scholarship and scientific speculation.

Origins and construction

Titanic
After striking an iceberg, the British passenger liner Titanic sank on April 14–15, 1912.(more)

What if the Titanic hadn't sunk?

Learn more about what could have happened if the Titanic hadn't sunk.(more)
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J. Bruce Ismay

William James Pirrie, Viscount Pirrie

William James Pirrie, Viscount Pirrie, with a photo album given to him by workers at Harland and Wolff,
1922.(more)
In the early 1900s the transatlantic passenger trade was highly profitable and
competitive, with ship lines vying to transport wealthy travelers and immigrants. Two of
the chief lines were White Star and Cunard. By the summer of 1907, Cunard
seemed poised to increase its share of the market with the debut of two new ships,
the Lusitania and the Mauretania, which were scheduled to enter service later that year.
The two passenger liners were garnering much attention for their expected speed; both
would later set speed records crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Looking to answer his rival,
White Star chairman J. Bruce Ismay reportedly met with William Pirrie, who controlled
the Belfast shipbuilding firm Harland and Wolff, which constructed most of White Star’s
vessels. The two men devised a plan to build a class of large liners that would be known
for their comfort instead of their speed. It was eventually decided that three vessels
would be constructed: the Olympic, the Titanic, and the Britannic.

construction of the ships Olympic and Titanic

Construction of the Olympic (right) and the Titanic in the shipyard of Harland and Wolff, Belfast, Northern
Ireland.(more)

Titanic: propellers
The Titanic's propellers in Harland and Wolff's Belfast shipyard shortly before the ship's launch, 1911.(more)
Thomas Andrews
On March 31, 1909, some three months after work began on the Olympic, the keel was
laid for the Titanic. The two ships were built side by side in a specially constructed
gantry that could accommodate their unprecedented size. The sister ships were largely
designed by Thomas Andrews of Harland and Wolff. In addition to ornate decorations,
the Titanic featured an immense first-class dining saloon, four elevators, and a
swimming pool. Its second-class accommodations were comparable to first-class
features on other ships, and its third-class offerings, although modest, were still noted
for their relative comfort.

Britannica Quiz

Understanding the Titanic Disaster

As to safety elements, the Titanic had 16 compartments that included doors which could
be closed from the bridge, so that water could be contained in the event the hull
was breached. Although they were presumed to be watertight, the bulkheads were not
capped at the top. The ship’s builders claimed that four of the compartments could be
flooded without endangering the liner’s buoyancy. The system led many to claim that
the Titanic was unsinkable.

Titanic's Grand Staircase

The first-class stairway, known as the Grand Staircase, on the Titanic.(more)

Titanic: parlour suite

A parlour suite on the Titanic.
Titanic: gymnasium
Instructor T.W. McCawley demonstrating the rowing machine in the gymnasium on the Titanic.(more)
Following completion of the hull and main superstructure, the Titanic was launched on
May 31, 1911. It then began the fitting-out phase, as machinery was loaded into the ship
and interior work began. After the Olympic’s maiden voyage in June 1911, slight changes
were made to the Titanic’s design. In early April 1912 the Titanic underwent its sea
trials, after which the ship was declared seaworthy.

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Titanic: first-class lounge

The first-class lounge on the Titanic.

Titanic: first-class dining saloon

The first-class dining saloon on the Titanic.
As it prepared to embark on its maiden voyage, the Titanic was one of the largest and
most opulent ships in the world. It had a gross registered tonnage (i.e., carrying
capacity) of 46,328 tons, and when fully laden the ship displaced (weighed) more than
52,000 tons. The Titanic was approximately 882.5 feet (269 metres) long and about
92.5 feet (28.2 metres) wide at its widest point.
Maiden voyage
Watch actual footage of the Titanic
Take a tour of the Titanic through rare footage of the doomed ocean liner.(more)
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poster of the Titanic
Poster of the Titanic, 1912.

Edward J. Smith
Isidor Straus
On April 10, 1912, the Titanic set sail on its maiden voyage, traveling
from Southampton, England, to New York City. Nicknamed the “Millionaire’s Special,”
the ship was fittingly captained by Edward J. Smith, who was known as the
“Millionaire’s Captain” because of his popularity with wealthy passengers. Indeed,
onboard were a number of prominent people, including American
businessman Benjamin Guggenheim, British journalist William Thomas Stead,
and Macy’s department store co-owner Isidor Straus and his wife, Ida. In addition,
Ismay and Andrews were also traveling on the Titanic.

Titanic leaving Queenstown, Ireland

The Titanic leaving Queenstown (Cobh), Ireland, April 11, 1912; it is one of the last known photographs of the
liner.(more)

John Jacob Astor

Molly Brown
The voyage nearly began with a collision, however, when suction from
the Titanic caused the docked New York to swing into the giant liner’s path. After an
hour of maneuverings to prevent the accident, the Titanic was under way. On the
evening of April 10 the ship stopped at Cherbourg, France. The city’s dock was too small
to accommodate the Titanic, so passengers had to be ferried to and from the ship in
tenders. Among those boarding were John Jacob Astor and his pregnant second wife,
Madeleine, and Molly Brown. After some two hours the Titanic resumed its journey. On
the morning of April 11 the liner made its last scheduled stop in Europe, at Queenstown
(Cobh), Ireland. At approximately 1:30 PM the ship set sail for New York City. Onboard
were some 2,200 people, approximately 1,300 of whom were passengers.
Final hours
reproduction of the Titanic's wireless room
A reproduction of the Titanic's wireless room; at the Mystic Aquarium & Institute for Exploration, Mystic,
Connecticut.(more)
Throughout much of the voyage, the wireless radio operators on the Titanic, Jack
Phillips and Harold Bride, had been receiving iceberg warnings, most of which were
passed along to the bridge. The two men worked for the Marconi Company, and much of
their job was relaying passengers’ messages. On the evening of April 14
the Titanic began to approach an area known to have icebergs. Smith slightly altered the
ship’s course to head farther south. However, he maintained the ship’s speed of some 22
knots. At approximately 9:40 PM the Mesaba sent a warning of an ice field. The message
was never relayed to the Titanic’s bridge. At 10:55 PM the nearby Leyland
liner Californian sent word that it had stopped after becoming surrounded by ice.
Phillips, who was handling passenger messages, scolded the Californian for interrupting
him.

Two lookouts, Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee, were stationed in the crow’s nest of
the Titanic. Their task was made difficult by the fact that the ocean was unusually calm
that night: because there would be little water breaking at its base, an iceberg would be
more difficult to spot. In addition, the crow’s nest’s binoculars were missing. At
approximately 11:40 PM, about 400 nautical miles (740 km) south
of Newfoundland, Canada, an iceberg was sighted, and the bridge was notified. First
Officer William Murdoch ordered both the ship “hard-a-starboard”—a maneuver that
under the order system then in place would turn the ship to port (left)—and the engines
reversed. The Titanic began to turn, but it was too close to avoid a collision. The ship’s
starboard side scraped along the iceberg. At least five of its supposedly watertight
compartments toward the bow were ruptured. After assessing the damage, Andrews
determined that, as the ship’s forward compartments filled with water, its bow would
drop deeper into the ocean, causing water from the ruptured compartments to spill over
into each succeeding compartment, thereby sealing the ship’s fate. The Titanic would
founder. (By reversing the engines, Murdoch actually caused the Titanic to turn slower
than if it had been moving at its original speed. Most experts believe the ship would
have survived if it had hit the iceberg head-on.)

Smith ordered Phillips to begin sending distress signals, one of which reached
the Carpathia at approximately 12:20 AM on April 15, and the Cunard ship immediately
headed toward the stricken liner. However, the Carpathia was some 58 nautical miles
(107 km) away when it received the signal, and it would take more than three hours to
reach the Titanic. Other ships also responded, including the Olympic, but all were too
far away. A vessel was spotted nearby, but the Titanic was unable to contact it.
The Californian was also in the vicinity, but its wireless had been turned off for the
night.

Titanic sinking
The sinking of the Titanic, undated illustration.
As attempts were made to contact nearby vessels, the lifeboats began to be launched,
with orders of women and children first. Although the Titanic’s number of lifeboats
exceeded that required by the British Board of Trade, its 20 boats could carry only 1,178
people, far short of the total number of passengers. This problem was exacerbated by
lifeboats being launched well below capacity, because crewmen worried that the davits
would not be able to support the weight of a fully loaded boat. (The Titanic had canceled
its scheduled lifeboat drill earlier in the day, and the crew was unaware that the davits
had been tested in Belfast.) Lifeboat number 7, which was the first to leave the Titanic,
held only about 27 people, though it had space for 65. In the end, only 705 people would
be rescued in lifeboats.

As passengers waited to enter lifeboats, they were entertained by the Titanic’s

musicians, who initially played in the first-class lounge before eventually moving to the
ship’s deck. Sources differ on how long they performed, some reporting that it was until
shortly before the ship sank. Speculation also surrounded the last song they performed
—likely either Autumn or Nearer My God to Thee. None of the musicians survived the
sinking.

By 1:00 AM water was seen at the base (E deck) of the Grand Staircase. Amid the
growing panic, several male passengers tried to board lifeboat number 14, causing Fifth
Officer Harold Lowe to fire his gun three times. Around this time, Phillips’s distress calls
reflected a growing desperation as one noted that the ship “cannot last much longer.”

As the Titanic’s bow continued to sink, the stern began to rise out of the water, placing
incredible strain on the midsection. At about 2:00 AM the stern’s propellers were clearly
visible above the water, and the only lifeboats that remained on the ship were three
collapsible boats. Smith released the crew, saying that “it’s every man for himself.” (He
was reportedly last seen in the bridge, and his body was never found.) At approximately
2:18 AM the lights on the Titanic went out. It then broke in two, with the bow going
underwater. Reports later speculated that it took some six minutes for that section,
likely traveling at approximately 30 miles (48 km) per hour, to reach the ocean bottom.
The stern momentarily settled back in the water before rising again, eventually
becoming vertical. It briefly remained in that position before beginning its final plunge.
At 2:20 AM the ship foundered as the stern also disappeared beneath the Atlantic. Water
pressure allegedly caused that section, which still had air inside, to implode as it sank.

Titanic survivors
Titanic survivors in a lifeboat.
Hundreds of passengers and crew went into the icy water. Fearful of being swamped,
those in the lifeboats delayed returning to pick up survivors. By the time they rowed
back, almost all the people in the water had died from exposure. In the end, more than
1,500 perished. Aside from the crew, which had about 700 fatalities, third class suffered
the greatest loss: of approximately 710, only some 174 survived. (Subsequent claims that
passengers in steerage were prevented from boarding boats, however, were largely
dispelled. Given Smith’s failure to sound a general alarm, some third-class passengers
did not realize the direness of the situation until it was too late. Many women also
refused to leave their husbands and sons, while the difficulty of simply navigating the
complex Titanic from the lower levels caused some to reach the top deck after most of
the lifeboats had been launched.)

Read our timeline of the Titanic’s final hours.

Rescue
Titanic survivors
A lifeboat carrying Titanic survivors alongside the Carpathia, April 1912.(more)

Titanic survivors aboard the Carpathia

Titanic survivors aboard the Carpathia, April 1912.
news of the Titanic's sinking
Newspaper boy shortly after the Titanic's sinking, 1912.
The Carpathia arrived in the area at approximately 3:30 AM, more than an hour after
the Titanic sank. Lifeboat number 2 was the first to reach the liner. Over the next several
hours the Carpathia picked up all survivors. White Star chairman Ismay wrote a
message to be sent to the White Star Line’s offices: “Deeply regret advise
you Titanic sank this morning fifteenth after collision iceberg, resulting serious loss life;
further particulars later.” At approximately 8:30 AM the Californian arrived, having
heard the news some three hours earlier. Shortly before 9:00 AM the Carpathia headed
for New York City, where it arrived to massive crowds on April 18.

Aftermath and investigation

Study the causes of and fallout from the Titanic's striking an iceberg and sinking in the Atlantic
Ocean
An overview of the Titanic.
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Carpathia Capt. Arthur Henry Rostron and Molly Brown

Capt. Arthur Henry Rostron of the Carpathia receiving a silver cup award from Molly Brown for his role in
the rescue of Titanic survivors.(more)
Although the majority of dead were crew members and third-class passengers, many of
the era’s wealthiest and most prominent families lost members, among them Isidor and
Ida Straus and John Jacob Astor. In the popular mind, the glamour associated with the
ship, its maiden voyage, and its notable passengers magnified the tragedy of its
sinking. Legends arose almost immediately about the night’s events, those who had
died, and those who survived. Heroes and heroines—such as American Molly Brown,
who helped command a lifeboat, and Capt. Arthur Henry Rostron of the Carpathia—
were identified and celebrated by the press. Others—notably Ismay, who had found
space in a lifeboat and survived—were vilified. There was a strong desire to explain the
tragedy, and inquiries into the sinking were held in the United States and Great Britain.
U.S. inquiry

U.S. Senate investigation of the Titanic's sinking

Individuals being questioned during the U.S. Senate's investigation into the sinking of the Titanic, Waldorf-
Astoria hotel, New York City.(more)
The U.S. investigation, which lasted from April 19 to May 25, 1912, was led by
Sen. William Alden Smith. In all, more than 80 people were interviewed.
Notable witnesses included Second Officer Charles Lightoller, the most senior officer to
survive. He defended the actions of his superiors, especially Captain Smith’s refusal to
decrease the ship’s speed. Many passengers testified to the general confusion on the
ship. A general warning was never sounded, causing a number of passengers and even
crew members to be unaware of the danger for some time. In addition, because a
scheduled lifeboat drill had never been held, the lowering of the boats was often
haphazard.

Perhaps the most-scrutinized testimony came from the crew of the Californian, who
claimed their ship was some 20 nautical miles (37 km) from the Titanic. Crew members
saw a ship but said it was too small to be the Titanic. They also stated that it was moving
and that efforts to contact it by Morse lamp were unsuccessful. After sighting rockets in
the distance, the crew informed Capt. Stanley Lord, who had retired for the night.
Instead of ordering the ship’s wireless operator to turn on the radio, Lord instead told
the men to continue to use the Morse lamp. By 2:00 AM the nearby ship had reportedly
sailed away.

In the end, the U.S. investigation faulted the British Board of Trade, “to whose laxity of
regulation and hasty inspection the world is largely indebted for this awful fatality.”
Other contributing causes were also noted, including the failure of Captain Smith to
slow the Titanic after receiving ice warnings. However, perhaps the
strongest criticism was levied at Captain Lord and the Californian. The committee
found that the ship was “nearer the Titanic than the 19 miles reported by her Captain,
and that her officers and crew saw the distress signals of the Titanic and failed to
respond to them in accordance with the dictates of humanity, international usage, and
the requirements of law.”
British inquiry
liability claim of a Titanic survivor
Liability claim of Titanic survivor Albina Bassani against the White Star Line, 1913.(more)
In May 1912 the British inquiry began. It was overseen by the British Board of Trade, the
same agency that had been derided by U.S. investigators for the
insufficient lifeboat requirements. The presiding judge was Sir John Charles Bigham,
Lord Mersey. Little new evidence was discovered during the 28 days of testimony. The
final report stated that “the loss of the said ship was due to collision with an iceberg,
brought about by the excessive speed at which the ship was being navigated.” However,
Mersey also stated that he was “not able to blame Captain Smith…he was doing only that
which other skilled men would have done in the same position.” Captain Lord and
the Californian, however, drew sharp rebuke. The British investigators claimed that the
liner was some 5–10 nautical miles (9–19 km) from the Titanic and that “she might have
saved many, if not all, of the lives that were lost.”

Both the U.S. and British investigations also proposed various safety recommendations,
and in 1913 the first International Conference for Safety of Life at Sea was called
in London. The conference drew up rules requiring that every ship have lifeboat space
for each person embarked; that lifeboat drills be held for each voyage; and, because
the Californian had not heard the distress signals of the Titanic, that ships maintain a
24-hour radio watch. The International Ice Patrol was established to warn ships of
icebergs in the North Atlantic shipping lanes and to break up ice.
The Californian incident
The U.S. and British inquiries did little to end speculation and debate concerning the
sinking of the Titanic. Particular focus centred on the Californian. Supporters of Lord,
nicknamed “Lordites,” believed that the captain had been unfairly criticized. They held
that a third ship—possibly the Samson, a Norwegian boat illegally hunting seals—was
between the Leyland liner and the Titanic. That view eventually gained much support.
Crew members of the Californian did not hear rockets being fired, though the sounds
would have been audible if the ship had been within the distances claimed by U.S. and
British investigators. In addition, people aboard the Titanic stated that a vessel was
headed in their direction, which could not have been Californian, which was stopped at
the time. While the true location of the Californian will likely never be conclusively
known, many experts believe it was actually some 20 miles (37 km) away and would not
have reached the Titanic before it sank. However, Lord has continued to draw criticism
for his failure to take more action in response to the distress signals.

Discovery and legacy

Wreck of the Titanic

The Titanic's bow, photographed by the remotely operated vehicle Hercules during a 2004 expedition to the
wreck, which sits 12,500 feet (3,810 meters) beneath the surface of the Atlantic Ocean.(more)
Titanic Capt. Edward J. Smith's cabin, 2003
Rusticles covering the pipes and bathtub from Capt. Edward J. Smith's cabin, photographed during a 2003
expedition to the wreck of the Titanic.(more)

Titanic: rusticles
Rusticles on the wreckage of the Titanic.
Within days of the Titanic’s sinking, talk began of finding the wreck. Given the limits of
technology, however, serious attempts were not undertaken until the second half of the
20th century. In August 1985 Robert Ballard led an American-French expedition from
aboard the U.S. Navy research ship Knorr. The quest was partly a means for testing
the Argo, a 16-foot (5-metre) submersible sled equipped with a remote-
controlled camera that could transmit live images to a monitor. The submersible was
sent some 13,000 feet (4,000 metres) to the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, sending video
back to the Knorr. On September 1, 1985, the first underwater images of
the Titanic were recorded as its giant boilers were discovered. Later video showed the
ship lying upright in two pieces. While the bow was clearly recognizable, the stern
section was severely damaged. Covering the wreckage were rust-coloured stalactite-like
formations. Scientists later determined that the rusticles, as they were named, were
created by iron-eating microorganisms, which are consuming the wreck. By 2019 there
was a “shocking” level of deterioration, and a number of notable features, such as the
captain’s bathtub, were gone.

ROV Hercules exploring Titanic wreck

The remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Hercules exploring the bow of the Titanic, 2004.(more)
The Titanic—located at about 41°43′57′′ N, 49°56′49′′ W (bow section), some 13
nautical miles (24 km) from the position given in its distress signals—was explored
numerous times by manned and unmanned submersibles. The expeditions found no
sign of the long gash previously thought to have been ripped in the ship’s hull by
the iceberg. Scientists instead discovered that the collision’s impact had produced a
series of thin gashes as well as brittle fracturing and separation of seams in
the adjacent hull plates, thus allowing water to flood in and sink the ship. In subsequent
years, marine salvagers raised small artifacts from the wreckage as well as pieces of the
ship itself, including a large section of the hull. Examination of these parts—as well as
paperwork in the builder’s archives—led to speculation that low-quality steel or
weak rivets may have contributed to the Titanic’s sinking.

the filming of Titanic

(From left) Kate Winslet, Leonardo DiCaprio, and James Cameron on the set of the film Titanic (1997).(more)
model ship used for the film Titanic
The film crew working on a model of the ship used in the film Titanic (1997).(more)

Branson, Missouri: Titanic Museum Attraction

Titanic Museum Attraction, Branson, Missouri.
Titanic memorial in Washington, D.C.
Memorial to those who perished on the Titanic, designed by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, in Washington,
D.C.(more)
Countless renditions, interpretations, and analyses of the Titanic disaster transformed
the ship into a cultural icon. In addition to being the subject of numerous books, the
ship inspired various movies, notably A Night to Remember (1958) and James
Cameron’s blockbuster Titanic (1997). In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, artifacts
from the ship formed the basis of a highly successful exhibit that toured the world, and a
profitable business was developed transporting tourists to the Titanic’s wreck. However,
many opposed the removal of items, and the issue became highly contentious,
complicated by the fact that the wreckage lies in international waters and is thus outside
the jurisdiction of any country.

Several museums dedicated to the liner draw thousands of visitors each year; in 2012,
the 100th anniversary of the ship’s sinking, Titanic Belfast opened on the site of Harland
and Wolff’s former shipyard, and it became one of the city’s most popular tourist
attractions. Although the wreck of the Titanic will eventually deteriorate, the famed
liner seems unlikely to fade from the public imagination.