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 DOING
PHILOSOPHY

2
 DOING
PHILOSOPHY
An Introduction through Thought
Experiments
Sixth Edition

THEODORE SCHICK, JR.

Muhlenberg College

3
DOING PHILOSOPHY: AN INTRODUCTION THROUGH THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS,
SIXTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©

2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, and 2006. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not
limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for
distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to
customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 21 20 19

ISBN 978-0-07-811917-0 (bound edition)

MHID 0-07-811917-0 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-68704-0 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-68704-X (loose-leaf edition)

Product Developers: Erika Lo, Elisa Odoardi

Marketing Manager: Nancy Baudean
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Compositor: Cenveo® Publisher Services

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of
the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Schick, Theodore, author.

Title: Doing philosophy : an introduction through thought experiments / Theodore Schick, Jr.,
Muhlenberg College.
Description: Sixth Edition. | Dubuque : McGraw-Hill Education, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018040554 (print) | LCCN 2018043333 (ebook) | ISBN 9781260686425
(ebook) | ISBN 9780078119170 (alk. paper)

4
Subjects: LCSH: Philosophy—Introductions.
Classification: LCC BD21 (ebook) | LCC BD21 .S34 2019 (print) | DDC 100—dc23 LC
record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018040554

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The
inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill
Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information
presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

5
DOING PHILOSOPHY

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright

©2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to
customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 21 20 19

ISBN 978-1-260-56616-1
MHID 1-260-56616-1

Cover Image: Jacob W. Frank/National Park Service

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of
the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The
inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill
Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information
presented at these sites.

6
mheducation.com/highered

7
To my students, for all they’ve taught me.

8
Preface

Teaching an introductory philosophy course is one of the most difficult

tasks a philosophy instructor faces. Because philosophy isn’t usually
taught in secondary schools, most entering college students have no idea
what philosophy is or why they should be studying it. Any notions they do
have about philosophy generally have little to do with the practice of
professional philosophers. To help students understand the nature and
purpose of philosophical inquiry, Doing Philosophy: An Introduction
through Thought Experiments explains how philosophical problems arise
and why searching for solutions is important.
It is essential for beginning students to read primary sources, but if that
is all they are exposed to, the instructor must bear the burden of
interpreting, explaining, and providing context for the selections. This
burden can be a heavy one, for most articles in introductory anthologies
were written for professional philosophers. After reading a number of
these articles, students are often left with the impression that philosophy is
a collection of incompatible views on a number of unrelated subjects. To
pass the course, they end up memorizing who said what and do not
develop the critical thinking skills often considered the most important
benefit of studying philosophy. By exploring the interrelationships among
philosophical problems and by providing a framework for evaluating their
solutions, Doing Philosophy overcomes the problem of fragmentation
encountered in smorgasbord approaches to philosophy.
One can know a great deal about what philosophers have said without
knowing what philosophy is because philosophy is as much an activity as
it is a body of knowledge. So knowing how philosophers arrive at their
conclusions is at least as important as knowing what conclusions they’ve
arrived at. This text acquaints students with both the process and the
product of philosophical inquiry by focusing on one of the most widely
used philosophical techniques: the method of thought experiment or

9
counterexample. Thought experiments test philosophical theories by
determining whether they hold in all possible situations. They make the
abstract concrete and highlight important issues in a way that no amount of
exegesis can. By encouraging students to evaluate and perform thought
experiments, Doing Philosophy fosters active learning and creative
thinking.
Good critical thinkers are adept at testing claims by asking the question
“What if . . . ?” and following the answer through to its logical conclusion.
Thought experiments are particularly useful in testing philosophical
theories because they often reveal hidden assumptions and unexpected
conceptual complications. Given the central role that thought experiments
have played in philosophical inquiry, there is reason to believe that
knowing classic thought experiments is as important to understanding
philosophy as knowing classic physical experiments is to understanding
science. By tracing the historical and logical development of thinking on a
number of classic philosophical problems, we hope to provide students
with a solid grounding in the discipline and prepare them for more
advanced study.
Students sometimes express surprise that philosophy is still being done.
They have the idea that it’s merely a historical curiosity, of no
contemporary relevance. Purely historical survey courses often perpetuate
that idea. Doing Philosophy attempts to show that philosophy is a vibrant,
thriving discipline actively engaged in some of the most important
intellectual inquiries being conducted today.
To give instructors maximum flexibility in designing their course, the
text is divided into self-contained chapters, each of which explores a
philosophical problem. The introduction to each chapter explains the
problem, defines some key concepts, and identifies the intellectual
objectives students should try to achieve as they read the chapter. Classic
arguments and thought experiments are highlighted in the text, and
numerous “thought probes” or leading questions are placed throughout to
encourage students to think more deeply about the material covered.
Various boxes and quotations are also included that relate the material to
recent discoveries or broader cultural issues. Each section concludes with
study and discussion questions. Classic and contemporary readings are
included at the end of each chapter so that students can see some of the
more important theories and thought experiments in context. Some sets of
readings contain a piece of fiction—an extended thought experiment—that
raises many of the questions dealt with in the chapter. The goal throughout
is not only to present students with the best philosophical thinking on each

10
topic but also to challenge them to examine their own philosophical
beliefs. Only through active engagement with the issues can real
philosophical understanding arise.
The sixth edition of Doing Philosophy features new readings by Ernest
Sosa, Mark Balaguer, Eddy Nahmias, John Stuart Mill, and Hans Moravec
and new material on Stoicism, alternatives to theism, the argument from
nonbelief, the actual infinite, the Libet experiment, the integrated
information theory of mind, the simulation hypothesis, nonhuman persons,
and transhumanism. There are also a number of new boxes, thought
probes, and discussion questions to stimulate more in-depth thinking on
the issues. Important continuing features include a coherent theoretical
framework that helps students understand both the historical and the
logical development of philosophical thinking; more than seventy-five
thought experiments that test the adequacy of various philosophical
theories; classic and contemporary readings that acquaint students with the
original writings from which the theories and thought experiments are
drawn; probing questions throughout each chapter that foster active
learning and creative thinking; boxed features and quotes that relate
philosophical issues to current events and classic writers; Internet Inquiries
at the end of each chapter that suggest Internet searches students can
perform to learn more about the issues raised in the chapter; biographical
boxes that provide background information on important philosophers
covered in the text; chapter introductions that explain the philosophical
problem being explored, define key concepts, and identify chapter
objectives; and chapter summaries, study questions, and discussion
questions that encourage students to think more deeply about the subject
matter.

Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Lewis Vaughn for all his help on previous editions.
Many people have offered their wisdom and insight on this project.
Although I have not always heeded it, I would especially like to thank
Wayne Alt, Community College of Baltimore County; Gordon Barnes,
SUNY Brockport; Jack DeBellis, Lehigh University; Nori Geary, New
York Hospital—Cornell Medical Center; Stuart Goldberg; James Hall,
Kutztown University; Dale Jacquette, Pennsylvania State University;
Robert Charles Jones, Stanford University; Jonathan Levinson; Jeffrey
Nicholas, Bridgewater State College; Nick Oweyssi, North Harris College;
Abram Samuels; Ludwig Schlecht, Muhlenberg College; Thomas Theis,

11
Thomas J. Watson Research Center; Vivian Walsh, Muhlenberg College;
Robert Wind, Muhlenberg College; and James Yerkes, Moravian College.
We would also like to thank the following reviewers for their suggestions:
Julius Bailey, Wittenburg University; David Chalmers, University of
Arizona, Tucson; Alfred A. Decker, Bowling Green State University; Rev.
Ronald DesRosiers, SM, Madonna University; Stephen Russell Dickerson,
South Puget Sound Community College; Kevin E. Dodson, Lamar
University; Jeremiah Hackett, University of South Carolina; David L.
Haugen, Western Illinois University; Douglas E. Henslee, San Jose State
University; Charles Hinkley, Texas State University, San Marcos; Karen
L. Hornsby, North Carolina A&T State University; Margaret C. Huff,
Northeastern University; David Kyle Johnson, King’s College; John
Knight, University of Wisconsin Centers—Waukesha; Richard Lee,
University of Arkansas; Chris Lubbers, Muskegon Community College;
Thomas F. MacMillan, Mendocino College; Mark A. Michael, Austin
Peay State University; Dr. Luisa Moon, Mira Costa College; Augustine
Minh Thong Nguyen, Eastern Kentucky University; David M. Parry, Penn
State Altoona; Jerrod Scott, Brookhaven College; Leonard Shulte, North
West Arkansas Community College; Robert T. Sweet, Clark State
Community College; Joseph Vitti, Central Maine Community College;
Ron Wilburn, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; and David Wisdo,
Columbus State University. I also wish to thank Muhlenberg College and
the staff of the Trexler Library for their unflagging support.

12
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Contents

Preface

Chapter 1 The Philosophical Enterprise

Objectives
Section 1.1 Explaining the Possibility of the Impossible:
Philosophical Problems and Theories
Philosophical Problems
Metaphysics
Epistemology
Axiology
Logic
The Stakes in Philosophical Inquiry
The Mind-Body Problem
The Problem of Free Will
The Problem of Personal Identity
The Problem of Moral Relativism
The Problem of Evil
The Problem of Skepticism
Box: What Is Your Philosophy?
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Socrates and the Socratic Method
Box: In the News: The Oracle at Delphi
Box: Pre-Socratic Philosophers
Science and the Scientific Method
Box: The Laws of Thought
Logical versus Causal Possibility
Thought Probe: Possibilities

18
 Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 1.2 Evidence and Inference: Proving Your Point
Identifying Arguments
Deductive Arguments
Some Valid Argument Forms
Some Invalid Argument Forms
Inductive Arguments
Enumerative Induction
Analogical Induction
Hypothetical Induction (Abduction, Inference to the Best
Explanation)
Informal Fallacies
Unacceptable Premises
Irrelevant Premises
Insufficient Premises
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 1.3 The Laboratory of the Mind: Thought
Experiments
Thought Probe: Platonic Humans
Case Study: Explaining How Moral Abortions Are Possible
Thought Experiment: Warren’s Moral Space Traveler
Thought Probe: Nonhuman Persons
How Are Thought Experiments Possible?
Criticizing Thought Experiments
Conceivability and Possibility
Scientific Thought Experiments
Thought Experiment: Impossibility of Aristotle’s Theory of Motion
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: Tooley’s Cat
Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Diseased Musician
Internet Inquiries

19
Readings
BERTRAND RUSSELL:The Value of Philosophy
Reading Questions
BRAND BLANSHARD: The Philosophic Enterprise

Reading Questions
Notes

Chapter 2 The Mind-Body Problem

Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Mechanical Moron
Thought Experiment: Leibniz’s Mental Mill
Box: In the News: The Approaching Singularity
Thought Probe: Artificial Intelligence
Objectives
Section 2.1 The Ghost in the Machine: Mind as Soul
Descartes’ Doubt
Thought Probe: Are We Living in a Computer Simulation?
Box: René Descartes: Father of Modern Philosophy
I Think, Therefore I Am
The Conceivability Argument
Box: The Biblical Conception of the Person
Box: In the News: Descartes and Vivisection
Thought Probe: Heaven without Bodies
The Divisibility Argument
Thought Probe: A Split-Brain Patient of Two Minds
The Problem of Interaction
Box: Parallelism: Occasionalism and the Preestablished Harmony
The Causal Closure of the Physical
Thought Probe: Mental Relay Stations
The Problem of Other Minds
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 2.2 You Are What You Eat: Mind as Body
Empiricism

20
 Box: David Hume: The Model Philosopher
Logical Positivism
Logical Behaviorism
Box: Ryle’s Category Mistake
Thought Experiment: Ryle’s University Seeker
Thought Experiment: The Perfect Pretender
Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Super-Spartans
Box: Behavioral Therapy
Thought Experiment: Chisholm’s Expectant Nephew
The Identity Theory
Identity and Indiscernibility
Box: Do You Use Only 10 Percent of Your Brain?
Conscious Experience
Thought Experiment: Nagel’s Bat
Thought Experiment: Lewis’s Pained Martian
Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Conscious Computer
Thought Probe: Speciesism
Thought Experiment: Searle’s Brain Replacement
Thought Probe: Neural Prostheses
Box: In the News: Neural Chips
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: Your Mother, the Zombie
Internet Inquiries
Section 2.3 I, Robot: Mind as Software
Artificial Intelligence
Box: Transhumanism and the Promise of Immortality
Thought Probe: Transhumanism
Functionalism and Feeling
Thought Experiment: Lewis’s Pained Madman
Thought Experiment: Block’s Chinese Nation
Thought Experiment: Putnam’s Inverted Spectrum
Box: Inverted Spectra and Pseudonormal Vision
Thought Probe: Pseudonormal Vision
The Turing Test
Thought Experiment: The Imitation Game
Box: Alan Turing: Father of Code and Computers

21
 Thought Experiment: Searle’s Chinese Room
Thought Probe: Total Turing Test
Intentionality
Thought Experiment: Block’s Conversational Jukebox
Thought Probe: Devout Robots
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 2.4 There Ain’t No Such Things as Ghosts: Mind as
Myth
Thought Experiment: Rorty’s Demons
Folk Psychology
Subjective Knowledge
Thought Experiment: Mary, the Color-Challenged Scientist
Box: In the News: Seeing Color for the First Time
Thought Probe: Seeing Color
Thought Experiment: Zombies
Thought Probe: Zombies
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 2.5 The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts:
Mind as Quality
Primitive Intentionality
Box: The Double Aspect Theory
Thought Experiment: Jacquette’s Intentionality Test
Emergentism
Box: Integrated Information Theory and the Consciousness Meter
Panpsychism
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings
RENÉ DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy: Meditation II

22
 Reading Questions
DAVID M. ARMSTRONG: The Mind-Brain Identity Theory
Reading Questions
DAVID CHALMERS: The Puzzle of Conscious Experience

Reading Questions
Notes

Chapter 3 Free Will and Determinism

Box: In the Courts: The Devil Made Me Do It
Objectives
Section 3.1 The Luck of the Draw: Freedom as Chance
Hard Determinism
Thought Experiment: Laplace’s Superbeing
Thought Probe: The Book of Life
Box: Freedom and Foreknowledge
Thought Probe: Freedom and Foreknowledge
The Consequence Argument
Box: Fatalism versus Causal Determinism
Thought Probe: A World without Responsibility
Science and the Nature/Nurture Debate
Box: Free Will: A Noble Lie?
Thought Probe: A Noble Lie
Thought Probe: Behavior Modification
Box: Is Determinism Self-Refuting?
Thought Probe: Defending Determinism
Thought Probe: Genetic Engineering
Thought Experiment: Gardner’s Random Bombardier
Common Sense and Causal Determinism
Thought Probe: Living with Hard Determinism
Indeterminism
Box: William James: Physiologist, Psychologist, Philosopher
Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Unpredictable Arm
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: Newcomb’s Paradox

23
 Internet Inquiries
Section 3.2 The Mother of Invention: Freedom as Necessity
Thought Experiment: Locke’s Trapped Conversationalist
Box: Thomas Hobbes: The Great Materialist
Traditional Compatibilism
Punishment
Prepunishment
Thought Probe: Minority Report
Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Ingenious Physiologist
Box: In the News: Guilty Minds and Pre-Crime
Thought Probe: Guilty Minds and Pre-Crime
Thought Experiment: Taylor’s Drug Addiction
Box: In the Courts: Government-Sponsored Brainwashing
Thought Probe: The Manchurian Candidate
Thought Probe: Religious Cults
Hierarchical Compatibilism
Thought Experiment: Frankfurt’s Unwilling and Wanton Addicts
Thought Experiment: Frankfurt’s Happy Addict
Thought Experiment: Frankfurt’s Decision Inducer
Thought Experiment: Slote’s Hypnotized Patient
Thought Probe: The Willing Bank Teller
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 3.3 Control Yourself: Freedom as Self-Determination
The Case for Freedom
The Argument from Experience
The Argument from Deliberation
The Neurophysiological Challenge
Thought Probe: Is Free Won’t Enough for Free Will?
Box: Neurophysiological Evidence for Free Will
Agent Causation
Box: Sartre and Smullyan on Free Will
Thought Probe: Self-Consciousness and Free Will
Thought Probe: Free Androids
Summary
Study Questions

24
 Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings
BARON D’HOLBACH: A Defense of Hard Determinism
Reading Questions
EDDY NAHMIAS: Is Neuroscience the Death of Free Will?

Reading Questions
MARK BALAGUER: Torn Decisions
Reading Questions
GEOFFREY KLEMPNER: The Black Box

Reading Questions
Notes

Chapter 4 The Problem of Personal Identity

Box: In the Courts: Kathleen Soliah, a.k.a. Sara Jane Olson
Thought Probe: A Different Person
Objectives
Section 4.1 We Are Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On: Self
as Substance
Thought Probe: Hobbes’s Ship of Theseus
Persons
Thought Probe: Dolphins
Animalism
Thought Experiment: The Vegetable Case
Box: In the News: Eternal Life through Cloning
Thought Probe: Safe Cloning
Thought Experiment: Benjamin’s Questionable Cure
Box: The Definition of Death
Thought Probe: Permanently Unconscious
Thought Experiment: Locke’s Tale of the Prince and the Cobbler
Thought Experiment: The Transplant Case
Thought Experiment: Unger’s Great Pain
Box: In the Courts: Multiple-Personality Disorder
Thought Probe: Multiple Personalities
The Soul Theory

25
 Box: St. Augustine: Soul Man
Thought Experiment: The King of China
Box: Transubstantiation
Thought Experiment: Nestor and Thersites
Thought Experiment: Kant’s Soul Switch
Thought Probe: Souls in Heaven
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 4.2 Golden Memories: Self as Psyche
The Memory Theory
Box: John Locke: The Great Empiricist
Box: In the Courts: Sleepwalking and Murder
Thought Probe: Sleepwalking and Murder
Thought Probe: Memory Damping
The Inconsistency Objection
Thought Experiment: Reid’s Tale of the Brave Officer and Senile
General
Thought Probe: Were You Ever a Fetus?
The Circularity Objection
Box: In the News: Soul Catcher
Thought Probe: Soul Catcher
Thought Probe: Merging of the Minds
The Insufficiency Objection
Thought Probe: Should Joshua Blahyi Be Punished?
The Psychological Continuity Theory
Thought Probe: Is Darth Vader Anakin Skywalker?
The Reduplication Problem I: Reincarnation
Thought Experiment: Williams’s Reincarnation of Guy Fawkes
Thought Experiment: Williams’s Reduplication Argument
The Reduplication Problem II: Teletransportation
Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Transporter Tale
Box: Quantum Teleportation
Thought Probe: Transporter Travel
Thought Probe: Can You Go to Heaven?
Summary
Study Questions

26
 Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: Bodily Torture
Internet Inquiries
Section 4.3 You Can’t Step into the Same River Twice: Self as
Process
The Brain Theory
Thought Experiment: Shoemaker’s Brain Transplant
Box: A Brain Is a Terrible Thing to Waste
Thought Probe: Body Transplants
Split Brains
Box: Alien Hand Syndrome
Thought Probe: Who Is Behind the Hand?
Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Division
Closest Continuer Theories
Box: Buddhists on the Self and Nirvana
Thought Probe: Branch Lines
Identity and What Matters in Survival
Identity and What Matters in Responsibility
Thought Experiment: Parfit’s Reformed Nobelist
Explaining the Self
Thought Probe: Robert and Frank
Moral Agents, Narratives, and Persons
Thought Probe: Being Clive Wearing
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings
JOHN LOCKE: Of Identity and Diversity
Reading Questions
DEREK PARFIT: Divided Minds and the Nature of Persons

Reading Questions
HANS MORAVEC: Dualism from Reductionism
Reading Questions
Notes

27
Chapter 5 The Problem of Relativism and Morality
Objectives
Section 5.1 Don’t Question Authority: Might Makes Right
Subjective Absolutism
Subjective Relativism
Emotivism
Thought Experiment: Blanshard’s Rabbit
Cultural Relativism
Box: In the News: Universal Human Rights
The Anthropological Argument
The Logical Structure of Moral Judgments
Thought Probe: When in Rome
The Divine Command Theory
Box: In the Courts: God Is My Attorney
Thought Probe: Commanded to Kill
Box: The Fortunes of Hell
Are There Universal Moral Principles?
Box: Moral Children
Thought Probe: Moral Children
Thought Probe: Moral Knowledge
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 5.2 The End Justifies the Means: Good Makes Right
Box: Is Life Intrinsically Valuable?
Thought Probe: Moral Justification
Ethical Egoism
Box: Ayn Rand on the Virtue of Selfishness
Thought Experiment: Feinberg’s Single-Minded Hedonist
Act-Utilitarianism
Box: Jeremy Bentham: Making Philosophy Do Work
Thought Probe: Our Obligations to Future Generations
Problems with Rights
Thought Experiment: McCloskey’s Utilitarian Informant
Thought Experiment: Brandt’s Utilitarian Heir

28
 Problems with Duties
Thought Experiment: Ross’s Unhappy Promise
Thought Experiment: Godwin’s Fire Rescue
Problems with Justice
Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Utilitarian Torture
Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Innocent Criminal
Thought Probe: The Utility Machine
Rule-Utilitarianism
Thought Experiment: Nozick’s Experience Machine
Thought Probe: Paradise Engineering and the Abolitionist Project
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: Williams’s South American Showdown
Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Trolley Problem
Thought Experiment: Thomson’s Transplant Problem
Internet Inquiries
Section 5.3 Much Obliged: Duty Makes Right
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
The First Formulation
Box: Immanuel Kant: Small-Town Genius
Thought Probe: Enhanced Punishment
Thought Experiment: Hare’s Nazi Fanatic
Thought Experiment: Ross’s Good Samaritan
The Second Formulation
Thought Probe: Animal Rights
Thought Experiment: Broad’s Typhoid Man
Thought Experiment: Ewing’s Prudent Diplomat
Thought Probe: Easy Rescue
Ross’s Prima Facie Duties
Thought Probe: Desert Island Bequest
Rawls’ Contractarianism
Thought Probe: Just Policies
Nozick’s Libertarianism
Thought Experiment: Nozick’s Basketball Player
Thought Probe: Consensual Cannibalism
Justice, the State, and the Social Contract
Hobbes

29
 Locke
Nozick
Thought Experiment: Widerquist’s Libertarian Monarchy
Thought Probe: Libertarian Government
Box: In the News: Jillian’s Choice
Thought Probe: Jillian’s Choice
The Ethics of Care
Thought Probe: Lying with Care
Making Ethical Decisions
Thought Probe: The Zygmanik Brothers
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 5.4 Character Is Destiny: Virtue Makes Right
The Virtuous Utilitarian
Thought Probe: Giving to Charity
The Virtuous Kantian
Thought Experiment: Stocker’s Hospitalized Patient
Box: Children without a Conscience
Thought Probe: Empathy and Agency
The Purpose of Morality
Aristotle on Virtue
Box: Aristotle: Pillar of Western Thought
Box: The Buddha on Virtue
The Stoics on Virtue
Thought Probe: Aristotle versus the Stoics on the Good Life
MacIntyre on Virtue
Nussbaum on Virtue
Thought Probe: Medical Treatment
Virtue Ethics
Thought Probe: The Ring of Gyges
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings

30
 JEREMY BENTHAM: Of the Principle of Utility
Reading Questions
IMMANUEL KANT: Good Will, Duty, and the Categorical Imperative
Reading Questions
MARTHA NUSSBAUM: Non-Relative Virtues

Reading Questions
Notes

Chapter 6 The Problem of Evil and the Existence of

God
Box: Biblical Archaeology
Thought Probe: Biblical Truths
Box: Religious Adherents
Thought Probe: Deluded Believers
Thought Probe: Holy Scripture
Objectives
Section 6.1 The Mysterious Universe: God as Creator
The Traditional Cosmological Argument
Box: Thomas Aquinas
Box: An Actual Infinite: The Quantum Hilbert Hotel
The Kalam Cosmological Argument
Thought Probe: Why a Universe?
The Teleological Argument
The Analogical Design Argument
Thought Experiment: Paley’s Watch
The Best-Explanation Design Argument
Box: In the Courts: Is Evolution Just a Theory?
Box: Extraterrestrial Design
Thought Probe: Intelligent Design
Box: Creationism and Morality
Thought Probe: Human Design Flaws
The Argument from Miracles
Box: Was Jesus a Magician?
Thought Probe: Jesus’s Miracles
Box: Parting the Red Sea

31
 Thought Probe: Parting the Red Sea
Thought Probe: The Fivefold Challenge
The Argument from Religious Experience
Box: This Is Your Brain on God
Thought Probe: Religious Experience
Thought Probe: St. Paul on the Road to Damascus
The Ontological Argument
Anselm’s Ontological Argument
Thought Experiment: Gaunilo’s Lost Island
Descartes’ Ontological Argument
Thought Experiment: Edwards’s Gangle
Thought Probe: One More God
Pascal’s Wager
Thought Experiment: Pascal’s Wager
Box: Silverman’s Wager
Thought Probe: The Best Bet
Thought Probe: Alien Religion
God and Science
Thought Probe: Goulder versus Augustine
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 6.2 When Bad Things Happen to Good People: God as
Troublemaker
Thought Experiment: Rowe’s Fawn
St. Augustine and the Free-Will Defense
Thought Probe: Is There Free Will in Heaven?
The Knowledge Defense
The Ideal-Humanity Defense
Box: In the News: Natural Evil
Thought Probe: Wrath of God
The Soul-Building Defense
The Finite-God Defense
Box: Karma and the Problem of Inequality
Thought Probe: Karma
Box: The Argument from Nonbelief

32
 Thought Probe: The Argument from Nonbelief
Thought Probe: What If God Died?
Alternatives to Theism
Gnosticism
Deism
Pantheism
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Thought Experiment: The Invisible Gardener
Internet Inquiries
Section 6.3 Faith and Meaning: Believing the Unbelievable
The Leap of Faith
Thought Probe: Kierkegaard and Russell
Evidentialism
Thought Probe: Blanshard’s Beliefs
The Will to Believe
Thought Probe: James and Pandeism
The Meaning of Life
Thought Experiment: God’s Plan
Thought Probe: Meaning and Morality
Existentialism
Thought Probe: Meaning and Purpose
Religion without God
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS:The Five Ways
Reading Questions
DAVID HUME: Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Reading Questions
JOHN STUART MILL: A Finite God

Reading Questions
Notes

33
Chapter 7 The Problem of Skepticism and Knowledge
Objectives
Section 7.1 Things Aren’t Always What They Seem:
Skepticism about Skepticism
Greek Rationalism
Parmenides
Thought Probe: Thinking about Nothing
Zeno
Thought Experiment: Zeno’s Paradox of Bisection
Plato
Box: Solving Parmenides’ and Zeno’s Paradoxes
Thought Probe: Innate Knowledge
Cartesian Skepticism
Cartesian Doubt
Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Dream Argument
Thought Probe: Dreams and Reality
Thought Experiment: Descartes’ Evil Genius Argument
Thought Experiment: Unger’s Mad Scientist
Cartesian Certainty
Reasonable Doubt
The Empiricist Alternative
The Problem of Induction
Thought Probe: Science and Faith
The Kantian Synthesis
Thought Probe: Constructing Reality
Mystical Experience
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 7.2 Facing Reality: Perception and the External
World
Direct Realism
Representative Realism
Thought Probe: Hypothesizing the External World
Phenomenalism

34
 Thought Experiment: The Inconceivability of the Unconceived
Box: George Berkeley: The Ultimate Empiricist
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Section 7.3 What Do You Know?: Knowing What Knowledge
Is
Thought Experiment: Gettier’s Guy in Barcelona
The Defeasibility Theory
Thought Experiment: Lehrer and Paxson’s Demented Mrs. Grabit
The Causal Theory
Thought Experiment: Goldman’s Fake Barns
The Reliability Theory
Thought Experiment: Lehrer’s Human Thermometer
Virtue Perspectivism
Summary
Study Questions
Discussion Questions
Internet Inquiries
Readings
RENÉ DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy: Meditation 1
Reading Questions
BERTRAND RUSSELL: On Induction

Reading Questions
ERNEST SOSA: Getting It Right

Reading Questions
THOMAS D. DAVIS: Why Don’t You Just Wake Up?

Reading Questions
Notes
Index

35
 Chapter 1
The Philosophical
Enterprise

36
© Triff/Shutterstock

37
 hilosophy, Plato tells us, “begins in wonder”—wonder about the

P universe, its contents, and our place in it. What is the universe? Is
it composed solely of matter, or does it contain immaterial things
like spirits? How can we tell? Is sense experience the only source of
knowledge, or are there other ways of knowing? Why are we here? Were
we created by God as part of a divine plan, or did we come into being as
the result of purely natural processes? Is there a God? If so, what sort of
being is he (she) (it)? What kind of creatures are we? Do we have a soul
that will survive the death of our bodies, or will we cease to exist when our
bodies die? Are we masters of our destiny, or are our actions determined
by forces beyond our control? What are our obligations to other people?
Do we have a duty to help others, or is our only obligation to not harm
them? Such questions are at once both familiar and strange: familiar
because most of us have had to face them at some point in our lives;
strange because it’s unclear how we should go about answering them.
Unlike most questions, they can’t be answered by scientific investigation.
Some would say that that makes the answers unknowable. But to say that
something is unknowable is to have already answered the question about
the nature of knowledge. You can’t claim that something is unknowable
without assuming a particular theory of knowledge. Philosophical
questions are unavoidable because any attempt to avoid them requires
taking a stand on them. As Pascal put it, “To ridicule philosophy is to
philosophize.”
Philosophy consists not in airy schemes
or idle speculations; the rule and conduct
of all social life is her great province.
—JAMES THOMSON

Whether you know it or not, you assume that certain answers to the
foregoing questions are true. These assumptions constitute your
philosophy. The discipline of philosophy critically examines such
assumptions in an attempt to determine whether they are true. The word
“philosophy” means “love of wisdom.” It’s derived from the Greek philo
meaning “love” and sophia meaning “wisdom.” The desire to know the
truth—the love of wisdom—is only one motivation for doing philosophy,
however. The desire to lead a good life is another. Actions are based on
beliefs, and actions based on true beliefs are more likely to succeed than
those based on false ones. So it’s in your best interest to have true
philosophical beliefs. This text is designed to help you achieve that goal.
By describing, explaining, and encouraging you to do philosophy, it

38
attempts to provide you with the intellectual tools necessary to develop
your own philosophy.
“An expert,” says physicist Werner Heisenberg, “is someone who
knows some of the worst mistakes that can be made in his subject and how
to avoid them.”1 In philosophy, knowing the major theories and the
problems they face is particularly important. As you construct your own
philosophy, you don’t want to commit the same mistakes made by others,
and as you study the problems faced by various philosophical theories, you
may discover that some of your philosophical beliefs are mistaken. To help
you avoid making philosophical errors, this text traces the historical
development of philosophical thinking on a number of central
philosophical problems. After reading each chapter, you should have a
good sense of the strengths and weaknesses of past theories, as well as the
most promising avenues for future research.
Philosophy is a search for the truth about the world and our place in it.
By doing philosophy, you’ll learn to distinguish good reasons from bad
ones, strong arguments from weak ones, and plausible theories from
implausible ones. You’ll find that every view is not as good as every other.
While everyone may have a right to an opinion, not every opinion is right.
Acquiring such critical thinking skills will improve your ability to make
sound judgments and lessen the chance that you’ll be taken in by frauds,
swindlers, and charlatans.
The discovery of what is true, and the
practice of that which is good, are the two
most important objects of philosophy.
—VOLTAIRE

Doing philosophy involves reflecting on the beliefs and values you use
to organize your experience and guide your decisions. It entails
questioning assumptions, analyzing concepts, and drawing inferences. In
the process, you’ll come to see connections, relationships, and meanings
that you were previously unaware of. As a result, doing philosophy should
deepen your understanding of yourself and your world.
We will begin our philosophical explorations by examining the nature
and import of a number of central philosophical problems. We will then
take a look at the methods philosophers use to solve these problems.
Philosophical thinking is nothing if not logical. To distinguish between
plausible and implausible philosophical claims, you must know the
difference between logical and illogical arguments. Section 1.2 provides
an overview of the different types of arguments people use to make their

39
points. The final section examines one of the most widely used techniques
for testing philosophical theories: thought experiments. Philosophical
problems are conceptual problems, and conceptual problems can be most
effectively solved in the laboratory of the mind.

Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to

identify the various branches of philosophy.

describe a number of basic philosophical problems.
distinguish necessary from sufficient conditions, and logical from
causal possibility.
identify and evaluate different types of arguments.
recognize informal logical fallacies.
use the criteria of adequacy to evaluate hypotheses.
test theories by performing thought experiments.

40
Section 1.1
Explaining the Possibility of the
Impossible
Philosophical Problems and Theories

T he extent to which our thoughts and actions are influenced by our

philosophy becomes most evident when we examine the lives of
those who don’t share our philosophy. For example, many in the West
believe that the world contains physical objects, that our senses give us
knowledge of those objects, and that our selves are legitimate objects of
concern. Many in the East, however, deny all three of these claims. For
them, consciousness is the only reality, mystical experience is the only
source of knowledge, and belief in the existence of the self is the root of all
evil. As a result, they lead very different lives than we do. (Compare the
life of a Buddhist monk with that of a Wall Street tycoon.) Because the
kinds of lives we lead are determined by the philosophical beliefs we hold,
we ignore philosophy at our peril. If our philosophy is flawed, we may
well spend our lives pursuing false ideals, worshipping false gods, and
nurturing false hopes. That is why the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates
maintained that the unexamined life is not worth living.
Man is made by his belief. As he believes,
so he is.
—BHAGAVAD GITA

If we have not examined our philosophy, not only may the quality of
our lives suffer, but so may our freedom. Every society, every religion, and
every ideology provides answers to philosophical questions. We
internalize those answers in the process of growing up. But if we never
question those answers—if we never critically evaluate them in light of the

41
alternatives—then our beliefs aren’t truly our own. If we haven’t freely
chosen the principles on which our thoughts and actions are based, our
thoughts and actions aren’t truly free. By replacing the blind acceptance of
authority with a reasoned consideration of the evidence, philosophical
inquiry liberates us from preconceived ideas and prejudices.
Because our lives are shaped by our philosophy, many have been
willing to die for their philosophy. Revolutions, for example, are often
inspired by a philosophy. The American, Russian, and Iranian revolutions,
for example, were fueled, respectively, by the philosophies of democratic
capitalism, Marxist communism, and Islamic fundamentalism. Whether a
revolution ultimately succeeds is determined not by force of arms but by
the strength of its philosophy. As Napoleon realized, “There are two
powers in the world, the sword and the mind. In the long run, the sword is
always beaten by the mind.” But the mind can overcome the sword only if
it is armed with viable ideas. The goal of philosophical inquiry is to
determine whether our philosophical beliefs are, in fact, viable.

Philosophical Problems
Philosophical beliefs fall into four broad categories, which correspond to
the major fields of philosophy: (1) metaphysics, the study of ultimate
reality, (2) epistemology, the study of knowledge, (3) axiology, the study
of value, and (4) logic, the study of correct reasoning. The following are
some of the questions explored by the various branches of philosophy.
Science without epistemology is—insofar
as it is thinkable at all—primitive and
muddled.
—ALBERT EINSTEIN

Metaphysics
What is the world made of?
Does the world contain only one basic type of substance (e.g., matter),
or are there other types (e.g., mind)?
What is the mind?
How is the mind related to the body?
Can the mind survive the death of the body?
Do we have free will, or is every action determined by prior causes?

42
 What is a person?
Under what conditions is a person at one time identical with a person
at another time?
Is there a God?

Epistemology
What is knowledge?
What are the sources of knowledge?
What is truth?
Can we acquire knowledge of the external world?
Under what conditions are we justified in believing something?

Axiology
What is value?
What are the sources of value?
What makes an action right or wrong?
What makes a person good or bad?
What makes a work of art beautiful?
Are value judgments objective or subjective?
Does morality require God?
Are there universal human rights?
What is the best form of government?
Is civil disobedience ever justified?

Logic
What is an argument?
What kinds of arguments are there?
What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
When are we justified in believing the conclusion of an argument?

Whether or not we have consciously considered any of these questions,

43
we all unconsciously assume certain answers to them. We all have beliefs
about what is real, what is valuable, and how we come to know what is
real and valuable. Philosophy examines these beliefs in an attempt to
determine which of them are worthy of our assent.
Philosophical beliefs affect not only how we live our lives, but also
how we conduct our inquiries. What we look for is determined by our
theory of reality, how we look for something is determined by our theory
of knowledge, and what we do with what we find is determined by our
theory of value. In science, as in everyday life, having a good philosophy
is important, for, as English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead
observed, “No science can be more secure than the unconscious
metaphysics which it tacitly presupposes.” The philosophical assumptions
underlying various endeavors are studied by such additional subfields of
philosophy as the philosophy of science, philosophy of religion,
philosophy of art, philosophy of history, philosophy of education, and
philosophy of law. Even though every intellectual pursuit takes certain
answers to philosophical questions for granted, the correct answer to those
questions is by no means obvious. What makes definitive answers to
philosophical questions so hard to come by is that conflicting views of
reality, knowledge, and value often appear equally plausible.
Philosophy is the art and law of life, and it
teaches us what to do in all cases, and,
like good marksmen, to hit the white at
any distance.
—SENECA

Consider, for example, the beliefs that the universe contains only
material objects and that we have minds. The success of science lends
credence to the former, whereas our personal experience supports the
latter. It also seems that both of these beliefs can’t be true, for minds do
not appear to be material objects. Material objects have properties like
mass, spin, and electric charge; minds, apparently, do not. Take, for
example, your thought that you’re reading a book right now. How much
does that thought weigh? How long is that thought? What is its electric
charge? Such questions seem absurd because thoughts do not seem to be
the type of thing that can have physical properties. Does that mean that the
mind is immaterial? If so, how can the mind affect the body (and vice
versa)? Such are the issues raised by the mind-body problem.

mind-body problem

44
 The philosophical problem of
explaining how it is possible for a
material object to have a mind.

The problem of personal identity arises from the beliefs that we

change in many ways throughout our lives and that these changes happen
to the same person. But if we change, we’re different. So how is it possible
for a person to change and yet remain the same?

problem of personal identity

The philosophical problem of
explaining how it is possible for a
person to change and yet remain the
same person.

The problem of free will arises from the beliefs that every event has a
cause and that humans have free will. Yet if every event is caused by some
prior event, how can anything we do be up to us?

problem of free will

The philosophical problem of
explaining how it is possible for a
causally determined action to be free.

The problem of evil arises from the beliefs that the world was created
by an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good being (namely, God) and
that there is evil in the world. If God is all-knowing, God knows that evil
exists; if God is all-good, God doesn’t want evil to exist; and if God is all-
powerful, God can prevent evil from existing. So how can there be evil in
a world created by such a being?

problem of evil
The philosophical problem of
explaining how it is possible for there
to be evil in a world created by an all-
powerful, all-knowing, and all-good
being.

The problem of moral relativism arises from the beliefs that certain
actions are objectively right or wrong and that all moral judgments are
relative. If all moral judgments are relative (to individuals, societies,

45
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lemmen lauluja
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Lemmen lauluja

Valikoima

Author: Eino Leino

Release date: January 13, 2024 [eBook #72703]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Kust.Oy Kirja, 1919

Credits: Jari Koivisto

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEMMEN

LAULUJA ***
LEMMEN LAULUJA

Valikoima

Kirj.

EINO LEINO

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Kirja, 1919.

Lukijalle.

— Veliveikkonen! Niissä asioissa voidaan yhdessä hetkessä tehdä

tuhmuuksia, joita ei tehdä vuosisataan.

Näin ystäväni.

Tahtomatta millään tavalla kilpailla hänen timanttisen, kimaltelevan

järkensä kanssa, uskallan omana mielipiteenäni huomauttaa, että
minulle on käynyt päivä päivältä aina vaikeammaksi rakkautta
elämästä erottaa. Siis vaikeaksi myöskin mitään erikoisia
lemmenlauluja kirjoittaa ilman niiden tuskallisen tarkkaa
vastaavaisuutta omassa poloisessa todellisuudessani.

Pyydän pitää selviönä, että ihanne sellaisenaan on puolta

palanutta puupalasta ala-arvoisempi, ellei se tule luussa ja lihassa
meitä vastaan, mieluimmin kaikkien kauniiden jäsenten ihanuuteen
verhoutuneena. "Alles Vergängliche ist nur ein Gleichnis," Monessa
muodossa on elämä verrannut itseään minulle. Olen omasta
puolestani ollut taipuvainen luulemaan jokaista niistä lopulliseksi,
aivan kuin jokaista iltaa viimeiseksi ja jokaista aamua
ensimmäiseksi, mutta niin yleispätevästi havainnollisten tosiasiain
edessä ei kaiketi ole muuta tehtävää kuin heikkoutensa
tunnustaminen.

Rakkausrunojen klassillinen muoto on serenaadi. Toivoisin, että

lukija tätä valikoimaa selaillessaan huomaisi sen muodostavan
yhden ainoan, pitkän tunnustuksen-antamisen, hommage, niille
epäjumalankuville, joilla elämä ja taide ovat hamasta nuoruudestani
saakka mielikuvitustani kansoittaneet. Nykyään olen yksin, mutta se
ei estä minua tuntemasta itseäni onnelliseksi siitä, että olen ollut
ihminen muiden ihmisten seassa, vieläpä ihminen siihen määrään,
että olen ollut vähällä koko ihmisyyteni menettää pelkästä intohimon
rakkaudesta. Kivi, se ensimmäinen, on aikoja sitten heitetty jo,
säästäen siis vaivan asianomaiselta käsittelijältään. Runo, se
viimeinen, ei ole vielä kirjoitettu, jonka vuoksi myöskin tämä
valikoima esiintyy erinäisissä suhteissa tuiki puutteellisena. Se ei
muodosta mitään päätettyä kokonaisuutta, yhtä vähän kuin oma
elämäni sitä muodostaa.

Olen rakkauden olemuksessa ymmärtänyt vain arvon antamisen.

Elämä on tullut minua vastaan kauniiden muotojen muhkeuteen
pukeutuneena, ja olisin tuntenut itseni kovin paljon köyhemmäksi,
ellen olisi suvereenisti itseäni ja runouttani niiden runsaudella
rikastuttanut. Mutta siitä huolimatta on iankaikkinen murhe jäänyt
sydämeeni, se Rouva Suru, joka ei sieltä ensi hädässä lähtenekään,
joka seurannee hautaan saakka minua ja jonka käärinliinoiksi eivät
kelvanne parhaatkaan ajatukseni. Olen eheä vasta hänen kerallaan.

Lähtekää siis, lauluni, kaikkeen maailmaan ja viekää viesti

miehestä, joka luultavasti ei ole rakastanut muuta kuin omaa
rakkauttaan, mutta on siitä huolimatta ollut onnellinen kuin te, ollut
onneton kuin te, kärsinyt ja nauttinut kuin te, ja tullut tulokseen, jota
tahtoisin rakkauden ritaruudeksi nimittää. En tiedä, lienenkö oikein
eritellyt itseäni. Mutta lemmen trubaduuriksi tunnen itseni, olen
tuntenut itseni varhaisimmilta poikavuosiltani saakka, ja aion mennä
hautaan siinä hurskaassa uskossa, että rakkaus on annettu meille
merkiksi korkeammista voimista, jotka itsensä sen kautta meille
ilmoittavat. Rakkauden orja olen. Mutta tunnen sen kautta vain
vapautuvani.

Olkoon se ensimmäinen ja viimeinen kerta kuin koetan itseäni

näihin asioihin nähden määritellä. Sisältyy itse käsitteeseen, että sen
olemus on määrittelemätön. Viisaimmat sanat siinä suhteessa on
mielestäni sanonut Edda, jossa luemme: "Ofta vinnes den vise, den
vettlöse ej, af de däjeliga drag."

Ja nyt olen nähdäkseni kyllin itsestäni puhunut.

Mutta kuinka puhua teistä, te kauniit näkymättömät? Onko mitään

mahdollisuutta julkilausua teille kiitollisuuttaan miehen, joka teitä
ilman ei koskaan olisi tuntenut, Shakespearen sanoja käyttääkseni,
"hiljaisen hulluuden" hiipivän aivoihinsa? Voisi lauluistani päättäen
luulla, että olen nähnyt elämässäni vain pelkkää puutteellista
kauneutta. Näin heittyy varjo vioistani niidenkin autuaallisten
olentojen ylitse, jotka kuitenkin ovat tehneet minulle elämän
mahdolliseksi elää, sen polulle säteilleet, sen tietä valaisseet. En sitä
tahtoisi, vaan tahtoisin kiittää vedet silmissä kaikesta, kaikesta
kauniista, mitä nuoruuteni toukokuisista kuutamoista saakka olen
tämänpäiväni täyteen syksyyn elänyt.

Kaukana hyperborealaisten mailla on maailmankaikkeus aivan

erikoisessa määrässä nähnyt hyväksi kansoittaa tämän leveys-
asteen muutamilla psykofyysiliisen muodon moitteettomuuksilla,
jotka ovat ilo ihmiselle. Pyydän siinä merkissä tämän pienen
esipuheeni allekirjoittaa.

Helsinki 17.I.19.

Eino Leino.

Kesä

"Linnut liitteli sanoja, puien latvat lausehia."

Kanteletar.

Lemmen uhrit.
 Veikko: "Anna, sisko, ruusu tuosta, ruusu ihanaisin, että
viedä immelleni illalla sen saisin!"

Sisko: "Ota ruusu! Lemmellesi

annan ruusun parhaan —
oma lempi ryösti multa
elon ruusut varhaan."
1891.

Yli metsän koitti jo päivän koi —.

Yli metsän koitti jo päivän koi, kun nurmella neitonen kulki,

kukat kukkivat auki jo ummut loi, jotk' eilen illalla sulki.

Ja neitonen nuori se nurmella vain niin hiljaa, hiljaa astui, ja

kukkaset nyökkäsi kuiskuttain, kun kasteesta helmat kastui.

1892.

Kaupunkimatka.

Poika nuori kaupunkihin läksi myötätuulta, purtta pientä

viima vinha saatti salmen suulta.

Alkumatkan aavan seljän

kulki joutuisasti.
Vasta illan tullen pääsi
kaupunkihin asti.

Missä viipyi poika nuori,

vaikk' on myötätuuli?
Rannalla on kullan koti,
siellä simahuuli.
1892.

Siskojen kesken.

"Niin suloinen ja hertas on kyll' onnellinen lempi, mut lempi

vallan onneton on vielä suloisempi.

Näät siin' on aina tenhoa

ja tuntehille uutta,
on toinen päivä toivoa
ja toinen toivotuutta."

Tään Siiri kuuli siskoltaan ja päätti tuota koittaa. Mut

turhaan! Kaikki poiat vaan hän vangiksensa voittaa.

1892.

Kylätiellä.
 Noin poikajoukko se vallaton
kylän reuhasi raitiolla.
— "Kas, kasvitarhassa tyttö on!" —
— "Mun rauhassa suokaa olla." —

— "Älä huoli, solmia meille vaan

pari morsiusseppeleitä,
ja sitten me lähtähän tanssimaan —
kas, mistä on kyyneleitä?" —

— "Mun äitini kuollut on äskettäin,

hänet eilen hauta jo sulki,
ja hälle ma solmian seppeltäin." —
Pois poikaset hiipien kulki.

1892.

Onnen apila.

Nelilehtisen apilan tullessain ma löysin karjatiellä, mut

toisen hukkasin rinnaltain ja siit' olen murhemiellä.

Sen oisin ma antanut neidollein —

sinä armahin neitokulta!
Mut tuost' älä itke, impyein,
saat ainoonkin sinä multa.

Kun illan tuulonen tullevi tuo,

niin sille ma aion sen antaa,
se onneni kukkasen impeni luo
niin hiljaa, hellien kantaa.

Ja jospa se joutuis aalloillen,

kun järven poikki se lentää,
niin tottahan lahjana laineiden
se neitoni rantahan entää.

Näin kulki mun kukkani toivoen ja kuohusta raittiiksi kastui.

Mut nähnyt ei sitä impyinen, vaan — murskaksi onneni astui.

1892.

Syystunnelma.

Teit oikein, ystävä ainoo,

kun luotani läksit pois.
Sun rintasi nuori ja lämmin
mun rinnalla jäätynyt ois.

Kas, maantiellä kalpea kukka

lumipälvestä nostavi pään.
Mitä vuottelet kukkani vielä?
On aika jo painua pään.

Tuhat aatosta sieluni tunsi,

tuon vaan minä muistaa voin:
Oli tielläni kuihtunut kukka
ja sen peitoksi lunta ma loin.
1892.

Haaveilevalle siskolle.

Käy pois, oi sisko, sen koivun alta, se koivu on turmion,

tuskan puu! On huolten aaltoja lahden aallot ja kaihon tuoja
on illan kuu.

Sen koivun oksilta sinulle soipi

tuo tarina kaunis ja utuinen,
mi pettänyt on niin monta, monta —
minä myös olen kuullut kerran sen.

Se kevään toivoja tarjoo sulle

ja kutsuu onnehen ikuiseen,
mut ällös lauluhun liioin luota,
ei koskaan kuulu se toteuneen.

Ken kerran kuuli sen laulun tenhon, sen onnen kalpea

kaiho vei, hän itku silmässä illat istui ja rinnan rauhoa saanut
ei.

1893.

Kuljin kerran läpi honkaholvin —.

 Kuljin kerran läpi honkaholvin, risut, puiden oksat peitti tien,
avojalkani mun vuosi verta, tuota tuntenutko silloin lien!

Tie se vei mun kahden kuusen alle,

kahden tumman silmän poltteesen,
siellä taivas kaksi valaa kuuli
sykkiessä kahden sydämen.

Palatessain — aamun koittaessa —

tunsin tiellä risut, oksat jo,
mut en tuntenut ma, kuinka sydän
verta vuosi, kärsi angervo.

Joutui sekin päivä, jolloin tunsin tuskalla ma pistot

sydämen, tunsin rinnan riehut, poltot tunsin — neitoani
tuntenut ma en.

1891.

Aatekuteet, toiveniidet.

Päivä istuttu oi' alla haapain vehreällä sammalmättähällä, laulut

liedot kertoi lemmen tulta, naurut raikkaat rinnan puhtautta,
päämme päällä haavanlehdet helkki, aallot leikki jalkojemme alla.

Joutui ilta, painui päivän kulta, utuisiksi lientyi lahden rannat, tuuli
tyyntyi, talttui rannan aalto, haapain lieto helke hienontui ja
kuiskeeks suli tuskin kuultavaksi.
 Lakkas silloin liedot lempilaulut, naurannasta raikuneet ei rannat,
äänetönnä, sanatonna siinä istuttiin vain käsi kättä vasten —
tunteet yhtyi, aatos toistaan etsi.

Kumma kudos, tunnehuntu hieno tuntui yhdistävän meitä silloin,

kuteet toivehista kultaisista, niidet siinä auer-aattehista; yö se
kuteet kutoi, nitoi niidet, metsärastas polkusia polki, sukkulata heitti
illan tuuli, pirtaa veti rannan viime laine.

1893.

Miksi suree kummun kuusi?

Kasvoi kummulla kuusi tuores, tuoksuten, kukkapäin,

tuulten tuudussa päivät leikki, tuskin uinahti tyynin säin.

Kerran lehvälle kuusen lensi

illalla sirkkunen,
lauloi lauluja lemmen nuoren,
kertoi kaihoja keväimen.

Hiljaa laulua kuullen laski

kuusonen kukkapään,
hiljaa, hiljaa sen oksat painui
eikä leikkinyt lehvätkään.

Aamun tullessa laulaen sirkku lehvältä lensikin. Hiljaa

surren kuusen oksat jäivät huomenen huolihin.

1893.
Soita somer, helkä hiekka!

Suvi-illan suussa impi astui virran vieremää, kuuset kuiski,

laine loiski, tuoksui nurmi nukkapää.

Sorsat kaislikossa souti,

kalaparvet karkeloi,
tuomilehdon lentosuukot
vastarannan tuuli toi.

Ilakoiten impi kulki

vieremätä virran veen,
somer soitti, hiekka helkki
alla Annin askeleen.

Suven vienot vihkilaulut

kaikui munkin mielessäin,
kun ma virran äärtä kuljin
armas impi vierelläin.

Soita somer, helkä hiekka, laula laine huoleton, ilakoitse

impi nuori, — lyhyt Suomen suvi on.

1895.

Aamutunnelma.

Kuin välkähti huomenen kultainen koi läpi haavanlehtien

keväisten, niin lensit luokseni, immyt oi, läpi unteni lehtojen
 leijaillen.

Kuin lehvältä rannan raidan vain yön kyynel läikähti

kalvohon veen suven suloja hetkisen heijastain — niin lensi
mun lempeni riemuineen.

1895.

Metsäpuro.

Kevät joutui, metsäpuro paisui, vaahtopyörtehissä vedet

kiiti, aallot vallatonna leikki, telmi, rannan kaarteet kaikki
huuhtoellen; kuuset katsoi kummastellen tuota, hongat
varoitteli vakavasti.

Miksi niin on tummaa vesi sulla — mietin usein puron

partahalla — vesi tummaa, vaahto valkeata, loiske laineiden
niin kumman lieto?

Siksi niin on tummaa vesi sulla, tulet sydänmailta,

hallanmailta, siks on vaahto sulla valkopäistä, kevättoiveita
kun kansan kannat.

Mutta mistä loiske kumman lieto? Puron partahalla,

kunnahalla siell' on kullan koti kuusten alla, sieltä sivumennen
laulut kuulit, laulut liedot, nuoret nuoren rinnan — sieltä lie tuo
sinivuokko myöskin, jonka aallot tänne mulle tuovat.

1893.
Huolissaan huokaileva.

Koko metsä on laulua täynnä, joka lehvällä lemmitään, joka

oksalla sirkut ja peipot vain kertovat keväästään.

Mut yhtä puutapa linnut ne karttavat kammoten — sen alla

ma onneton istun ja huoltani huokailen.

1894

Minä metsän polkua kuljen —.

Minä metsän polkua kuljen kesäillalla aatteissain ja

riemusta rintani paisuu ja ma laulelen, laulelen vain.

Tuoll' lehdossa vaaran alla

oli outoa äskettäin,
niin vienoa, ihmeellistä
all' lehvien vehreäin.

Minä miekkonen vain sen tiedän, minä vain sekä muuan

muu ja lehdon lempivä kerttu ja tuoksuva tuomipuu!

1894

Hyljätyn valitus.
 Illalla kävelin ma kangasta pitkin,
kankaalta kimpuksi kanervia kitkin.

Yö oli ihana ja tuuloset nukkui,

kukat kaikki tuoksui ja käköset ne kukkui.

Mikä minun sydämeni synkäksi saikaan?

Muistoni lensivät nuoruuden aikaan.

Katselin kädessäni kankahan kukkaa,

ajattelin impeä tuuheatukkaa.

Maahan ma kanervani kaunihit heitin —

noinpa ma ilonikin multahan peitin.

1895.

Ylioppilasmuisto.

Järven taakse tehtiin venheretki, järven taakse

talontyttölöihin, siellä viivyimme me päivän kaiken: aamu
aholl' oltiin mansikassa, ilta pihamaalla karkeloitiin — yö? se
maattiin aitass' impysien.

Purjepurrella kun sitten sieltä pois me aamun tullen

laskettihin, muilla kaikill' oli muisto joku, kellä ruusu, kellä
lemmenkukka, kellä kielokimppu rinnassansa. Minä yksin
ilman olin, eipä kukkaa suonut impi mustakulma — antoi
oman nuoren sydämensä.
 Kotirantaan päästyämme toiset riistivät jo kukat
rinnastansa, mutta kauemmin ja hellin huolin immen sydäntä
ma säilyttelin — heitin pois sen vasta viikon päästä.

1895.

Syyslaulu neidolleni.

Jo pilvihin taivas peittyy, jo paljas on rannan puu, tuul'

laineita lahden nostaa, keto kukkiva kellastuu.

Suven hertas ja hempeä aika

se kestävi hetken vaan,
mut ainaiseksi se rinnan
voi velloa aaltoamaan.

Kesän kukkaset elpyy kyllä taas tullessa keväimen — kun

kestäis kesämme lempi yli talven ja tuiskujen!

1895.

Rakastunut.

Raikkahasti laulaa aamun aalto, kun se läikkyellen rantaan

lyö, hilpeä on haapalehdon helke, sit' ei paina elon päivätyö;
yksin kerttu laulaa murheissansa ikävöiden omaa
armastansa.