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Waves and Optics
Waves and Optics
Harish Parthasarathy
Professor
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology (NSIT)
New Delhi, Delhi-110078
First published 2021
by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2021 Manakin Press Pvt Ltd.
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
The right of Harish Parthasarathy to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by
him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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ISBN: 978-0-367-75499-0 (hbk)
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Te wave equation with examples from mechanics,
optics, electromagnetism and quantum mechanics 1-64
1.1 Te Defnition of a propagating wave in one, two and
three dimensions 1
1.2 Standing waves in one, two and three dimensions 7
1.3 Te polarization of a wave 11
1.4 Te wave equation in one, two and three dimensions 14
1.5 Te polarization of a wave revisited 17
1.6 Basics of fuid dynamics 19
1.7 Waves in a fuid–derivation from frst principles 22
1.8 Longitudinal sound/pressure waves in a tube 27
1.9 Te diference between transverse and longitudinal waves
in terms of wave polarization 28
1.10 Maxwell’s equations and the wave equation for the electric
and magnetic felds in free space 30
1.11 Solution to Maxwell’s equations in terms of retarded
potentials satisfying the wave equation with source 32
1.12 Te principle of superposition 34
1.13 Difraction and interference of waves 37
1.14 Green’s function for wave equation with sources–Fraunhofer
and Fresnel’s difraction 39
1.15 Te basic Eikonal equation of geometric optics 42
1.16 Describing the trajectory of light in a medium having
spatially varying refractive index 46
1.17 Propagation of light in anisotropic, inhomogeneous and
time varying medium 47
1.18 Te Schrodinger wave equation in quantum mechanics 48
1.19 Te efect of noise on the Schrodinger wave equation–Open
systems, ie, coupling of the system to the bath environment 52
1.20 Wave equation with random non-uniform refractive index 53
1.21 Te relationship between the wave equation and
the Helmholtz equation for waves of given frequency 56
1.22 Waves in a confned region 57
1.23 Schrodinger’s wave equation for mixed states in
the position kernel domain 62
V
Chapter 2: Waves in general relativity, quantum gravity, plasma
physics and quantum stochastics 65-130
2.1 Gravitational waves 65
2.2 Quantum gravity, the canonical ADM formalism-Schrodinger’s
equation for the wave function of the space-time metric. 75
2.3 Plasma waves 86
2.4 Evans-Hudson difusion as a quantum mechanical
generalization of the wave equation with noise 93
2.5 Waves in an expanding universe–Newtonian theory of
small fuctuations and general relativistic theory of small
fuctuations 95
2.6 EMwaves in a curved space-time geometry with
inhomogeneous permittivitypermeability tensor 101
2.7 Quantum Optics. Here, the photon feld is a quantum
electromagnetic feld expressible as a superposition of
annihilation and creation operators of the photon feld
with the coefcients of the linear combination being
positions of time and space 103
2.8 Quantum optics, notion of a generalized measurement,
state collapse afer quantum measurement, recovery of
states passed through a noisy quantum system, the Knill-
Lafamme theorem Stinspring’s representation of noisy
quantum systems, Information, relative entropy, mutual
information and Renyi entropy of quantum systems.
Transmission of information over quantum system.
Te relevance of all this to the wave mechanics
of Schrodinger 112
2.9 Controlling the quantum em feld produced by electrons
and positrons by using a classical em feld-An application
of Dirac’s relativistic wave equation 116
2.10 Calculating the path of a light ray in a static gravitational feld 118
2.11 A study of thermal emission by blackholes via Hawking
radiation, quantum mechanics of felds in the vicinity of
a blackhole and the interactio of electrons,positrons,
photons and gravitons with an external noisy bath
with application to the design of very large size
quantum gates 120
VI
Chapter 3: Analysis of waves in engineering and optical systems,
in biological systems, classical and in quantum
blackhole physics 131-260
3.1 Wave digital flter design 131
3.2 Large deviation principle in wave-motion 134
3.3 Some more problems in Schrodinger-wave mechanics and
Heisenbergmatrix mechanics with relevance to quantum
information theory 137
3.4 Questions in optimization techniques 145
3.5 Quantum antennas via the Schrodinger wave equation 148
3.6 Linear algebra for quantum information theory 151
3.7 Transmission lines and waveguides–Questions 153
3.8 Some more matrix inequalities related to quantum
information theory 157
3.9 Fresnel and Fraunhofer difraction 159
3.10 Surface tension and wave propagation 161
3.11 Klein-Gordon equation in the Schwarzchild space-time
with a radialtime independent electromagnetic feld and
its application to computing the Hawking temperature
at which massless/massive particles are emitted from
a blackhole 162
3.12 Quantum Belavkin fltering versus classical
Kushner-Kallianpur fltering–A comparison 165
3.13 Remark on quantum Belavkin fltering for estimating
the state of a quantum vibrating string 179
3.14 Elementary problems in robotics based on damped simple
harmonicmotion 182
3.15 Approximate solution to the Dirac equation in curved space-time 194
3.16 Some applications of quantum gate design using physical systems 197
3.17 Convergence of perturbation series for nonlinear
diferential equations 200
3.18 Poiseulle’s law and generalized Poiseulle’s law for fow
through a pipe 204
3.19 Measurement of refractive index 206
3.20 Modes of a vibrating string with applications to particle physics 209
VII
3.21 Hidden Markov Models for estimating the amplitude,
frequency and phase of a sinusoidal signal making
transitions 212
3.22 Te energy-momentum tensor of the Dirac feld in
a background curved space-time metric 217
3.23 Remark on Noether’s theorem on conserved currents 220
3.24 Energy-momentum tensor using the tetrad formalism 222
3.25 Analysis of gravitational waves produced by a fnite system
of point particles–A perturbation theoretic approach 226
3.26 Heat equation and its solution in Rn, relationship between
heat andwave equations, nonlinear heat equations arising
as the scaling limit of the simple exclusion process 228
3.27 Study of wave motion of the boundary of single cellular
micro-organsims by giving them external stimulus and
observing the wave like motion of their boundary walls
as well as wave-like fuctuations of the velocity feld of
the cytoplasmic fuid within them 233
3.28 Snell’s laws of refection and refraction on surfaces
separating two uniform media 239
3.29 Spinor form of some equations of mathematical physics:
Roger Penrose’s theory 244
3.30 Prisms, mirrors and lenses, the general theory 253
3.31 A brief summary of the book 259
Chapter 4: Probability Teory and Statistics required for

random wave motion analysis 261-272
4.1 Summary of contents 261
4.2 Probability spaces and measure theoretic theorems
on probability spaces 262
4.3 Basic facts about quantum probability 263
4.4 Some basic classical and quantum stochastic processes 264
4.5 Some applications of classical probability to engineering
systems 265
4.6 Quantum stochastic diferential equations 267
4.7 Some practical applications of quantum probability 268
4.8 Casting the HP equation in functional derivative form 271
VIII
Chapter 5: An introduction to probability and random
processes in circuit and feld theory from
a pedagogical viewpoint 273-356
5.1 Circuit theory concepts from feld theory concepts 273
5.2 Graph theoretic analysis of large linear circuits based
on KCL and KVL 276
5.3 Two port network theory 276
5.4 Diode and capacitance circuit models 277
5.5 Classical device physics 277
5.6 Device physics using quantum mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics 278
5.7 Band theory of a semiconductor by solving Schrodinger’s
equation 279
5.8 Quantum electrodynamics and quantum feld theory 279
5.9 Analyzing random Gaussian and non-Gaussian noise
in circuits using higher order correlations and spectra 280
5.10 Noise in nonlinear transistor circuits 282
5.11 Digital electronics 282
5.12 Techniques for analyzing transmission lines 283
5.13 Brownian motion, Poisson processes and stochastic
diferential equations in circuit theory 284
5.14 Classical and quantum random processes in circuit theory 285
5.15 Simulation of nonlinear ode’s and pde’s in circuit theory and
electromagnetics 285
5.16 Derivation of medium properties from basic physical
principles involving motion of individual electrons and
magnetic moments in external felds 286
5.17 Partial diferential equation methods for analyzing
waveguides 287
5.18 Curvilinear coordinate systems and variational methods
in engineering electromagnetics 288
5.19 Perturbation theoretic methods in solving
electromagnetics problems 290
5.20 Numerical methods in antenna, waveguide and cavity
resonator theory 293
5.21 Large deviation theory applied to engineering systems 294
5.22 Robotics based on nonlinear diferential equations 295
5.23 Quantization of robot motion 296
IX
5.24 Filtering and control of engineering systems 298
5.25 Quantum many body systems applied to Fermi operator
felds and superconductivity 302
5.26 Lie group theory in image processing 307
5.27 Lie group based robotics 308
5.28 Levy process models for jerk noise in robotic systems 310
5.29 Digital systems, classical and quantum gates, design of
counters using shif registers and fip-fops 312
5.30 HMM and some of its applications 314
5.31 Quantum Image Processing 314
5.32 Introduce the design aspects of some gadgets through
mini-projects some examples 317
5.33 A simple way to introduce quantum electrodynamics 318
5.34 How to teach the theory of non-Abelian gauge theories
as non-commutative generalizations of electromagnetism 323
5.35 How to introduce astronomy and cosmology to
undergraduates 323
5.36 Quantum image processing revisited 326
5.37 Te EKF for arbitrary Markov processes with Gaussian
measurementnoise 331
5.38 Quantum scattering theory applied to quantum gate design 333
5.39 Superconductivity for two species and interpretation of
the gap function 335
5.40 Introductory quantum information theory 337
5.41 Quantum image processing 340
5.42 Lie group-Lie algebra approach to robot dynamics
with two 3 − D links, each described by three Euler angles
and an overall translational vector 347
5.43 Linear algebra and operator theory 350
Chapter 6: Applications of Lie groups and Lie algebras, fltering,

feld quantization, Numerical methods for quantum
mechanical problems 357-509
6.1 Quantum random walk 357
6.2 Lie group-Lie algebra theoretic coordinate free formulation
of the equations of motion of a robot with N 3-D links with
the orientation of each link described by an arbitrary
element of SO(3) and taking in addition into account
a translation of the base pivot of the frst link 359
X
6.3 Numerical methods for computing transition probabilities
for photons, gravitons, Klein-Gordon Bosons, Dirac Fermions
and non-Abelian matter and gauge particles from inside
the critical radius to outside of a Schwarzchild blackhole
with quantum gate design applications 360
6.4 Numerical methods for designing quantum gates based
on quantum scattering theory for a Schrodinger projectile
interacting with a potential 361
6.5 Quantization of a robot in the Lie-group domain when
the robot has N 3-D links 362
6.6 Lie group formulation of the single 3-D robot link in
the presence ofgravitation and external torque 364
6.7 Quantum antennas based on non-Abelian matter and
gauge felds 367
6.8 Te electroweak theory 371
6.9 Wavelet based system parameter estimation 373
6.10 Applying the EKF to nonlinear circuits involving
diodes and transistors 374
6.11 An introduction to classical and quantum error detecting
and correcting codes 376
6.12 Orthogonal Latin squares and coding theory 377
6.13 Cyclic codes 378
6.14 Yang-Mills feld quantization methods 379
6.15 Te Ginzburg-Landau model for superconductivity 383
6.16 Teaching the basics of classical mechanics to school
students and frst year undergraduates 386
6.17 Teaching Linear algebra and functional analysis to
post-graduate students of signal processing 396
6.18 Variants of the Kalman flter 398
6.19 Te Cq-coding theorem: Proof based on Quantum Renyi
entropy and Shannon’s random coding argument 401
6.20 Manual for the Digital Signal Processing and Statistical
Signal Processing Laboratory 402
6.21 MATLAB problems on root space decomposition
of a Lie algebra 420
6.22 Cartan’s criterion for semisimplicity of a Lie algebra 426
6.23 Problems in linear algebra 427
6.24 Problems in non-linear fltering theory 429
XI
6.25 Spectral theorem for bounded self-adjoint operators
in a Hilbert space–basic steps 435
6.26 Motion of rigid bodies in electromagnetic felds 439
6.27 Large deviation theory with engineering applications 442
6.28 Lectures in linear algebra for signal processing applications 442
6.29 On the improvement of the signal quality in telephone lines 443
6.30 Quantum Coulomb scattering 445
6.31 Tutorial problems in electromagnetic feld theory 450
6.32 Lecture plan for electromagnetic feld theory EC-C09 455
6.33 A digression into infnite dimensional vector spaces 457
6.34 Continuation of fnite dimensional vector spaces 458
6.35 Te general relativistic Maxwell equations in a resonator 459
6.36 Mackey’s theory on the construction of the basic
observables in the quantum theory from projective
unitary representations of the Galilean group 463
6.37 Hamiltonian density of the electromagnetic feld in curved
space-time in terms of position and momentum felds 464
6.38 Coulomb scattering 467
6.39 Electromagnetic waves in the Schwarzchild metric 469
6.40 Tutorial problems in electromagnetic feld theory 470
6.41 Te gravitational n-body problem in general relativity:
an approximate treatment 472
6.42 Lecture plan for ”Linear Algebra in Signal Processing”
-SP-C01 475
6.43 Continuation of fnite dimensional vector spaces 476
6.44 Cartan’s equations of structure 477
6.45 Proof of the Riesz representation theorem 479
6.46 Quantum image processing 480
6.47 Inclusion of the Goldstone boson feld in the gauge
feld afer symmetry breaking 481
6.48 Some problems in linear algebra 482
6.49 Gravitational N-body problem in general relativity 484
6.50 Multipole radiation felds in the Maxwell theory 488
6.51 How Dirac brackets are used to take care of constraints
in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics 490
6.52 Deep learning of speech models 490
6.53 Some problems on linearization (for the course Linear
algebra in signal processing) 491
XII
6.54 Research project proposal for simulating quantum gates of
large sizes using quantized ridge waveguide electromagnetic
feld interacting with quantum dots and also for estimating
medium properties on the Angstrom scale 493
6.55 Design of a diferentiator using series connection of short
circuitedtransmission line elements 497
6.56 Design of quantum gates by interaction of a quantum em
feld with gravity 499
6.57 Scattering theory in the interaction picture for time
dependent interations 500
6.58 Chapterwise report on Jaspal Khinda’s Ph.D thesis 501
6.59 Training a DNN with stochastic inputs with analysis of
the robustness against input process and weight matrix
fuctuations 504
6.60 Quantum Boltzmann equation 505
6.61 List of Ph.D scholars supervised by Harish Parthasarathy
with a brief summary of their theses 506
6.62 Te problem of determining the surface current density
induced on an antenna surface placed in a nonlinear
inhomogeneous and anisotropic medium taking
gravitational efects into account 508
XIII
Chapter 1
The wave equation with

examples from mechanics,
optics, electromagnetism
and quantum mechanics
1.1 The Definition of a propagating wave in one,

two and three dimensions
1.1.1 Summary
A wave propagating in one dimension is a physical quantity (either a vector or a
scalar or even a tensor) having amplitude and phase varying with time and the
spatial dimension in such a way that the quantity at the spatial point x at time
t equals the same at the origin at time t − x/c where c is the velocity of wave
propagation. This is so if the wave propagates along the positive x direction.
On the other hand, if it propagates along the negative x direction, then the wave
amplitude at (t, x) equals that at (t + x/c, 0). Such wave signals satisfies a one
dimensional wave equation and conversely, if a signal defined as a function of
spatial location and time satisfies the one dimensional wave equation, then its
general solution is a superposition of forward and backward propagating signals
of the type mentioned. More generally, a three dimensional wave propagating
along the direction of the unit vector n̂ = (n1 x̂+n2 ŷ+n3 ẑ) satisfies the property
that the wave amplitude at (t, r) equals the wave amplitude at (t − n̂.r/c, 0).
In other words, the time taken for the wave to propagate from the origin to a
point r in 3-D space equals the projection of the vector joining the origin with
that point along the direction n̂ divided by the velocity of the wave. Such a
wave signal automoatically satisfies the three dimensional wave equation and
conversely, every solution of the three dimensional wave equation is expressible
1
2 Waves and Optics
as a weighted superposition of such wave signals over different directions n̂. If
the wave signal at the origin is a sinusoid of a definite frequency with a phase,
ie of the form A.cos(ωt + φ), and if it propagates along the direction n̂, then
its amplitude at (t, r) is given by A.cos(ω(t − n̂.r/c) + φ) which means that its
phase given by
ψ(t, r) = ω(t − n̂.r/c) + φ
is a constant on the surface
ψ(t, r) = ψ0 − − − (1)
At time t + τ , this surface moves to the surface
ψ(t + τ, r) = ψ0
which is the same as

ψ(t, r) = ψ0 − ωτ − − − (2)
If r1 falls on the surface (1) and r2 on the surface (2), then obviously, we obtain
on taking the difference of these two equations,
ˆ (r2 − r1 ) − cτ = 0
n.
This equation shows that the surfaces of constant phase, ie the wave-fronts
travel along the direction n̂ with a velocity of c. Now suppose, we consider a
non-linear wave, ie, a wave whose phase is not a linear function of (t, r). Let
ψ(t, r) denote is phase. Then the constant phase surfaces or wave fronts are the
surfaces described at time t by
ψ(t, r) = ψ0
At time t + dt, the points r falling on the same constant phase surface satisfy
ψ(t + dt, r) = ψ0
If r falls on the first surface and r + dr on the second, then we obtain by taking
the difference
ψ(t + dt, r + dr) − ψ(t, r) = 0
or equivalently,
ψ,t (t, r)dt + dr.∇r ψ(t, r) = 0
so that the instantaneous wave velocity along the direction n̂ at time t is given
by
c(t, r, n̂) = −(n̂.∇r ψ(t, r))−1 ψ,t (t, r)
This is called the phase velocity of the wave as opposed to the group velocity
which is defined as follows: Let ω(k) denote the frequency of the wave as a
function of the wave vector k. Then the constant phase surfaces are
ω(k)t − k.r = ψ0
Waves and Optics 3
which according to the above, gives the phase velocity along the direction n̂ as
cp (r, n̂) = (k.n)−1 ω(k)
The group velocity on the other hand is computed as follows: Consider two
waves having wave vectors k and k + dk. The superposition of these two waves
is the signal field
cos(ω(k)t − k.r) + cos(ω(k + dk)t − (k + dk).r)
= −2.sin((ω(k)+ω(k+dk))t/2−(k+dk/2).r)sin((ω(k+dk)−ω(k))t/2−dk.r/2)
= −2sin(dk.∇k ω(k)t/2 − dk.r/2).sin(ω(k)t − k.r)
provided that we neglect quadratic and higher order powers in dk. This superpo-
sition has a slowly varying envelope whose space-time dependence is sin(dk.∇k ω(k)t/2−
dk.r/2). The velocity of this envelope wave is evidently the vector ∇k ω(k) and
this is called the group velocity. It is the velocity of the envelope of a super-
position of several waves having wave vector lying within a small differential
interval.
If f (t) is the signal at x = 0, then since it takes time x/c for the signal to
propagate from the origin to x, the signal at x is
uf (t, x) = f (t − x/c)
This describes a forward propagating wave. Likewise a backward propagating

wave is described by
ub (t, x) = g(t + x/c)
Here, c is the velocity of the wave. Superposing the two waves, we get the
general form of a wave propagating with a velocity of c:
u(t, x) = uf (t, x) + ub (t, x) = f (t − x/c) + g(t + x/c)
An easy calculation shows that if f, g are twice differentiable functions, then u

satisfies the one dimensional wave equation:
u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0
It is not hard to show that the above form of u is the general solution to the
wave equation. It should be noted that the solution to the one dimensional wave
equation is determined uniquely by two functions f, g which are in turn uniquely
determined by the initial conditions u(0, x) = f (−x/c) + f (x/c), u,t (0, x) =
(−1/c)f ' (−x/c) + (1/c)f ' (x/c) upto an arbitrary constant.
4 Waves and Optics
1.1.2 Exercises
1.If a signal Asin(ωt) propagates radially outwards from the origin, then deter-
mine the wave amplitude at (t, r). Specifically show that
ψ(t, r) = A.sin(ω(t − |r|/c)/|r|
satisfies the three dimensional wave equation.

2. Repeat the previous problem by assuming a signal f (t) at the origin.
Show that
ψ(t, r) = f (t − |r|/c)/|r|
satisfies the three dimensional wave equation.
3. Solve the one dimensional wave equation
u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0
with boundary conditions
u(t, 0) = f (t), u(t, L) = g(t)
You may use separation of variables. If f (t), g(t) are random processes, then
calculate the wave correlations E(u(t1 , x1 ).u(t2 , x2 )) in terms of the auto and
cross correlations of f (.) and g(.).
4. Solve the two dimensional equation for a vibrating membrane of circular
shape with its circular boundary fixed and when the membrane is subject to
forcing, like a Tabla or a Mridangam. When the force applied per unit area
is a random function f (t, ρ, φ), then calculate the statistical correlations in the
amplitude distribution of the membrane < u(t, ρ, φ).u(t' , ρ' , φ' ) >
5. Write down the Lagrangian density of the above vibrating circular mem-
brane subject to classical random forces, then derive the Hamiltonian density
and quantize the motion by introducing canonical position and momentum co-
ordinates. Note that the Hamiltonian of the oscillator can be represented as
a countable sum of independent harmonic oscillators each having a random
forcing.
1.1.3 Advanced Exercises

[1] Define the frequency in cycles per second, the wavelength, the phase velocity,
and the group velocity for the components of the wave
'
ψ(t, r) = A(k)exp(−i(ω(k)t − k.r))d3 k
Show that ψ satisfies the wave equation
i t ψ(t, r) = ω(−i∇)ψ(t, r)
Waves and Optics 5
and
2
t ψ(t, r) + ω(−i∇)2 ψ(t, r) = 0
[2] Using the Lorentz transformation, determine the frequency and wave-
vector of a wave in a reference frame K ' moving w.r.t. the frame K with a
uniform velocity of v along the x axis when the wave field in the frame K is
given by
ψ(t, r) = A.exp(−i(ωt − k.r))
Hence deduce the Doppler effect, namely that if a source of waves moves towards
the observer, the observer will record a higher frequency than that emitted by
the source and if the source moves away from the observer, the observer will
record a lower frequency.
[3] Solve the 3-D wave equation assuming radial symmetry and show that
the general causal solution is of the form s(t − |r|/c)/|r|.
[4] If we consider the Maxwell equations in free space, show that a solution
corresponding to the equations
divE = 0, divH = 0, curlE = −jωμH, curlH = jωeE
which implies
divE = 0, (∇2 +k 2 )E = 0, divH = 0, (∇2 +k 2 )H = 0, curlE = −jωμH, curlH = jωeE
which in turn implies
divE = 0, divH = 0, (∇2 + k 2 )(r.E) = 0, (∇2 + k 2 )(r.H) = 0,
can be taken as
'
E(ω, r) = [c(l, m)fl (r)LYlm (r̂) + (d(l, m)/jωe)curl(gl (r)LYlm (r̂))],
l,m
'
H(ω, r) = [d(l, m)gl (r)LYlm (r̂) − (c(l, m)/jωμ)curl(fl (r)LYlm (r̂))],
l,m
where fl , gl satisfy the ode
f '' (r) + (2/r)f ' (r) − (l(l + 1)/r2 )f (r) + k 2 f (r) = 0
By making an appropriate transformation of the the independent variable r,

show that the solution to this ode can be expressed in terms of the Bessel
function Jl+1/2 (r). Show that
r.
ˆL = 0
where
L = −ir × ∇
6 Waves and Optics
is the usual angular momentum vector operator in quantum mechanics. What

is the physical interpretation of the above solution in terms of wave compo-
nents polarized perpendicular and parallel to the radial direction of propa-
gation. Also deduce orthogonality relations for the vector valued functions
LYlm (r̂), curl(fl (r)LYlm (r̂)) on S 2 . Hence explain how the coefficients c(l, m), d(l, m)
can be obtained from electric and magnetic field measurements.
Hint: See J.D.Jackson, ”Classical Electrodynamics”, Wiley.
1.1.4 Points to remember

[1] A forward propagating wave along the x direction is defined by a function
of t − x/c where c is the wave velocity while a backward propagating wave is
defined by a functioon of t + x/c. Both of these satisfy the wave equation
u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0
and in fact the general solution of this one dimensional wave equation is given
by the sum of two such components.
[2] A wave propagating along the direction n̂ has its amplitude given by
ψ(t, r) = f (t − n̂.r/c)
This satisfies the 3-D wave equation
ψ,t − c2 ∇2 ψ = 0
If f (t) = A.cos(ωt + φ) in this expression, then the constant phase surfaces at

time t are t − n.r/c
ˆ = constt. and these surfaces propagate with a velocity
c along the direction n̂. The general solution to the 3-D wave equation is a
superposition of such solutions along different directions n̂, ie,
'
ψ(t, r) = f (ˆ n, t − n.r/c)dΩ(ˆ
ˆ n)
Waves and Optics 7
1.2 Standing waves in one, two and three di-

mensions
1.2.1 Summary
For sinusoidal waves, ie, monochromatic waves, ie, waves of a definite frequency,
an appropriate linear combination of a forward travelling and a backward trav-
elling wave field can result in a field which has nodes at definite spatial points
which do not vary with time. Equivalently, for such a superposition, the ampli-
tude as a function of time factorizes into the product of a function of time only
and a function of space only. Thus, the amplitude maxima and minima occur at
fixed spatial points and at any spatial point, the signal is a sinusoid whose am-
plitude depends only on the spatial location. Such a superposition takes place
when a forward travelling wave meets a barrier and gets reflected as for example
in a vibrating string with fixed end points with reflections occurring at the end
points. Another example, is a tranmsission line where a forward propagating
voltage or current signal meets a load and gets reflected resulting in a standing
wave pattern.
In the previous section, we saw that the general solution to the one dimen-
sional wave equation is given by
u(t, x) = f (t − x/c) + g(t + x/c)
If we put the requirement that at a set x = nΔ, n ∈ Z of equispaced points on
the x axis, the velocity of the wave be zero, then we get
−f ' (t − nΔ/c) + g ' (t + nΔ/c) = 0
or writing T = Δ/c, this condition becomes
f ' (t − nT ) = g ' (t + nT ), n ∈ Z, t ∈ R
This equation can be satisfied, for example by requiring that
f (t − nT ) = g(t + nT ), n ∈ Z
or equivalently,
g(t) = f (t + 2nT ), n ∈ Z, t ∈ R
and this equation can be satisfied by taking
f (t) = sin(kπt/T ), g(t) = f (t)
for some k ∈ Z. Corresponding to this choice of f, g, the solution to the wave
equation reads
u(t, x) = sin(kπ(t/T − x/cT ) + sin(kπ(t/T + x/cT ))
= 2sin(kπt/T )cos(kπx/cT )
For each integer k we get a solution and a superposition of such solutions for
different k ' s gives us in a certain sense, a general standing wave
8 Waves and Optics
1.2.2 Summary
The polarization of a wave is defined only for vector valued wave fields. It can
vary from point to point and from time to time. At each point (t, r) in space-
time, the wave field ψ(t, r) has a direction and that direction determines the
polarization of the wave. If at the point r in space, the wave field amplitude
vector oscillates along a given direction, we say that it is linearly polarized. If
however, this vector traces out a circle counterclockwise with time, we say that
it is left circularly polarized and if it traces out a circle in the clockwise direction,
we say that it is right circularly polarized. If the polarization of the field at a
point is along a definite direction for all time, ie, it is linearly polarized, then a
small wire antenna at that point will collect maximum signal power only if it is
oriented along that direction. If the wire antenna is oriented along some other
direction, then it will collect a power proportional to cos2 (θ) where θ is the
direction between the polarization direction of the wave field and the direction
of the wire antenna. If the direction of the wave field at a given point in space
traces out an ellipse, then it is said to be elliptically polarized at that point.
An elliptically polarized wave can be expressed as a vector superposition of two
linearly polarized waves at a given point in space and conversely, a linearly
polarized wave can be expressed as a vector superposition of two circularly
polarized waves. These fact are seen from the following example:
Ax .cos(ωt)x̂ + Ay .sin(ωt)ŷ
is elliptically polarized and is clearly the sum of two signals linearly polarized
along the x and y directions. More generally,
Ax .cos(ωt + φx )x̂ + Ay .cos(ωt + φy )ŷ
is elliptically polarized and is the sum of two linearly polarized signals. Con-
versely,
A.cos(ωt + φ)(n1 x̂ + n2 ŷ)
is linearly polarized along the direction n1 x̂ + n2 ŷ and can be expressed as
((A/2).cos(ωt + φ)n̂ + (A/2)sin(ωt + φ)m̂)
+((A/2).cos(ωt + φ)n̂ − (A/2)sin(ωt + φ)m̂)

where
ˆ m̂ = −n2 x̂ + n1 ŷ
n̂ = n1 x̂ + n2 y,
demonstrating the fact that a linearly polarized wave is a superposition of two
circularly polarized waves at a given point in space. A wave field is said to be
transversely polarized if at every point in space, its vectorial direction of oscilla-
tion is perpendicular to its direction of propagation and it is said to be longitu-
dinally polarized if its vectorial direction of oscillation is parallel to its direction
of oscillation. Examples of transversely polarized waves are electromagnetic
waves in free space. This is a consequence of the relation divψ(t, r) = 0 appear-
ing as Maxwell equations for the electric and magnetic fields. Indeed taking
Waves and Optics 9
ψ(t, r) = ψ(t − n.r/c,

ˆ 0) and using divψ = 0 gives us immediately n̂.ψ(t, r) = 0,
namely transverse polarization. On the other hand, an equation of the form
∇ × ψ(t, r) = 0 gives us n̂ × ψ(t, r) = 0, namely longitudinal polarization. Pres-
sure/sound waves in a tube are longitudinally polarized waves as also are waves
in a long spring oscillating along its direction. We can have a wave that is
neither transversely polarized nor longitudinally polarized as for example the
magnetic field waves in a waveguide supporting a TE mode and the electric field
waves in a waveguide supporting a TM mode.
1.2.3 Exercises
[1] Show that the three dimensional wave
ψ(t, r) = sin(ωt − k.r) + sin(ωt + k.r)
is a standing wave. Determine the planes where the signal amplitude vanishes.
Repeat for
ψ(t, r) = sin(ωt − k.r) + sin(ωt + k.r + φ)
[2] Determine the general form of a standing wave in two dimensions using
plane polar coordinates.
[3] Determine the general form of a standing wave in three dimensions using
spherical polar coordinates
hints: Use separation of variables in the 2-D wave equation
2 1 1
/ t2 − c2 ( ( / ρ)ρ / ρ + 2 2
/ φ2 )ψ(t, ρ, φ) = 0
ρ ρ
Now assume
ψ(t, ρ, φ) = T (t)R(ρ)Φ(φ)
and determine the functions R(ρ), Φ(φ) and their zeros.
cylindrical coordinates by solving the 3-D wave equation
2 1 1
/ t2 − c2 ( ( / ρ)ρ / ρ + 2 2
/ φ2 + 2
/ z 2 )ψ(t, ρ, φ, z) = 0
ρ ρ
using separation of variables. Note that the functions of ρ will be Bessel func-
tions and their zeros will be the nodes of the wave.
the spherical polar coordinates. Use separation of variables.
[6] If we are given a wave of the form ψ(t, r) = A.sin(|k|ct − k.r + φ)

where A, k, φ are independent random variables, then determine the correla-
tion E(ψ(t1 , r1 )ψ(t2 , r2 )) in terms of the pdf’s of A and k. Assume that φ is
uniformly distributed over [0, 2π).
10 Waves and Optics
1.2.4 Advanced Exercises

[1] Show that if non-causality is allowed then the general solution to the 3-D
wave equation having radial symmetry is of the form
ψ(t, r) = s1 (t − |r|/c)/|r| + s2 (t + |r|/c)/|r|
By means of an example, explain when this defines a standing wave.
[2] Consider the 1-D wave
ψ(t, x) = A1 .cos(k(ct − x) + φ1 ) + A2 .cos(k(ct + x) + φ2 )
Under what conditions on Ak , φk , k = 1, 2 does this represent a standing wave.

If A1 = A2 = A and φk , k = 1, 2 are jointly distributed random variables, then
calculate the space-time correlations of ψ(t, x).
[3] Given a wave field ψ(t, x) in one dimension, we wish to approximate it in

the least squares sense by a finite superposition of standing waves. Derive an
algorithm for this. Assume a fixed frequency. What is the nsr involved, ie, the
ratio of the mean square approximation error over a given space-time interval
to the mean square value of ψ over the same range ?

[1] A standing wave by definition is a wave (ie, it satisfies the wave equation)
that has its nodes at fixed spatial locations.
[2] Another equivalent way of defining a standing wave is that it can be
separated into a product of a function of time only and a function of space only.
[3] A standing wave can be represented as a sum of a forward and a backward
propagating wave.
[4] Conversely any solution to the one dimensional wave equation can be
represented as a superposition of standing waves.
[5] For a standing wave, the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the wave
occur at all spatial points at the same time. For example, if the standing wave
is cos(ωt)cos(kx), then at all points x, the maximum and minimum amplitudes
occur at the times 2nπ/ω, (2n + 1)π/ω where n assumes integer values.
[6] More generally, in 3-D, for the standing wave cos(ωt)cos(k.r), at ev-
ery spatial point r the maximum and minimum amplitudes occur at times
2nπ/ω, (2n + 1)π/ω where n assumes integer values.
Waves and Optics 11
1.3 The polarization of a wave

If ψ(t, r) is a wave taking values in R3 , its polarization at the space-time point
(t, r) is specified by the direction of ψ(t, r). If we place a small wire antenna of
infinitesimal length dl directed along the direction n̂, then the signal collected
by this antenna is
s(t, r, dln̂) = dl(n̂, ψ(t, r))
If we place such infinitesimal antenna sensors at r1 , ..., rk of lengths dl1 , ..., slk
respectively and oriented along the directions n̂1 , ..., n̂k , then the weighted out-
put of the received signals can be expressed as
'
k
x(t) = wm dlm (n̂m , ψ(t, rm ))
m=1
If the waves are all of the same frequency ω, then we can write
ψ(t, r) = Re(ψ̃(r)exp(jωt))
and the output can be expressed as
x(t) = Re(x̃exp(jωt))
where
'
k
x̃(t) = ˜ m ))
wm dlm (n̂m , ψ(r
m=1
In addition, if this vector wave field is corrupted by a noise field W (t, r) =

Re(W̃ (r)exp(jωt)), then the output phasor is
'
k '
k
x̃ = ˜ m )) +
wm dlm (n̂m , ψ(r ˜ (rm ))
wm dlm (n̂m , W
m=1 m=1
The signal to noise ratio is

ek ˜ m ))|2
| m=1 wm dlm (n̂m , ψ(r
SN R = ek ˜ (rm ))|2
E| m=1 wm dlm (n̂m , W
and the signal processing problem is to choose the weights {wm } and the antenna
polarization directions {n̂m } so that SN R is a maximum.
1.3.1 Exercises
[1] Assume that the electric field in space is E(t, r) with correlation < Ea (t, r)Eb (t' , r' ) =
Rab (t, r|t' , r' ). Infinitesimal antenna sensors dlk n̂k are placed at rk , k = 1, 2, ...N .
Finally, a weighted linear combination of the signals at these sensors is formed
12 Waves and Optics
with a weight wk at the sensor at rk . Let X(t) denote the output signal. Calcu-
late is autocorrelation < X(t).X(t'e ) > and maximize this correlation w.r.t. the
weights {wk } given the constraint k wk2 = W . e
[2] Repeat the previous problem taking the weight constraint as k,j qkj wk wj =
W where Q = ((qkj )) is a real positive definite matrix.
[3] Let E(t, r) denote the electric field in space and let : s → R(s), s ∈
[0, 1] be a wire curve in space. The total electric field signal collected by this
antenna, ie, potential difference across this wire is the line integral V (t) =
f1
− 0 (E(t, R(s)), R' (s))ds. Determine the statistical correlations and higher or-
der moments of this potential in terms of those of the electric field.
[4] Explain what the polarization diagram of the damped electric field defined
by
E(t) = [Ax .cos(ωt)x̂ + Ay .cos(ωt + φ)ŷ]exp(−γt)
will look like. Assume γ > 0.
Hint: An ellipse which spirals inwards towards the origin.
[5] Express a circularly polarized wave as a superposition of two plane polar-

ized waves and conversely express a plane polarized wave as a linear combination
of a left and a right circularly polarized wave.
[6] Express down a wave field at a given spatial point, ie, as a 2-vector valued
function of time whose plane of polarization rotates slowly. Does it satisfy the
wave equation ? If not determine a second order pde satisfied by such a wave
field.
Hint: Consider
ψ(t, z) = Ax (t).cos(ωt − kz)x̂ + Ay (t)sin(ωt − kz)ŷ
where Ax (t) and Ay (t) are slowly time varying functions. Then,
ψ,t = (A'x (t)/Ax (t))ψx (t, z)x̂ + (Ay' (t)/Ay (t))ψy (t, z)ψy (t, z)ŷ
−(Ax (t)ω/Ay (t))ψy (t, z)x̂ + (Ay (t)ω/Ax (t))ψx (t, z)x̂
Likewise calculate ψ,tt (t, z) and relate these two partial derivatives to ψ,z and
ψ,zz .

[1] Sometimes, a vector field satisfies a wave equation in one, two or three
dimensions as in the case of electromangetism in free space. Then, at each
space-time point, the direction of this wave vector field as a function of time
determines its polarization.
[2] If at a given point in space, the tip of the wave vector oscillates along
one direction and its negative only, the wave field at that spatial point is said
to be plane polarized. If the tip moves around a circle, it is said to be circularly
Waves and Optics 13
polarized while if it traces an ellipse, it is said to be elliptically polarized. Other

kinds of polarization that do not belong to these classes also exist.
[3] Specifically, if at a position r ∈ R3 , the wave propagating along the
direction of k has its amplitude as a function of time t given by
ψ(t, r) = A1 e1 cos(ωt − k.r + φ1 ) + A2 e2 cos(ωt − k.r + φ2 )
then ψ satisfies the wave equation and if further divψ = 0, then k.e1 = k.e2 = 0
and hence the wave vector is of the transverse polarization kind, ie, its vector
tip moves in a plane perpendicular to the direction k of propagation. We may
assume e1 .e2 = 0 and then for general Ak , φk , k = 1, 2, the wave is elliptically
polarized. Special cases of this include linear polarization when φ1 = φ2 and
circular polarization when A1 = A2 , φ2 = φ1 ± π/2.
[4] If a wave polarized along the direction n̂ passes through a polarizer or

a linear wire antenna oriented along the direction m̂, then the output of the
polarizer/antenna will have its amplitude multiplied by a factor of cos(θ) = m.ˆ
ˆ n
and the intensity multiplied by cos2 (θ).
[5] If a vector wave field at a given fixed point r in space has the form
'
p
ψ(t) = Ak ek .fk (t)
k=1
then the output of a linear wire antenna at r oriented along n̂ has its amplitude
given by
'
p
x(t) = (ψ(t), n̂) = Ak (ek , n̂)fk (t)
k=1
and the the average output power of this antenna will be
'
p
Px = Ak Aj (ek , n̂)(ej , n̂)Rkj
k,j=1
where ' T
−1
Rkj = limT →∞ T fk (t)fj (t)dt
0
14 Waves and Optics
1.4 The wave equation in one, two and three

dimensions
[a] One dimensional waves in a vibrating string.
[b] Two dimensional waves in a vibrating membrane.
[c] Three dimensional waves in optics.
1.4.1 Summary
Prototype examples of waves in one, two and three dimensions, are respec-
tively the vibrating string, the vibrating membrane and electromagnetic waves.
These equations follow by applying fundamental physical principles like New-
ton’s laws of motion, Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, the equation of
state of a gas etc. to specific situations and then making approximations. For
example, when one applies Newton’s second law of motion to each infinitesimal
portion of a vibrating string taking the tension along the string into account
and then makes the small slope approximation, one ends up with the one di-
mensional wave equation. When one considers Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction along with Gauss’ law, Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s displacement
current correction and the no magnetic monopole condition all in the absence
of external charge and current sources, transforms these integral laws to differ-
ential form using Gauss’ divergence theorem and Stokes theorem, one end up
with the Maxwell equations. When one then applies differential operators to
both sides of these equations and eliminates certain variables, we end up with
the three dimensional wave equations for the electric and magnetic fields in free
space. Likewise, the basic fluid dynamical equations, which are consequences of
mass conservation and Newton’s second law of motion to continuous media, on
making small amplitude approximations lead to the one and two dimensional
wave equations for waves in the ocean. Finally, just as in the case of the vi-
brating string, when one writes down Newton’s equations of motion for each
infinitesimal area element of a membrane fixed at its boundary taking the sur-
face tension into account, after making small slope approximations, one ends up
with the two dimensional wave equation. For solving the wave equations, one
typically uses separation of variables either in time and cartesian coordinates, or
in time and cylindrical coordinates or in time and polar coordinates, depending
on the boundary conditions and the symmetry of the problem. These lead to
specific kinds of special functions appearing in the solution like spatial sinu-
soids, spherical harmonics, Bessel’s functions etc. When sources are present in
the wave equation like charges and currents in the Maxwell theory, force along
the length of a vibrating string, force across the area of a vibrating membrane
etc, then we get a wave equation with source and these can be solved by deter-
mining the Green’s function for the wave operator corresponding to the specific
boundary condition. Other kinds of generalizations of the wave equation oc-
cur in mathematical physics for example in Einstein’s theory of gravitation, ie,
general relativity when one linearizes the field equations around a background
Waves and Optics 15
metric and uses a specific coordinate system. This leads to gravitational waves
and gravitational radiation. Likewise in elasticity, the potential energy of the
elastic membrane depends on a number of constants like the Young’s modulus,
Poisson ratio etc. and these may vary from point to point. One sets up the La-
grangian density for such a membrane or medium and ends up with generalized
wave equations for the elastic waves.
[a] One dimensional wave. Example: A vibrating string. Let the string be
tied at its two ends x = 0 and x = L. Let u(t, x) be its displacement along the
y axis at time t and x-coordinate x. Let T (t, x) denote the tension in the string.
Then since an infinitesimal element of the string does not get displaced along
the x direction, it must follow that
(T (t, x)cos(θ(t, x))) = 0

x
or equivalently,
T (t, x)cos(θ(t, x)) = T0 (t)
The y component of the equation of motion taking gravity into account is

/ /
σ 1 + u2,x u,tt = / x(T (t, x)sin(θ(t, x))) − σ 1 + u2,x g
Here
tan(θ(t, x)) = u,x (t, x)
is the slope of the string. Here σ is the mass per unit length of the string.
Eliminating T (t, x) between the above two equations gives us
/ /
σ 1 + u2,x u,tt − T0 (t)u,xx + σg 1 + u2,x = 0
This is the final form of the exact equation of the vibrating string.
Simplifications: First assume |u,x | << 1, ie, the slope of the displaced string
is small. Second, assume T0 (t) = T0 is a constant. Third, neglect gravity. The
result is the one dimensional wave equation for the vibrating string:
σu,tt − T0 u,xx = 0
The velocity of these waves is read off immediately as
c= T0 /σ
16 Waves and Optics
1.4.2 Exercises
[1] If a one dimensional string is fastened at two ends x = 0 and x = L, both
ends of which execute motion along the y = u direction in accordance with the
displacements
u(t, 0) = f1 (t), u(t, L) = f2 (t)
then solve the wave equation
u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0
with these boundary conditions and obtain the space-time correlations E(u(t1 , x1 ).u(t2 , x2 ))
in terms of E(f1 (t)f1 (t' )), E(f2 (t), f2 (t' )) and E(f1 (t)f2 (t' )).
[2] If a two dimensional circular membrane whose boundary undergoes ran-
dom motion in accordance with the equation u(t, R, φ) = f (t, φ) where f (t, φ)
is a random force with correlations E(f (t, φ).f (t' , φ' )) and simultaneously a
random force per unit are of the membrane given by g(t, r, φ) with known cor-
relations is applied, then calculate the space-time correlations of the vibrating
membrane. Note that the displacement of the membrane u(t, r, φ) satisfies the
two dimensional wave equation with forcing
u,tt − c2 (u,rr + u,r /r + u,φφ /r2 ) = g(t, r, φ), t ≥ 0, 0 ≤ r ≤ R, 0 ≤ φ < 2π
with the boundary condition
u(t, R, φ) = f (t, φ), t ≥ 0, 0 ≤ φ < 2π
[3] Using multivariate Fourier transform theory, solve the wave equation in
p time dimensions and q spatial dimensions:
'
p 2
u(t, x) ' q 2
u(t, x)
2 − c2 =0
tk x2k
k=1 k=1
Obtain the general solution.

[4] Show that the wave equation of the previous problem can be derived from
the action principle
δS[u] = 0
where
' '
p '
q
S[u] = (1/2) [( u/ tk )2 − ( ( u/ xk )2 ]dp tdq x
D k=1 k=1
after imposing appropriate boundary conditions for u on D.
[5] The solution to the linearized Einstein field equation in vacuum leads to
the metric perturbations hμν (t, r) satisfying the wave equation
μ
μ hαβ (x) = 0
Waves and Optics 17
provided that the coordinate condition
hνμ,ν − (1/2)h,μ = 0, h = hα
α
Express the solution for hμν as a superposition of plane waves with the coordi-
nate condition leading to certain relationships between the Fourier amplitudes
eμν (K):
'
hμν (x) = [eμν (K)exp(i|K|t − iK.r) + ēμν (K)exp(−i|K|t + iK.r)]d3 K
Determine the state of polarization of such a wave for a given vector K, like
say, K is along the z-axis. Show that there are effectively only five linearly
independent coefficients and that these coefficients transform under a rotation
by angle θ around the z axis (ie K axis) as rotations by angles zero, θ and
2θ, thereby justifying that gravitons are spin two Bosons. Compare this with
the state of polarization of photon, by noting that in the Coulomb gauge, the
electric scalar potential is a pure matter field and the magnetic vector potential
owing to the Coulomb gauge condition divA = 0 has just two degrees of freedom
implying that the photon is a spin one particle but its spin along the axis of
propagation can never assume the value zero, ie, it assumes only the values
±1. Deduce this result by applying a rotation around the z-axis by an angle θ
assuming that K is along the z axis and deduce that (Ax , Ay ) gets rotated by
an angle θ. It follows from this result that the quantum mechanical state of a
photon can be only either a left circularly polarized state, or a right circularly
polarized state or a linear combination of these two states. (Reference: The
Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.III, Narosa Publishers)
1.5 The polarization of a wave revisited

1.5.1 Linear, circular and elliptic polarizations of plane
electromagnetic waves
Assume that we have a plane electromagnetic wave of frequency ω travelling
along the z axis in free space. In terms of phasors, the amplitude of this wave
has the form
E(t, z) = Re(Ẽx x̂ + Ẽy ŷ)exp(j(ωt − kz)))
where Ẽx and Ẽy are complex numbers and k = ω/c. We write
Ẽx = Ax .exp(jφx ), Ẽy = Ay .exp(jφy )
where
Ax = |Ẽx |, Ay = |Ẽy |, φx = Arg(Ẽx ), φy = Arg(Ẽy )
and then we can write
E(t, z) = Ax cos(ωt − kz + φx )x̂ + Ay .cos(ωt − kz + φy )ŷ

18 Waves and Optics
Note that the free space Maxwell equation divE = 0 is satisfied only because
we have assumed the electric field to have only transverse components relative
to the direction ẑ of propagation. At any point in space having z-coordinate z,
we have assuming φx = φy that
Ey (t, z)/Ex (t, z) = Ay /Ax
for all times t. Thus, this wave is linearly polarized, ie, its vector oscillates along
a fixed direction. This is also true if φy = φx + π in which case, we get
Ey (t, z)/Ex (t, z) = −Ay /Ax
for all times t. Now if φy = φx ± π/2, it easily follows that
Ex (t, z)2 /A2x + Ey (t, z)2 /A2y = 1
implying that the E vector traces out an ellipse with semimajor and semiminor
axes Ax , Ay or Ay , Ax . Such a wave is said to be elliptically polarized if Ay = Ax
and circularly polarized if Ay = Ax . Finally, for general φx , φy , Ax , Ay , we have
elliptic polarization but with semimajor and semiminor axis being oriented not
along the x and y axis but rather some other two perpendicular directions in
the xy plane. To see this, we eliminate ψ = ωt − kz between the expressions for
Ex (t, z) and Ey (t, z). We get
Ey = Ay .cos(ψ + φy ) = Ay .cos(cos−1 (Ex /Ax ) + φy − φx ))
= Ay ((Ex /Ax )cos(φ) − 1 − Ex2 /Ax2 sin(φ))
where φ = φy − φx . This equation gives
(Ey − αAy Ex /Ax )2 = β 2 A2y − β 2 Ay2 Ex2 /Ax2
where
α = cos(φ), β = sin(φ)
Equivalently,
Ey2 + (Ay /Ax )2 Ex2 − 2αAy Ex Ey /Ax = β 2 A2y
1.5.2 Exercises
[1] Apply a rotation in the Ex − Ey plane to this equation to bring it to the
standard form of an ellipse with semi-major and semi-minor axes oriented along
the x and y axes.
Waves and Optics 19
[2] If a wave of light polarized along the direction n̂ is incident on a polarizer

that is oriented along the direction m̂, then its amplitude gets multiplied by
n.
ˆ m̂ and the out-coming wave is polarized along the direction m̂ (This is de-
duced from the state collapse postulate in quantum mechanics). The intensity
therefore gets multiplied by (n̂.m̂)2 . Now explain how by designing a polarizer
that allows the components of light polarized along only the x̂ and ŷ directions
to enter can be used to generate circularly polarized light. Secondly, suppose
we have a sequence of polarizers arranged parallely to each other such that the
kth polarizer is oriented along the unit vector m̂k , k = 1, 2, ..., p. Then if a light
wave having amplitude Ax .cos(ωt − kz)x̂ + Ay .sin(ωt − kz)ŷ is incident upon
the first polarizer, then what will be the wave amplitude after it comes out of
the last polarizer. Assume that the distance between two successive polarizers
is d and that the planes of all the polarizers are parallel to the xy plane.
1.6 Basics of fluid dynamics

1.6.1 Exercises
[1] Derive the Navier-Stokes equation using momentum and mass conservation
equations taking viscosity into account. The momentum flux tensor is given by
Πij = ρvi vj + pδij − η(vi,j + vj,i ) − χ(divv)δij
and the momentum density is

Pi = ρvi
The momentum conservation reads
Pi,t + Πij,j = 0
Justify this equation by taking integrals over the volume of the fluid enclosed
by a closed surface. The mass density is ρ and the mass flux is ρvi . Therefore
the mass conservation equation reads
ρ,t + (ρvi ),i = 0
[2] Derive the Bernoulli equation
p/ρ + v 2 /2 + φ,t + Φ = constt.
within an incompressible (ie, its density is a constant) and irrotational fluid

where φ is the velocity potential and Φ is the potential of external forces like
gravity. Note that since divv = 0 and v = ∇φ, it follows that ∇2 φ = 0 and
hence the viscous contribution to the Bernoulli equation is zero.
[3] Derive the Bernoulli equation:
p/ρ + v 2 /2 + Φ = constant
20 Waves and Optics
along a steamline if the fluid is only incompressible but a steady state has been
achieved. If steady state has not been reached, then along a streamline, the
above equation generalizes to
p/ρ + v 2 /2 + Φ = constt.
along a streamline if viscous effects are not taken into account. Hint:Take the dot
product of the Navier-Stokes equation with v̂ where v̂ is a unit vector along the
velocity field at a given space-time point. Note that since we are not assuming
irrotationality, there is no velocity potential.
[4] Derive the basic MHD equations and explain how you would solve them
by the finite difference method. The basic MHD equations for a conducting
fluid are
ρ(v,t + (v, ∇)v) = −∇p + η∇2 v + σ(E + v × B) × B − ∇Φ,
ρ,t + div(ρv) = 0,
divE = 0, divB = 0, curlE = −B,t , curlB = σ(E + v × B) + eE,t ,
∇2 Φ = 4πGρ
Study small fluctuations and the dispersion relation in such a MHD fluid by
linearizing using
v(t, r) = V0 + δv(t, r), E(t, r) = E0 + δE(t, r), B(t, r) = B0 + δB(t, r),
Φ(t, r) = δΦ(t, r), ρ(t, r) = ρ0 + δρ(t, r)
[3] Derive the basic Navier-Stokes and equation of continuity equation using
Lagrange multiplier fields. Derive consequently the costate equations for the
Lagrange multiplier fields and explain how using the Dirac brackets for problems
with constraints, the fluid flow problem can be quantized.
[4] Show that for an incompressible fluid, we can represent the velocity field
as
v = ∇ × ψ,
where
divψ = 0
Hence, by taking the curl of the Navier-Stokes equation, eliminate the pressure
field and reduce it to an equation involving only ψ. Specialize to 2-D flows,
where justifying that the vector field ψ can be taken as ψ0 (t, x, y)ẑ and derive a
nonlinear pde for ψ0 in the presence of an external force field per unit volume.
Waves and Optics 21

[1] If v(t, r) is the 3-D fluid velocity field, then the acceleration of a given fluid
particle at the time-space point (t, r) is given by
d v v v
v(t, r) = v(t, r)/ t + (dx/dt) + (dy/dt) + (dz/dt)
dt x x z
= v,t + vx v,x + vy v,y + vz v,z =
v,t + (v, ∇)v
This acceleration along the trajectory of the fluid particle is called the material
derivative of the velocity and is denoted by Dv/Dt in contrast with v,t which
represents just the acceleration of particles at a fixed spatial point. If v,t = 0 as
happens in steady state, we may still have Dv/Dt = 0. Dv/Dt can be measured
by injecting a drop of ink into the fluid and tracing out it trajectory.
[2] The Navier-Stokes equation can either be derived using Newton’s second
law of motion by including as forces the pressure gradient force per unit volume
and the viscous forces per unit volume along with other external forces like the
gravitational force and if the fluid is conducting, the electromagnetic force. It
can also be derived by using the conservation of mass and momentum. For this,
we define the mass flux and the momentum flux taking into account the stress
tensor per unit time due to pressure and viscous forces the latter arising from
velocity gradients between two neighbouring surfaces.
[3] The Navier-Stokes equation, the mass conservation equation and the
equation of state which relates the pressure to the density give us five equations
for the five functions vx , vy , vz , ρ, p.
[4] Any fluid dynamical problem can formally be approximately solved using
the finite element method which involves discretizing space and time into pixels
and replacing space-time partial derivatives by partial differences. This is a vast
subject called Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
[5] To solve a fluid dynamical problem we need the boundary conditions
which state that for a viscous fluid both the tangential and normal components
of the velocity field vanish on a rigid boundary while for a non-viscous fluid
(ie, Eulerian fluid), only the normal component of the velocity vanishes on the
boundary.
[6] Fluid dynamical problem with boundary conditions having different kinds
of symmetries like spherical, cylindrical, rectangular symmetry can be solved ex-
actly in many cases by choosing our coordinate system appropriately in accor-
dance with the symmetry and expressing the fluid equations in that coordinate
system, like spherical polar, cylindrical or Cartesian systems.
22 Waves and Optics
[7] 2-D fluids which are incompressible and irrotational can be solved by
solving Laplace’s equation for the stream function or its dual, the potential
function. The Stream function and the potential function satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equations for the real and imaginary part of an analytic function of a
complex variable and hence many 2-D fluid problems with boundary conditions
can be solved exactly using functions of a complex variable. The constant ve-
locity potential surfaces are orthogonal to the constant stream function surfaces
and hence the complex potential should be such that its imaginary part, namely
some surface of constant stream function value determines a boundary which is
tangential to the velocity flow.
[8] By introducing the notion of a velocity potential for an irrotational fluid
velocity field, it is possible under the assumption of incompressibility to obtain
the Bernoulli equation which states that something like the energy density of the
fluid is a constant at all space-time points even if viscous effects are taken into
account. The various contributions to this energy density come from the kinetic
energy per unit mass, the pressure, the velocity potential and the potential of
the externally applied conservative force field like gravity.
[9] If viscous effects are not present, then even if irrotationality does not
hold good, under the assumption of incompressibility, a quantity like the energy
density described above but without the velocity potential is conserved only
along a streamline, ie, the directional derivative of this energy along the direction
of the velocity vector vanishes everywhere.
1.7 Waves in a fluid–derivation from first prin-

ciples
1.7.1 General theory
Assume that the sea is one dimensional, ie, flow takes place along the x axis and
the height of the sea level at the point (x, y) at time t is ξ(t, x). Assume that
the breadth of the sea along the y-axis is w. Let vx (t, x, z) be the x-component
of the velocity of the fluid at (x, y, z) and vz (t, x, z) the z-component of the
velocity of the fluid at (x, y, z) both at time t. The equation of conservation of
mass implies
' ξ(t,x)
− vx,x (t, x, z)wdz = ξ,t (t, x)w
0
or equivalently, ' ξ(t,x)
−ξ,t (t, x) = vx,x (t, x, z)dz − − − (1)
0
Further, the Navier-Stokes equation gives
vx vx,x + vz vx,z + vx,t = −p,x /ρ + ν(vx,xx + vx,zz ) − − − (2)
vx vz,x + vz vz,z + vz,t = −p,z /ρ + ν(vz,xx + vz,zz ) − g − − − (3)

The mass conservation equation can be expressed as
vx,x + vz,z = 0 − − − (4)
Waves and Optics 23
These equations are four in number for the four functions vx (t, x, z), vz (t, x, z), p(t, x, z), ξ(t, x).
We now make some simplifying approximations: A1:
ξ(t, x) = h + δξ(t, x)
where δξ is small, ie, the fluctuation in the sea level above or below the constant
level h is small. Further, assume that vx is independent of z. Then, we have,
without any approximation,
−(h + δξ(t, x))vx,x (t, x) = δξ,t (t, x)

Also, (4) then implies that
vz (t, x, z) = −vx,x (t, x)z + f (t, x)
where f some function. Then, (2) and (3) give
vx,t + vx vx,x = −p,x /ρ + νvx,xx − − − (5)
so p,x (t, x, z) is independent of z. Thus, we can write
p(t, x, z) = q1 (t, x) + q2 (t, x)z

Substituting these expressions into,(5) results in
vx,t + vx vx,x = −(q1,x + q2,x z)/ρ + νvx,xx
Thus, q2,x z is independent of z and hence q2,x = 0. This means that q2 (t, x) =
q2 (t). and we get
vx,t + vx v,x = −q1,x /ρ + νvx,xx − − − (6)
Likewise, (3) gives
f,t −vx,tx z+vx (f,x −v,xx z)+(f −vx,x z)vx,x = −q2 /ρ+ν(f,xx −vx,xxx z)−g−−−(7)
It follows that
2
vx,tx + vx v,xx + vx,x = νvx,xxx − a,xx (t, x) − − − (8)
and
f,t + vx f,x + f vx,x = −q2 /ρ + νf,xx − g − a,xx (t, x) − − − (9)
Comparing (6) and (8), we get that
q1,xx /ρ = a,xx (t, x)ρ
and hence,
q1 (t, x) = a(t, x)ρ + b1 (t)x + b2 (t)
24 Waves and Optics
So our final set of equations is
−(h + δξ(t, x))vx,x (t, x) = δξ,t (t, x) − − − (a),
f,t (t, x)+vx (t, x)f,x (t, x)+f (t, x)vx,x (t, x) = −q2 (t)/rho+νf,xx (t, x)−g−a,xx (t, x)−−−(b),
vx,t (t, x) + vx (t, x)vx,x (t, x) = −(a,x (t, x) + b1 (t)) + νvx,xx − − − (c)
Also when z = ξ(t, x) = h + δξ(t, x), the pressure must be the constant atmo-
spheric pressure p0 , ie,
q1 (t, x) + q2 (t)ξ(t, x) = p0
or equivalently,
a(t, x) + b1 (t) + b2 (t)(h + δξ(t, x)) = p0 − − − (d)
(a)-(d) is our final set of four equations for the functions δξ(t, x), vx (t, x), f (t, x), a(t, x), b1 (t), b2 (t).
We now make some approximations to arrive at the one dimensional wave
equation for ξ(t, x). First assuming vz = 0, it follows from (3) that p(t, x, z) =
−ρgz + A(t, x) and since p(t, x, h + δξ(t, z)) = p0 , we get
p(t, x, z) = p(t, x, z) = p0 + ρg(h + δξ(t, x) − z)
Still no approximation has been made. We then observe that again without any
approximation,
vx,x (t, x)(h + δξ(t, x)) + ξ,t (t, x) = 0,
vx,t + vx (t, x)vx,x (t, x) = −gδξ,x (t, x) + νvx,xx (t, x)
However the equation of continuity becomes since vz = 0,
vx,x = 0
which cannot be satisfied. So we say that vx,x is very small since it is exactly
equal to −vz,z which is very small. Also neglecting the nonlinear terms in the
above equations, we get the approximate equations
hvx,x (t, x) + δξ,t (t, x) = 0,
vx,t + ρgδξ,x (t, x) + νvx,xx (t, x) = 0

If ν = 0, ie, the viscosity is neglected, then these two equations result in the
wave equation after eliminating vx :
δξ,tt (t, x) − ghδξ,xx (t, x) = 0

Waves and Optics 25
This is the same wave equation as above except with a viscous correction term.
We leave it as an exercise to determine the dispersion of such a viscous wave,
ie, relationship between wavelength and frequency.
1.7.2 Exercises
[1] Prove that if waves in two dimensions in the sea are considered using the
following method, then we get after approximation the two dimensional wave
equation: The height of the sea level is ξ(t, x, y). The z component of the
velocity within the liquid volume is neglected and mass conservation the for the
volume over the area [x, x + dx] × [y, y + dy] yields
ξ,t (t, x, y) + (ξ(t, x, y)vx (t, x, y)),x + (ξ(t, x, y)vy (t, x, y)),y = 0
Writing
ξ(t, x, y) = h + δξ(t, x, y)
the above equation approximates to
δξ,t + h(vx,x + vy,y ) = 0 − − − (1)

Further, the equation of motion along the x and y directions gives after neglect-
ing the nonlinear part,
vx,t = −p,x /ρ
where
p(t, x, y, z) = ρg(ξ(t, x, y) − z)
In this way we get
vx,t + gδξ,x = 0 − − − (2)
and likewise,
vy,t + gδξ,y = 0 − − − (3)
From (1),(2) and (3), derive the two dimensional wave equation √ for δξ(t, x, y)
and show that the velocity of wave propagation is again gh. Now, improve
upon this theory by taking both the nonlinear terms and the viscous terms to
get
ξ,t (t, x, y) + (ξ(t, x, y)vx (t, x, y)),x + (ξ(t, x, y)vy (t, x, y)),y = 0,
vx,t + vx vx,t + vy vy,t + gξ,x + ν(vx,xx + vx,yy ),
vy,t + vx vy,x + vy vy,y + gξ,y + ν(vy,xx + vy,yy )
These are three equations for the three functions ξ(t, x, y), vx (t, x, y), vy (t, x, y).
Use perturbation theory to obtain approximate nonlinear wave equations for
ξ(t, x, y). For this, you must consider vx , vy , δξ to be of the first order of small-
ness where ξ = h+δξ and introduce a perturbation parameter δ in the quadratic
terms to show that these terms are small. After that you must expand the func-
tions δξ, vx , vy in powers of δ.
26 Waves and Optics
[2] Consider a 2-D incompressible fluid with random velocity field vx (x, y), vy (x, y)
independent of time. Along with the random pressure field p(x, y), these satisfy
the Navier-Stokes equation and the equation of continuity:
vx vx,x + vy vx,y = ν(vx,xx + vx,yy ) − p,x /rho,
vx vy,x + vy vy,y = ν(vy,xx + v,yy ) − p,y /ρ,
vx,x + vy,y = 0
Assuming that the statistical moments of the velocity and pressure field satisfy
the hypothesis of homogeneity and isotropy and are zero mean fields, show
that theor second and third moments can be expressed as (in accordance with
homogeneous and isotropic tensors)
< vi (r)vj (r' ) >= Bij (r' − r) = A(|r − r' |)δij + B(|r − r' |)ni nj
where i, j = 1, 2 with i = 1 meaning the x component and i = 2 meaning the y
component.
(ni , i = 1, 2) = n1 x̂ + n2 ŷ = (r' − r)/|r' − r|
< vi (r)vj (r' )vk (r'' ) >= Cijk (r' − r, r'' − r)
= C1 (|r' − r|, |r'' − r|, |r'' − r' |)(δij nk + δjk ni + δki nj )
+C2 (|r' − r|, |r'' − r|, |r'' − r' |)ni nj nk
where C1 , C2 are totally symmetric functions of their arguments and all pressure-
velocity correlations are zero. Now derive differential equations for the functions
A, B, C1 , C2 by substituting into the Navier-Stokes equation and the equation
of continuity.
[1] Waves motion of the top surface displacement in the sea can be derived by
using mass conservation and the Navier-Stokes equation. Certain simplifying
assumptions need to be made here to arrive at the wave equation. These as-
sumptions are that the displacement of the sea surface from the equilibrium
level ξ(t, x, y) − h is small and the horizontal components of the velocity are
also small and finally, the formula for the pressure in a static liquid based on
the weight of the water above a unit surface is valid.
[2] If the above assumptions are not made, we still would get a set of three
consistent partial differential equations for vx (t, x, y), vy (t, x, y), ξ(t, x, y) but we
would require a computer to solve this set.
[3] The statistical theory of turbulence was created by A.N.Kolmogorov in
which he assumed using isotropicity and homogeneity certain tensor forms for
the velocity field and pressure field statistical moments and derived differential
equations for these higher order correlations. These equations are valid in the
steady state. For a more thorough treatment of this and other fluid dynamical
problems, the reader is referred to: Landau and Lifshitz, ”Fluid dynamics”.
[4] If approximations are not made the nonlinear system of pde’s described
above can be approximately solved using the solution for the linearized wave
equation and perturbation theory by treating the nonlinear terms as small using
a perturbation parameter δ tagged to them.
Waves and Optics 27
1.8 Longitudinal sound/pressure waves in a tube

1.8.1 General theory
Consider a tube of cylindrical cross section and length L inside which there is
only air. Assume that the length of the tube is along the x axis. We consider
pressure waves within this tube in the form of longitudinal oscillations of the
air column. At time 0, the density of the air column within the length [x, x +
dx] is ρ(0, x). The mass of the air within this column at time 0 is therefore
ρ(0, x)dx. At time t, this infinitesimal air column gets displaced to the interval
[x + u(t, x), x + dx + u(t, x + dx)] and hence by mass conservation, the density
of air within this displaced column is
ρ(0, x)
ρ(t, x + u) = ρ(0, x)dx/(dx + u(t, x + dx)) =
1 + u,x (t, x)
Assuming an equation of state p = F (ρ), the pressure within this displaced
column is
p(t, x + u) = F (ρ(0, x)(1 + u,x (t, x))−1 )
The difference between the pressures at x + u and at x + dx + u + u,x dx =
x + dx + u + du is
p(t, x+u)−p(t, x+dx+u+du) = p(t, x+u)−p(t, x+dx+u+u,x dx)
= p(t, x+u(t, x))−p(t, x+dx+u(t, x+dx)) =
F (ρ(0, x)(1 + u,x )−1 ) − F (ρ(0, x + dx)(1 + u,x + u,xx dx)−1 )

d
= −dx F (ρ(0, x)(1 + u,x )−1 )
dx
This equation leads us immediately to the Newton’s second law of motion:
d
ρ(0, x)dx.u,tt (t, x) = −dx F (ρ(0, x)(1 + u,x )−1 )
dx
or equivalently,
d ρ(0, x)
ρ(0, x)u,tt (t, x) + F( )=0
dx 1 + u,x (t, x)
This is the exact equation of motion for the longitudinal sound/pressure wave
u(t, x).
Simplifying approximations: Assume that ρ(0, x) = ρ0 , ie, the initial density
is a constant. Further, assume that |u,x | << 1, ie, the oscillations of the air
column are small. Then, we have approximately,
ρ(0, x)
F( ) = F (ρ0 (1 − u,x )) = F (ρ0 ) − F ' (ρ0 )ρ0 u,x
1 + u,x
28 Waves and Optics
and we get with such an approximation, the one dimensional wave equation for
u:
u,tt (t, x) − F ' (ρ0 )u,xx (t, x) = 0
The velocity of the sound wave is read off immediately from this equation as
c= F ' (ρ0 ) = dp(ρ0 )/dρ

1.8.2 Exercises
[1] Solve approximately the exact nonlinear sound propagation wave equation
using perturbation theory by attaching a small perturbation parameter to the
nonlinearity.
[2] If the gas within a pipe is charged with charge density proportional to
the mass density ρ(t, x) and if an external electric field E(t, x) is applied across
the x axis, then what will be the modification to the wave equation for the gas
?
[3] If the cross section of the pipe varies with time in accord with the radius
of the pipe at (t, x) being R(t, x), then what will the equations of motion of the
gas through the pipe look like assuming that the length of the pipe is parallel to
the z direction and that the non-vanishing components of the gas velocity are
vz (t, z, r), vr (t, z, r) where r = x2 + y 2 ? Assume that the density of the gas
within the pipe also has the same form ρ(t, z, r).

[1] By applying Newton’s second law of motion and the equation of mass con-
servation along with the equation of state of a gas inside a tube, we can derive
after approximations, the one dimensional wave equation for the pressure or
equivalently the gas displacement inside the pipe. The force on an infinitesimal
element of the gas is obtained as a pressure gradient.
[2] If the gas is charged and an external electric field is present, then we can
modify the wave equation by taking into account apart from the forces induced
by pressure gradients the force of the electric field on the charges.
1.9 The difference between transverse and lon-

gitudinal waves in terms of wave polariza-
tion
When a wave ψ(t, r) ∈ R3 is vector valued, and it propagates along the direction
n̂, we can express it as
ψ(t, r) = ψ(t − n̂.r/c, 0)
It is readily verified that this satisfies the three dimensional wave equation. We
say that this wave field is transversely polarized if
n̂.ψ(t, r) = 0
Waves and Optics 29
and that it is longitudinally polarized if
n̂ × ψ(t, r) = 0
If both of these are not satisfied, then it is partially longitudinal and partially
transverse polarized. For example, the TEM waves in empty space are trans-
versely polarized as follows from the Maxwell equations ∇.E(t, r) = 0, ∇.H(t, r) =
0. Soundwaves in a tube are longitudinally polarized while the electromagnetic
field within a waveguide is partially longitudinal and partially transverse polar-
ized. For example, the T E modes have the electric field transversely polarized
while the magnetic field partially longitudinal and partially transverse while the
T M modes have the magnetic field transversely polarized while the electric field
partially longitudinal and partially transversely polarized.
1.9.1 Exercises
[1] Give examples of electromagnetic waves that are partially transverse and
partially longitudinally polarized.
[2] If φ(t, r) = φ0 (t).exp(−ik.r) in phasor form is the electric scalar potential
and if the magnetic vector potential can be neglected, then show that the electric
field is longitudinally polarized.
[3] If a wave has wave vector k and can be expressed as a sum of a longitu-
dinally polarized component and a parallely polarized component as
ψ(t, r) = F (ωt − k.r)k̂ + G(ωt − k.r)(n̂ − (k, n̂)k/k 2 )
where n̂ is an arbitrary constant unit vector, then calculate curlψ(t, r) and

divψ(t, r). Specifically, show that the former is expressible completely in terms
of G only while the latter is expressible in terms of F only.

[1] Transverse waves as in electromagnetics usually follow from the wave equa-
tion by a condition like the divergence of the wave vector field vanishes.
[2] Sound waves in a pipe are examples of longitudinal waves, as also are
waves in spring.
[3] There may exist waves which have both longitudinal and transverse com-
ponents as for example, the electromagnetic waves in a waveguide or a cavity
resonator.
30 Waves and Optics
1.10 Maxwell’s equations and the wave equation

for the electric and magnetic fields in free
space
In free space, the Maxwell equations imply after taking the curl of the two curl
equations and making use of the vanishing of the divergence of the electric and
magnetic fields, that the electric and magnetic fields satisfy the three dimen-
sional wave equation whose general solution can be expressed as a superposition
of plane waves of different frequency and wave vectors but each wave traveling
at the speed of light in the medium. The divergence equations in the set of
Maxwell equations imply further that in this superposition of plane waves, if
we consider a definite frequency and wave vector component, the corresponding
amplitudes of the electric and magnetic field vectors will not only be orthogo-
nal to the wave vector, ie, to the direction of propagation of that plane wave
but will also be mutually orthogonal. Thus, the unit vectors along the direc-
tion of propagation and those along the direction of the electric and magnetic
fields will form an orthonormal right handed system of vectors. These waves
are therefore called transverse electromagnetic waves, ie, TEM waves. In the
presence of charges and currents, the divergence equations appearing in the set
of Maxwell equations will have sources and hence if we apply the same manip-
ulations to the Maxwell curl equations and substitute for the divergences of the
electric and magnetic fields, we would once again obtain three dimensional wave
equations for them but now with vector valued sources. Further, the solution of
this system of wave equations with sources will result in the four dimensional
convolution of the Green’s function
G(t, r|t' , r' ) = −δ(t − t' − |r − r' |/c)/4π|r − r' |
for the wave operator in free space with the source fields derived from the
charge and current densities. At a definite frequency ω, the resulting electric
and magnetic field vectors in the far field zone, ie, distant from the charged
matter fields which generate them can be expressed in the form of spherical
waves, ie, their dependence on t, r is of the form Re(F (r̂)exp(j(ω(t − |r|/c)))/r)
which means that these electromagnetic waves propagate in the far field zone
as spherical modulated by an ampltiude that depends on the direction alone.
The Maxwell divergence equations imply that these electric and magnetic field
vectors in the far field zone are approximately perpendicular to each other and
also the the radial direction of propagation. These orthogonality relations hold
good provided that we neglect O(1/r2 ) terms. Further, in the far field zone, we
find that the Poynting vector which gives the power flow per unit area starts
with a 1/r2 term and this term contributes on integration over the surface of a
sphere of radius r, a definite amount of power that is independent of |r|. This
is because, the infinitesimal surface area term r2 dΩ(r̂) has an r2 which cancels
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100l. to destroy my child, for I do not think one shilling was
bestowed which did not in one way or other do mischief.
Whilst I was in much anxiety about my child’s health I bought
Mr. Wilberforce on Christianity.[180] I read it coldly at first, but
advanced with more attention. It brought me to a better sense of
my dangerous state; but I was much involved in hesitation and
doubt, and was very far from understanding the doctrinal part of
the book. This was well, for it induced me to read it again and
again, and it made so much impression upon me that I scarcely
knew how to lay it aside. It excited a very insufficient degree of
repentance, and a still more insufficient view of my interest in the
Great Physician of souls.
It is rather singular that a trifling circumstance at this time first
brought me acquainted with Mr. Wilberforce, whose book I had
been again perusing for the fourth time with increased pleasure,
and to whom I had more than once thought of writing for his
opinion on the intermediate state and original sin. On arriving at
Boston, what was my surprise on receiving a letter from him
relative to Parkinson’s subscription to some book on agriculture,
and apologising for the application to a stranger. I seized the pen
with eagerness to reply, writing largely about his own book,
praising it greatly, and telling him of my wish to apply to him.
Should this (I thought) be productive of a connection that might
confirm my pious resolution, I might, perhaps, be justified in
attributing it to the interposition of God.
I hope that the thought is not presumptuous. Is it the spirit of
my sweet girl that is thus friendly to me? How pleasing an idea!
July 29.—Having excused myself from dining out with the
Balgraves, a note from her this morning. But it will not do.
Company and the world will only draw off my mind from those
religious contemplations and that course of reading which is
favourable to prayer, repentance, and reformation. I wish not to
lessen my grief or banish my feelings of that sorrow which turns
my heart at present to seek God. I dread it will come but too
soon; and were it not for this apprehension I should go on my
journey to Lincolnshire for the Board directly, but I wish to
confirm these feelings and earnestly pray for the Divine grace to
preserve them to the extirpation from my heart of love for the
world or any of its follies.
[Note added by A. Y. in 1817.]
Throughout many of the succeeding notes, several
expressions occur not all consistent with true evangelical
religion; but I would not afterwards alter them, because I wished
to ascertain, on the re-perusal of these papers, what was at the
moment of my affliction the state of my mind and of my faith; and
when I consider what were the books which I read and admired, I
cannot be surprised at any such remarks falling from my pen.
I have often reflected on the great mercy and goodness of God
in not permitting my religious opinions to be permanently injured
by some of the works which it will be found I so eagerly perused
at a period when I could not have one moment’s conversation
with any truly pious character. Two circumstances probably
contributed to this effect: first, the incessant attention which I
gave to reading the New Testament; and secondly, my ardent
study of Mr. Wilberforce’s ‘Practical Christianity,’ though without
thoroughly understanding it.
The solitary life I condemned myself to, or, to speak with more
propriety, which alone I relished, while reading sixteen or
seventeen hours a day, and in which I consequently rather
devoured books than read them, was, I think, very
advantageous, and possibly more so in the final result than if my
authors had been more truly sound.
I have since perused many works which, had they fallen into
my hands at that time, would probably have made me quit my
retirement and rush into the society of men who would have
conducted me, in my then state of mind, to the utmost lengths of
enthusiasm.
The writers I consulted were well calculated to lay a certain
solidity of foundation in the great leading truths of Christianity,
which formed a basis whereon it was easy afterwards to raise a
more evangelical edifice.
In all this business I cannot but admire the goodness of the
Almighty in protecting me from many evils to which I might easily
have been led by my troubled feelings.
[Diary continued.]
Read Dr. Isaac Barrow’s sermon on submission to the Divine
will. He seems a powerful writer, but his language is debased by
expressions void of all dignity. Read a good deal in Barrow on
the pre-existence of human souls. Very singular; the texts on
which he builds support him very faintly, yet there is a degree of
probability in the system consonant to reason.
30th.—Prayed to God over the remains of my dear child, and
the circumstance fills my mind with that melancholy that is not
unsuitable to religious feelings. I do not wonder at the custom of
the primitive Christians praying at the tombs of the departed, it is
an obvious and natural prejudice.
Finished Barrow, and wrote to my friend Mr. Cole to desire he
would apply to his neighbour, the learned Bryant, to know his
opinion of that question. Began Dr. More on the ‘Immortality of
the Soul.’ Capel Lofft spent the day with us; his conversation is
ready on any subject, and mine led to serious ones, which he
seems to like. We had much that was metaphysical on the soul
(pre-existence), a future state, &c. He is of opinion that heaven is
not so very different from our ideas of what this world might be,
as are commonly entertained; and rightly observes, that if death,
evil, anxiety, and disease, with corporeal passions, were
banished, this earth would be a heaven; and that the knowledge
of one another hereafter is not at all inconsistent with our
Saviour’s expression, ‘in My Father’s house are many mansions.’
31st.—Read Littleton’s sermon on the necessity of well
husbanding our time. It is excellent, he has thoughts and modes
of expanding his observations that are beyond the common run.
Laid aside Dr. More on the ‘Immortality of the Soul;’ he gets so
high in the region of fancy, and is so full of jargon and
supposition, under the formula of demonstrations, that I am
disgusted with his farrago; and [there is] so much on witches,
apparitions, &c., as to be mere rubbish.
Read Sherlock’s sixth sermon on the ‘Immortality of the Soul,’
which is an admirable one. I see plainly from what I feel upon
occasion of the severe, dreadfully severe misfortune that I have
met with, that under great afflictions there can be no real
consolation but in religion. I have mused and meditated much on
what philosophy, as it is called, could afford in such an exigency,
but the amount would be no more than the employment of the
mind, and preventing its dwelling without interruption on the loss
sustained, the comfort to be drawn from it would be weak and
vain; but the Gospel offers considerations which bear
immediately on the source of the evil; affords matter of
consolation in the certainty of another life, and in those promises
which meet the yearnings of the distempered soul; diffuses a
calm and quiet resignation to the Divine will, under the pleasing
hope of seeing those again in the next world whom we have
loved tenderly in this. To me it seems that when this wish is
founded on a virtuous object here as that of a parent and a child,
the very hope is an argument in its favour, because it is perfectly
consistent with infinite benevolence to grant it—and the desire
must be universal in every human mind.
August 1.—Read about half of Sherlock on ‘Immortality,’ but
my patience was then quite exhausted; the verbiage is such that
it sickens one, though I approve the doctrine entirely and agree
with him in everything. What a loss! that excellent books for
matter should be so written, or rather spun into such endless
circumlocutions that time is wasted for want of compression.
Read three or four sermons of Littleton—clear, lucid, and
impressive.
At night a Dane came, recommended by Sir J. Sinclair.
Unfortunate to all my feelings. I refuse dining with all my friends,
and to be tormented with a trifler who can speak neither French
nor English.
My mind is in a state that cannot bear interruption. I love to
mope alone, and reflect on my misery.
August 2.—Began Scott’s[181] ‘Christian Life,’ but Smythies
having sent me the sixth volume of Bishop Newton’s[182] works,
containing a dissertation on the ‘Intermediate State,’ I read it with
equal eagerness and satisfaction. It exceeds on that subject all I
have yet met with. He is of opinion, in which all agree, that good
spirits will know each other; and probably, from the parable of
Lazarus, have some knowledge of what passes on earth. But
that is of little consequence in comparison with the most
consoling and comfortable idea contained in the first opinion.
And what a call is it to strive with earnestness and ardour to
arrive at a situation that will recompense us in so great a degree
for every evil and sorrow we can meet with in this world. Can I
then hope, by dedicating the rest of my life here to God, to join
my dear child hereafter, my mother, my other daughter, and my
sister; and should it so please the Almighty in His mercy, my
father and brother? Of the females I can have little doubt, or
rather none. I know too little of the lives of the others to venture
to pronounce. Read also Bishop Newton’s dissertation on the
Resurrection, general judgment, and final state of man. They are
all excellent, and I rather devoured than read them. These books
I must buy to read again with more attention.
3rd.—The Dane is gone, and therefore I am left to my favourite
contemplations. Newton’s dissertations are consoling, for they
leave me no doubts about that hideous doctrine, the sleep of the
soul, which, however it might have been suited for the dead, is
dreadful to those they leave behind. For the rest of my life to
know that my dear child is in a state of conscious existence, and
consequently happy, is the first of comforts; but to feel the
enlivening warmth and light of the sun, thinking that she felt
nothing, but slept in the cold grave, would have almost sunk me
into it. No! she lives, and as there is reason to believe, the
departed spirits have some knowledge of what passes here.
What a call is it to conduct myself so as to give no pain to her!
Let me imagine myself for ever seen by the spirits of my mother
and my child. Let me have a keen feeling of the pain any
unworthy action or impure thought would give to them, and of the
pleasure they would reap from seeing the reverse; that I was so
living as gave them a hope of my joining them hereafter. Let me,
if possible, entertain this persuasion till I am convinced of it. I
cannot have the thought without being the better man. Oh! guard
me against relapsing into evil negligence, the two certain fruits of
pleasure and prosperity.
What are the friendships of the world! What consolation, what
comfort!
When most wanted it is sure to fail. One has business, another
pleasure; one, a family, another a husband, all have something
to render them broken reeds to such as are in want; and whether
the boon be comfort or money, they prove the same to the
touchstone. Who have been my friends? Symonds and Carter
are good men, but I have seen them [of late] only once. Who
must I name but Ogden, Sherlock, Jortin, Bishop Newton, Butler,
Locke, and Clarke? These have told me how to make a friend
not like to fail in the time of need, my God and my Saviour. May I
strengthen and confirm that friendship and turn it to be a habit of
my life! And thou, most gentle spirit of my departed child, if it is
allowed thee to look down on earth, be my guardian angel and
lead me to everlasting life, to join thee to part no more!
4th.—Read three of Bishop Sherlock’s sermons and one of Dr.
Clarke’s, also some passages in his ‘Demonstration of the Truth
of Revealed Religion.’
5th.—Read a very good sermon of Bishop Sherlock on
Redemption, the third in fourth volume. Bishop Butler on human
ignorance, excellent. This subject, in the books I have yet read,
has not been sufficiently treated, it might be made to refute all
the infidels, and draw mankind to a more religious life.
My dear girl’s books are come, her unfinished work, her letters,
&c. Melancholy employment to unpack and arrange them in her
room. If any difference I think of her with more, rather than with
less regret; yet I hope and trust, not without resignation to the
Almighty will of the great and good Being whose providence has
deprived me of her. I think I feel that this deep regret, this calm
sorrow will last my life, and that no events can happen that will
ever banish her from my mind. Ranby called and I conversed
with him about her till tears would, had I continued it, stopped my
speaking. I hate and pity those who avoid talking to the afflicted
upon the subject which causes their affliction, it argues a little
trifling mind in one party or the other.
Read Bishop Sherlock’s ‘Dissertation respecting the Sense of
the Ancients on the Fall of Man,’ which seems to me (who am,
however, no judge) a very clear and satisfactory work. He
appears to have a singular talent in reconciling seeming
difficulties in knotty texts of Scripture, and opens every subject
with great clearness and an acute spirit of discrimination.
I suppose there must be some commonplace book of divinity,
but I know not whose; a collection of luminous passages from
such an immensity of writings as there are on this most important
of all subjects would be very useful; yet every man should make
his own, selecting such topics and observations as come home
to his own case and bosom.
Were I not going now a most uninteresting journey, I would do
this for myself. This tour hangs on my mind; nothing would suit
my feelings so well as to stay here in my present melancholy
gloom, reading divinity, and endeavouring so steadily to fix my
mind on eternity and the hope of joining my dear child, as to
work a change in my habits, my life, my conversation, and
pursuits; and to do all that human frailty will permit to reconcile
myself to the Almighty. These thoughts, however, I shall try to
preserve in spite of a journey. I will take the New Testament and
Wilberforce with me, and read a portion every day, and spend
the Sundays in a manner I have never done yet in travelling.
August 7.—To Ely. Called for a moment on Carter, who thinks
so highly of Bishop Newton that he intends to buy his works.
At Ely quite alone, and no resource but in my own melancholy
ideas. My first thought was to send to a Mr. Hall, who has hired
Tattersall’s farm, or Mr. Metcalfe, a minor canon, who has written
in the ‘Annals of Agriculture’—but I rejected the scheme and kept
to solitude. As soon as I finished dinner I began Mr. Wilberforce
for the fourth time, reading with renewed attention. I hear many
objections to him, of his being a Presbyterian engrafted on a
Methodist, but it is arrant nonsense. My mind goes with him in
every word. View the Minster and Trinity chapel, and venerate
the piety of former ages that raised such noble edifices in honour
of God the Almighty giver and governor of all things. I once
thought such buildings the efforts of superstition, perhaps folly!
How different are my present sentiments! for what can be more
rational than to raise temples of a character that shall impress
some idea, however weak, of the sublimity of that infinite Being
who made and pervades all that exists, except His own great
creative self!
8th.—Rise at five, write to my friends Dr. Valpy and C. Cole. To
Peterborough. Much time for reflection, and it is singular that
even while I am depressed with deep melancholy at the loss I
have sustained, yet unholy ideas and imaginations will intrude. Is
this the devil and his powers of darkness which buffet and beset
us? Is not depravity and sin so inherent in our natures that we
are ever liable to these wanderings which so disgrace our nature
at better moments? But the conclusion, whatever it be owing to,
is clear, that the government of the thoughts is an essential part
of our duty, as Johnson has well explained in an admirable
‘Rambler.’ Such thoughts, unresisted, seize and take possession
of the mind, and they cannot do that without leading to action
and all the guilt that may follow. Repel the first germinating
principle of the idea, and the difficulty is not great; but indulge the
pleasing dream and the heart is vitiated, for the imagination is
impure.
[The remainder of the diary, in the same strain, is much too
long for insertion. Here are a few closing sentences.]
September 2 [in Yorkshire].—To what is it that I shall return?
My child no more! To what at London? Solitary in my lodgings,
where am I to send for her whose cheerfulness gilded every
scene, and little pleasing ways lent such a charm to render her
presence such a comfort to me? All gone—gone for ever! Of that
description of feelings what remains? A blank!—a desert!... Cried
over the hair of my sweet departed Bobbin! Never more in this
world to see thee again!
October 15.—I have torn my heart to pieces with looking at my
dear child’s hair! Melancholy remains, but how precious when
their owner is no more! I am to see her no more in this world.
Gone for ever!
London, November 13.—This day se’nnight I came to town
with Mrs. Y. and Mary. I knew it would be a very uncomfortable
plan; but to do as I would be done by made it proper.
November 26.—I have been a week at Petworth, an
interesting, splendid, gay and cheerful week, and, as too often
the case, a vain, frivolous, and impious one. Sir John Sinclair
would have me on the Sunday go to Goodwood. Never a serious
word, never a soul to church from that house to thank God for
the numerous blessings showered down upon it, and the means
of good which 60,000l. a year confers. Yet Lord Egremont does
all that could be wished as far as humanity, charity, and doing
moral benefits can—but no religion. In the chapel, no worship, no
hats off but my own—dreadful example to a great family and to
his children and to 2,500 people in the town. I talked to Arthur,
and strongly recommended to him to attend constantly and to
keep himself clear from such a want of piety. He disapproves of it
much; and I pray to God that yet he may not be corrupted by
such evil examples, but imbibe a dislike to such want of
gratitude. I watched for opportunities of serious remark, but none
of effect offered except one observation on Lady Webster’s
infidelity in religion, when I threw in a word or two. The very
virtues of such people do mischief by recommending their
irreligious example.
The following letters are selected from those received this

year:—
From Dr. Burney
‘Chelsea College: March 16, 1797.
‘My dear Sir,—You have applied to a very incompetent person

for political consolation in addressing me, an old notorious
alarmist who has long seen evils approaching even worse than
those which have already arrived. I wish anything had happened
to convince me that my mental eyes had been as short-sighted
as those in my head. But, alas! things are going on everywhere
from bad to worse. My foolish countrymen, nay, worse, the
wicked and incurable democrats who inhabit the same island, so
far from being cured by the savage cruelties and universal
misery brought about in France by the Revolution and the
treatment of other countries which she has conquered and even
fraternised with, still long for a revolution here, without even
wishing to avert any of the evils which have happened
elsewhere, from the diabolical character and principles of her
inhabitants! I have seen that a wish to break the Bank has long
been formed, and I even have been advised to get all the cash I
could for my notes if I had any; and the person who advised this
measure, who had never been at the Bank before in his life, and
was forced to inquire his way thither, had been bullying the
harassed clerks to give him cash for a forty-pound note, for no
other purpose than to lock it up. Seven millions of guineas were
issued for notes in one week! Of this sum 300,000l., it is said,
were for notes presented by the English Santerre. A banker from
Norwich had collected notes to the amount of 400,000l., with
which he came post to London in the same seraphic hope of
breaking the Bank; but unluckily for his benevolent plan, the
further issuing of cash had been stopped the night before his
arrival. The favourite Jacobin plan at present is to make this
nation and all Europe believe that we are really in a state of
bankruptcy, and that the notes now in circulation will be soon of
as little value as French assignats, reporting every day that they
are at a very considerable discount, which God forbid should
ever happen. For my own part, I would starve myself to death
sooner than buy, even food, by the parting with a bank note for a
farthing less value than it has hitherto had. But the poor Duke of
Bedford, Mr. Cooke, the dissenting manufacturers, &c., are so
distressed for want of cash to pay their workmen, that they are
obliged to dismiss them. And this, to be sure, is not done with an
intention of throwing all the blame upon Government and making
furious rebels of all the persons discharged. Everything is seen
and represented in the blackest colours—the French always right
and the Administration wrong. For if opposition should ever be
obliged to allow the present ministry to be right, why change it?
And down they must pull every person and thing above them,
even if, like Samson, they are crushed in the ruins, which I have
not the least doubt will be the case if ever the revolution they
seem so determined to bring about should happen.
‘The ballot has fallen upon me to furnish a man and a horse to
the Provisional Cavalry,[183] which has occasioned me much
trouble and vexation. The expense, had it been double, I would
have paid with alacrity, for the defence of everything dear to
honest men, during such a war and with such enemies; but the
business of recruiting, clothing, accoutring, &c., is so new to men
of peace, that they know not how to go to work. Three
substitutes that I had engaged have disappointed me, and the
horse I have purchased I am not sure will pass muster. Had
Government levied a tax of five or ten guineas upon each horse
that was kept for pleasure, either in or out of harness, and done
the business of raising a certain number of cavalry themselves, it
would have been better done, and ladies and superannuated
gentlemen (like my worship) would have escaped infinite plague
and vexation.
‘I am exceedingly sorry that your dear and charming little
daughter is not well.
‘I am, with sincere regard,
‘My dear Sir,
‘Your affectionate Friend,
‘Charles Burney.’
From Edmund Burke, Esq., alluding to the projects in

Parliament before named for regulating the price of labour.
‘Bath: May 23, 1797.
‘Dear Sir,—I am on the point of leaving Bath, having no further

hope of benefit from these waters; and as soon as I get home (if
I should live to get home) should I find the papers transmitted me
by your Board I shall send them faithfully to you; though, to say
the truth, I do not think them of very great importance.
‘My constant opinion was, and is, that all matters relative to
labour ought to be left to the conversations of the parties. That
the great danger is in Government intermeddling too much. What
I should have taken the liberty of addressing to you, had I
possessed strength to go through it, would be to illustrate or
enforce that principle.
‘I am extremely sorry that any one in the House of Commons
should be found so ignorant and unadvised as to wish to revive
the senseless, barbarous, and, in fact, wicked regulations made
against free trade in matters of provision which the good sense
of late Parliaments had removed. I am the more concerned at
the measure, as I was myself the person who moved the repeal
of the absurd code of statutes against the most useful of all
trades, under the invidious names of forestalling and regrating.
But, however, I console myself on this point by considering that it
is not the only breach by which barbarism is entering upon us. It
is, indeed, but a poor consolation, and one taken merely from the
balance of misfortunes.
‘You have titles enough of your own to pass your name to
posterity, and I am pleased that you have got spirit enough to
hope that there will be such a thing as a civilised posterity to
attend to things of this kind.
‘I have the honour to be,
‘With very high respect and esteem,
‘Your most obedient, humble servant,
‘Edmund Burke.’
Mr. Burke died July 7 [note by A. Y.].

From John Symonds, Esq., on public affairs, very gloomy, with
much condemnation of Mr. Pitt.
‘St. Edmund’s Hill: June 8, 1797.
‘At the time, my dear sir, that I received your letter I was
travelling over Italy, in order to figure in your “Annals of
Agriculture;” but the state of that country has been so much
bouleversé, that my head has been turned in reflecting upon it,
as is most probably the case with the greater part of its
inhabitants.
‘You ask me what plan I could propose to save the country.
Arm, undoubtedly, as you say; but how to do it most effectually I
pretend not to determine. You justly reprobate volunteering
infantry.
‘Charles Cole tells me you have something in the press upon
this subject. To fill the army or navy with defenders or volunteers,
is the way to pave the way to our ruin. But I should begin with
proposing a scheme which would probably be heard with
disdain, and which has been rejected by the King: recall Lord
Camden; appoint Lord Moira, Lord Lieutenant, with full powers to
emancipate the Roman Catholics. He is much respected in
Ireland as well as in England, for the opinion formed of him from
his civil and military knowledge and moral character. I have
heard Lord Bishop Douglas, who is no mean estimator of
mankind, often say, that he wished he could see Lord Moira one
of the Secretaries of State.
‘Were the Catholics satisfied, Ireland might bid defiance to the
French, and, perhaps, some regular infantry might thence be
sent to England, which, the Duke of Grafton said lately in the
House of Lords, was much wanted here. But it is in vain to speak
or write about Ireland.
We govern there by a faction—the Beresfords, Fitzgibbons,
and Fosters—whose emoluments, including their relations and
dependents, fall not short of 100,000l. per annum; some think
much more. Now the Polignacs under the old government had
not more than 50,000l. per annum, including a bishopric. This the
Duchess of Liancourt one day made out to me upon paper, yet
she was willing enough to exaggerate the profits of that family;
especially as the old duchess just before had been cast in a
lawsuit with one of them.
‘Your idea of applying to Bonaparte pleases me much. He
would probably do more towards effecting a peace than a
hundred Malmesburys and St. Helens. It will be curious to see
what terms Pitt will propose. There seems to be no doubt but that
the French will insist on having all the places taken from them;
and probably a restitution of twelve or fourteen ships of the line,
and perhaps a sum of money by way of indemnification, for this
word was always in the mouth of our Premier. After this, an
ample recompense to the Dutch and Spaniards, whose interests
the French will consider as their own. A fine peace indeed, after
so many absurd and haughty declarations of our ministry! A
peace there must be or an insurrection, if considerable taxes be
proposed to continue the war. Not that these would be of any
avail; for were the French merely to line their coasts from Ostend
to Calais with troops, and do nothing else, their point would be
carried. At the very time that a separate peace was made by the
Emperor with the French, Mr. Pitt, in the House of Commons,
called him “our great and good ally.” It was but two days after
that the news came of his defection, which every thinking man
naturally expected.
‘Mr. P. seems determined to do dirty jobs to the last; whilst our
enemies are almost at our gates, the subscribers to the loyalty
loan must forsooth be rewarded because many of them are his
Parliamentary friends. Should you hear your knight open himself
on this subject, remind him that a million or a million and a half
are wanted to pay the arrears of the Civil List; that professors,
whose stipends are fixed by Acts of Parliament, are in danger of
losing the profits of a couple of years from an abominable clause
in Burke’s Bill. Remind him of a remarkable circumstance in
Sully’s memoirs. When Henry IV. was in great distress for money
it was proposed to him to decline paying any stipends to the
professors in the University of Paris. “No,” said he, with an
honest indignation, “I will never consent to that; retrench the
expense of my table instead of touching their emoluments.” Such
an answer, and such conduct in conformity to it, reflected
peculiar honour on a prince who had never been trained up in
the study of polite letters
‘Carnot[184] cannot be too much commended for ordering your
agricultural works to be translated and published. It was giving
his countrymen a mass of knowledge, founded on experiment
not to be procured in their own writers. He showed very good
sense in sacrificing party prejudices. Would Pitt have acted thus
in his situation?
‘I have not read Wilberforce’s “Practical View of Christianity,”
nor am I indeed much solicitous about it, for my faith is not built
upon establishments but on the New Testament, which I have
considered with as much attention as most of our divines. W. is a
strict Calvinist, and is therefore orthodox, for he is supported by
our Articles of Religion. I who think that the Articles on this head
are not founded on Scripture, am a heretic, as I take you to be
also. It is very observable that the young theologians of Geneva
are at this day instructed much more in Ostervald’s[185]
Catechism than in Calvin’s books. The death of that worthy man
and excellent master of Italian, Isola, is an exceedingly great loss
to me, for he has managed all my little concerns at Cambridge
for twenty years. He can have left nothing for his family but his
good example. So respected was he by every one, that when a
long illness and his wife’s death prevented him from making his
usual earnings, and he was unavoidably loaded with heavy
debts, they not only raised for him 180l. by private subscriptions
in the Colleges, but in the following year the University gave him
100l. out of the public chest. I shall be very careful in
recommending his successor, for Isola always told me that most
of the Italians in England were rascals, and he therefore had no
communication with them when they came to Cambridge. I
allowed him twenty guineas a year, as few learn Italian. The
profits from teaching it are hardly sufficient to maintain one who
has a family; for parents in general are so foolish as not to
require of their sons the learning of that language, though their
intention is to send them into Italy.
‘Adieu! You will repent provoking me to write.
‘J. Symonds.’
From Jeremy Bentham, Esq., on the poor, &c.

‘Queen Square, Westminster: Sept. 8, 1797.
‘Dear Sir,—It was but the other day that I became master of a
complete series of your “Annals of Agriculture;” accept my
confession and record my penitence. Having on my return from
my long peregrination on the Continent lent to a friend—who had
lent to another friend, whom we neither of us could recollect—the
twenty-five or thirty numbers which I had taken in before that
period, I postponed from time to time the completion of the series
in hopes of recovering the commencement of it. When at last
shame and necessity got the better of procrastination, what a
treasure of information burst upon me. No—so long as power
without ——— and without ——— shall have left an annual
guinea in my pocket (blanks are better here than words) not a
number of the “Annals” shall ever be wanting to my shelves.
Hold—don’t take me for a Jacobin now, nor even for a croaker.
What I allude to is not any common burden, such as you land-
owners and land-holders grunt under, but my own ten thousand
pound tax—my privilegium—a thing as new to English language
as it is to English practice—sole and peculiar fruit of the very
particular notice with which I have been honoured by ———.
‘This waits upon you with a proof of a blank pauper population
table, framed for the purpose of collecting an account of them in
as many parishes as I can. Knowing so well your zeal for all
zeal-worthy objects, and mindful of your often experienced
kindness, I cannot on this occasion harbour a doubt of your
assistance. Is it worth while to give the table the indiscriminate
circulation of your "Annals"? At any rate your editorial Majesty
will, I hope, be pleased graciously to grant unto me your royal
letters, patent or close, or both, addressed to all, and if need be,
singular, your loving subjects my fellow correspondents;
charging and exhorting them, each in his parish—and as many
other parishes as may be—to fill my tables and send in their
contributions.
‘Along with the table you will find a MS. paper, exhibiting the
importance of the information I am thus labouring to collect; you
will print it or suppress it as you think best. I also send in MS. a
table of cases calling for relief; a general map of pauper land
with all the roads to it. Few, if any, of the projects I have seen but
what have appeared (the arch-project not excepted) to bear an
exclusive—at least a predilective—reference to some of these
cases, overlooking or slighting the rest. I send it in the state in
which I propose printing it for my own book; but, in the
meantime, if it be worthy the honour of a place in the “Annals,” it
is altogether at your service. This preparatory insertion will turn
to the advantage of the work itself, if any of your correspondents
(not forgetting their editor) would have the goodness to
contribute their remarks to the emendation of it. You will not
easily conceive—few heads, at least, but yours are qualified to
conceive—the labour it has cost me to bring the two tables to
this state. As to the work at large, it will occupy two independent,
though connected volumes. Pauper systems compared; pauper
management improved—the last the romance, the Utopia, to
which I had once occasion to allude. Romance? How could it be
anything less? I mean to an author’s partial eye. In proportion as
a thing is excellent, when established, is it anything but romance,
and theory, and speculation, till the touch of the seal or the
sceptre has converted it into practice. Distress, at least, distress,
the very life and soul of romance, cannot be denied to mine; for
in this short and close-packed specimen already you behold it in
all its shapes. Magnanimous president! accomplished secretary!
ye, too, have your romance. Heaven send you a happy
catastrophe and a fettered land “a happy deliverance.” Patience!
patience! ye too, before you are comforted, must bear to be
tormented.
‘Apropos of presidents. The high priest of Ceres, having
divined or not divined my recent occupations, has been pleased
to send me a mandate in form, summoning me to devote myself
to this branch of his goddess’s service, that the fruit of my
labours may be consecrated in her temple at Whitehall; so that
whatever other requisites may fail me, I shall be in no want of
auspices.
‘I fear you will say to yourself that the Observations[186] I have
sent you are a sad farrago, but your miscellany, how superior
soever to others in subject-matter and contents, has this in
common with them, that half-formed ideas, so they have but
matter in them, are not prohibited from presenting themselves. It
is part of the character of your correspondents to have more of
substance about them than of form; and of the many
recommendations which join in drawing so much good company
to your conversazione, one, nor that the least, is the
convenience of being admitted to it in boots. Mine (you will say)
have hobnails in them; for, somehow or other, the very idea of
the person to whom I am addressing myself has insensibly
betrayed me into that sort of playful confidence—that
épanchement, as I think the French call it—which I have always
felt in his company.
‘Believe me, with the most serious respect,
‘Ever yours,
‘Jeremy Bentham.’
CHAPTER XIII
DIARY AND CORRESPONDENCE, 1798, 1799,

1800
Assessed taxes—Society—Mr. Pitt and the Board of Agriculture—A foolish

joke—Dinners to poor children—Interview with the King—Royal farming
—Correspondence—Bradfield—Incidents of home travel—Portrait of a
great lady—Correspondence.
January 9, 1798.—At Petworth. This is the way in which I keep a

journal; had I the abilities of Johnson it might be an excuse, but I
am as idle as he without the talents that enabled him to think to
good purpose.
London has passed away till the vacation without much to
note, yet always something; for I met many at Mrs. M. Montagu’s
parties twice a week, whose conversation was interesting. Very
few dinners, for the town was empty. Attended divine service at
Mr. Cecil’s chapel, and ought to have made memoranda.
The breakfast at Wilberforce’s with Mr. Serjeant, Hawkins,
Brown, Thornton, &c., all members in committee on the
assessed taxes.[187] Miss Griffiths, the friend and mother of my
ever dear Bobbin at school, coming to board with Mrs. Y.; these
and many more articles all passed over, and, above all, the
reflections which thronged in my mind on the conclusion of that
year which deprived me of my child and turned my heart so
imperfectly to God Almighty. Without that event how should I
have been able to bear the stroke of the taxes, my share of
which will I fear be 100l.
Had I been out of debt it would have been comparatively light,
but I am seized about some bills which yet remain, and which, if I
pay,[188] shall not be able to pay those taxes. I have advertised
my cottage and eighty acres of land to let, but no chance of
getting such a rent as I know I ought to have to make letting
answer.
I have been here with Lord Egremont above a fortnight. A
good deal of rabble, but some better. Lord Spencer, Lord Althorp,
Lord Dungarvan, Lord Milton, Lord Stair, Sir John Shelley, Mr.
James Feiryman, &c. I shall stay the whole vacation.
February 14.—Another great gap, in which time I was four
days with the Duke of Bedford at Woburn, with a strange party,
for all in all I think the most strange I have been in for many
years. Trevis, the pseudo-Venetian Jew, who came long ago to
England, has ran through a great fortune, reduced from
200,000l.to 1,200l. a year, having shined with most satanic light
in the annals of gallantry; Lady Stanhope, Lady Cadogan, and a
hundred more. Strong parts, wits, originality (name evidently
omitted here) and at seventy-one sings wonderfully; Lord
Lauderdale, who is a very pleasant, easy, cheerful companion
with knowledge, and so more capable of doing mischief; Lord
Maynard, Johns the parson, Bob Lee, Bligh, &c. The duke has
much good sense and clearness of head.
On my return to town, Lord Carrington applied to me to get a
drainer for Mr. Pitt at Holwood. I told him none to be had but from
a distance, and at a considerable expense; that perhaps it was
an easy job, and if so his own people could do it if the drains
were marked out for them, and I would go and look when nobody
there. Next day he came again from Pitt with thanks, and
desiring me to go when he was there.
I went, and examined the land. A hill wet from springs, the
cure obvious. So I am to do it for him. He and Lord Auckland and
Lord Carrington walked round the place with me, and then
returned to a cold dinner, where we debated the Board of
Agriculture, and Pitt seemed pleased with my idea of
Government hiring the Bishop of Llandaff’s house for the Board,
and so getting rid of the difficulty of not being able to quit Sir J.

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Waves and Optics 1st Edition Harish

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Chapter 4: Probability Teory and Statistics required for

Chapter 6: Applications of Lie groups and Lie algebras, fltering,

The wave equation with

1.1 The Deﬁnition of a propagating wave in one,

At time t + τ , this surface moves to the surface

which is the same as

cp (r, n̂) = (k.n)−1 ω(k)

cos(ω(k)t − k.r) + cos(ω(k + dk)t − (k + dk).r)

= −2sin(dk.∇k ω(k)t/2 − dk.r/2).sin(ω(k)t − k.r)

This describes a forward propagating wave. Likewise a backward propagating

u(t, x) = uf (t, x) + ub (t, x) = f (t − x/c) + g(t + x/c)

An easy calculation shows that if f, g are twice diﬀerentiable functions, then u

u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0

ψ(t, r) = A.sin(ω(t − |r|/c)/|r|

satisﬁes the three dimensional wave equation.

u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0

with boundary conditions

u(t, 0) = f (t), u(t, L) = g(t)

1.1.3 Advanced Exercises

Show that ψ satisﬁes the wave equation

divE = 0, divH = 0, curlE = −jωμH, curlH = jωeE

divE = 0, (∇2 +k 2 )E = 0, divH = 0, (∇2 +k 2 )H = 0, curlE = −jωμH, curlH = jωeE

which in turn implies

divE = 0, divH = 0, (∇2 + k 2 )(r.E) = 0, (∇2 + k 2 )(r.H) = 0,

where fl , gl satisfy the ode

f '' (r) + (2/r)f ' (r) − (l(l + 1)/r2 )f (r) + k 2 f (r) = 0

By making an appropriate transformation of the the independent variable r,

is the usual angular momentum vector operator in quantum mechanics. What

1.1.4 Points to remember

u,tt (t, x) − c2 u,xx (t, x) = 0

This satisﬁes the 3-D wave equation

If f (t) = A.cos(ωt + φ) in this expression, then the constant phase surfaces at

1.2 Standing waves in one, two and three di-

Ax .cos(ωt + φx )x̂ + Ay .cos(ωt + φy )ŷ

((A/2).cos(ωt + φ)n̂ + (A/2)sin(ωt + φ)m̂)

+((A/2).cos(ωt + φ)n̂ − (A/2)sin(ωt + φ)m̂)

ψ(t, r) = ψ(t − n.r/c,

ψ(t, r) = sin(ωt − k.r) + sin(ωt + k.r)

[6] If we are given a wave of the form ψ(t, r) = A.sin(|k|ct − k.r + φ)

1.2.4 Advanced Exercises

ψ(t, r) = s1 (t − |r|/c)/|r| + s2 (t + |r|/c)/|r|

By means of an example, explain when this deﬁnes a standing wave.

[2] Consider the 1-D wave

ψ(t, x) = A1 .cos(k(ct − x) + φ1 ) + A2 .cos(k(ct + x) + φ2 )

Under what conditions on Ak , φk , k = 1, 2 does this represent a standing wave.

[3] Given a wave ﬁeld ψ(t, x) in one dimension, we wish to approximate it in

1.2.5 Points to remember

1.3 The polarization of a wave

and the output can be expressed as

In addition, if this vector wave ﬁeld is corrupted by a noise ﬁeld W (t, r) =