. (2021, May 29). Xi Focus: Xi Stresses Sci-tech Self-strengthening at Higher Levels.
http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-05/29/c_139976311.htm
Xinhua. (2017a, October 17). CPC Q&A: What Are China’s Two Centennial Goals and Why do
they Matter? http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-10/17/c_136686770.htm
Xinhua . (2017b, April 12). China to Unveil Central SOE Mixed-ownership Reform Plans.
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-04/12/c_136202820.htm
Xinhua . (2017c, March 23). China Focus: Beijing Pioneers Medical Reforms to Strengthen
Health Care. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-03/23/c_136152278.htm
Xinhua . (2016a, November 14). China’s TaihuLight Takes World’s Fastest Supercomputer
Crown Again. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-11/14/c_135828906.htm
Xinhua . (2016b, June 1). President Xi Says China Faces Major Science, Technology
“bottleneck”. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-06/01/c_135402671.htm
Xinhua . (2016c, May 15). Xinhua Insight: West China Seeks Fortune on Modern Silk Road.
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-05/15/c_135360904.htm
Xinhua . (2015a, June 11). Zhou Yongkang Sentenced to Life in Prison, No Limits for Anti-
corruption. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2015-06/11/c_134318642.htm
Xinhua . (2015b, April 21). Commentary: Silk Road Fund’s 1st Investment Makes China’s
Words into Practice. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-04/21/c_134170737.htm
Xue, M. (1981). China’s Socialist Economy. Foreign Language Press.
Yang, D. (1990). Patterns of China’s Regional Development Strategy. The China Quarterly, 122
, pp. 230–257. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741000008778
Yao, R. , & Rosettani, E. (2015, May 26). A Complete Guide to 2015 Minimum Wage Levels
Across China. China Briefing. http://www.china-briefing.com/news/2015/05/26/complete-guide-
2015-minimum-wage-levels-across-china.html
Yao, K. , & Tham, E. (2016, December 30). China to Relax Curbs on Foreign Investment in
Financial Sector. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-foreigninvestment-
refor-idUSKBN14J087
Yeh, S. H. (1989). Understanding Development: Modernisation and Cultural Values in Asia and
the Pacific Region. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000838/083839eo.pdf
Yeung, H. (2017). Rethinking the East Asian Developmental State in its Historical Context:
Finance, Geopolitics and Bureaucracy. Area Development and Policy, 2 (1), pp. 1–23.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2016.1264868
Yiu, E. (2016, September 30). China’s Yuan Set to Become the Only IMF Reserve Currency
that isn’t Fully Convertible. South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/business/investor-
relations/article/2024014/chinas-yuan-set-become-only-imf-reserve-currency-isnt
Yu, M. (2022). China’s Miracle in Foreign Trade. Springer Nature.
Yu, M. , & Tian, W. (2012). China’s Processing Trade: A Firm-level Analysis. In H. McKay , & L.
Song (Eds.), Rebalancing and Sustaining Growth in China (pp. 111–148). ANU E-Press and
Social Sciences Academic Press (China).
Yu, V. (2023, May 21). “We in the west were blinded”: China Crackdown on Business has
Maoist Roots. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/21/china-expert-
chris-marquis-tech-crackdown-xi-maoism
Zhan, V. (2009). Decentralising China: Analysis of Central Strategies in China’s Fiscal Reforms.
Journal of Contemporary China, 18 (60), pp. 445–462.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10670560902770628
Zhang, J. , & Shi, S. (2020, November–December). The US Unanticipated Costs of Decoupling
from China. China & World Economy, 28 (6), pp. 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12359
Zhang, L. (2023, July 15). Explainer: A Timeline of China’s 32-Month Big Tech Crackdown that
Killed the World’s Largest IPO and Wiped Out Trillions in Value. South China Morning Post.
https://www.scmp.com/tech/big-tech/article/3227753/timeline-chinas-32-month-big-tech-
crackdown-killed-worlds-largest-ipo-and-wiped-out-trillions-value
Zhang, M. (2018, January 3). New Tax Break Makes It More Attractive for Chinese Companies
to Repatriate Overseas Profits. South China Morning Post.
http://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/2126547/new-tax-breaks-tempt-foreign-
investors-keep-their-profits-china
Zhang, Z. (2011). Energy and Environmental Policy in China: Towards a Low-Carbon Economy.
Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Zhao, S. (2017). Wither the China Model: Revisiting the Debate. Journal of Contemporary
China, 26 (103), pp. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2016.1206277
Zhao, S. (2010). The China Model: Can It Replace the Western Model of Modernization. Journal
of Contemporary China, 19 (65), pp. 419–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670561003666061
Zhao, Z. , & Yang, C. (2012). An Empirical Study of China’s High-Tech Industry Innovation
Capability in Transition. In H. Mckay , & L. Song (Eds.), Rebalancing and Sustaining Growth in
China (pp. 289–308). ANU E Press and Social Science Academic Press (China).
Zheng, Y. (2009). Power to Dominate, Not To Change: How China’s Central - Local Relations
Constrain Its Reform. EAI Working Paper No. 153. https://research.nus.edu.sg/eai/wp-
content/uploads/sites/2/2017/11/EWP153.pdf
Zhou, Q. (2023, November 7). A Guide to Minimum Wages in China in 2023 (Last Updated on
November 7, 2023). China Briefing. https://www.china-briefing.com/news/minimum-wages-
china/#:~:text=Minimum%20wages%20in%20China%20continue,%2FUS%243.7%20per%20ho
ur)
Zhu, A. , & Kotz, D. M. (2011). The Dependence of China’s Economic Growth on Exports and
Investment. Review of Radical Political Economics, 43 (1), pp. 9–32.
https://doi.org/10.1177/048661341038395
Zhu, R. (2001, March 5). Report on the Outline of the Tenth Five-Year Plan for National
Economic and Social Development (2001). The State Council of the People’s Republic of
China. http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2005-07/29/content_18334.htm
Zhuang, P. (2017, September 6). Five Things to Know about China’s Huge Anti-Poverty Drive.
South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-
politics/article/2109848/five-things-know-about-chinas-huge-anti-poverty-drive
Zhong, N. (2023, October 31). China’s Customs Unveils New Measures to Boost Processing
Trade. Ningbo China Daily. http://ningbo.chinadaily.com.cn/2023-10/31/c_935086.htm

China's Economic Development

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

China's Economic Development

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

China's Economic Development

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

China’s Economic Development

Through a rigorous examination of “China’s rise”, Lee addresses an important

3 Regional Cooperation for Peace and Development

4 Child and Youth Well‑being in China

5 Modern Slavery and Bonded Labour in South Asia

6 Social Development and the Sustainable Development Goals

7 Community Welfare Organisations in Rural Myanmar

8 The 2006 Crisis in East Timor

9 Rethinking World Bank Influence

10 China’s Economic Development

For a full list of titles, please visit https://www.routledge.com/Routledge‑Research‑on‑Asian‑

Lee Pei May

List of figures and tables xi

1 Key Debates on China’s Development 1

3 China’s Integration into the Global Economy: Progress

3.2.1 Foreign Economic Relations 45

4 Is Development Catch‑Up Possible? 67

5 Understanding Chinese Political Economy 107

6 China’s Variety of Capitalism 128

7 Potential Challenges to China’s Catch‑Up to the West 154

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my former supervisors, Professor

ACFTU All‑China Federation of Trade Unions

NDRC National Development and Reform Commission

1.1 Historical Background of China

Foreign trade has surged to an unprecedented scale, accounting for

1.2 Unsettled Debates of China’s Development

Another central debate that has stemmed from various discussions of

existing development literature, most notably on Chinese development. Based

1.3 Concept of Development

1.4 Scientific Contributions

world economy. This serves as a reminder for peripheral countries to take a

1.5 Research Methodology

1.5.1 Document Analysis

This book primarily relies on primary sources (government documents, sta­

1.6 The Structure of the Book

You might also like

List of figures and tables xi

1 Key Debates on China’s Development 1

4 Is Development Catch‑Up Possible? 67

5 Understanding Chinese Political Economy 107

6 China’s Variety of Capitalism 128

7 Potential Challenges to China’s Catch‑Up to the West 154

This book primarily relies on primary sources (government documents, sta