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Chapter 10
1. c
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. b
10. b
11.
High strength-to-weight ratio. Steel also has a high stiffness and high ductility
compared to other construction materials.
Steel is termite- and rot-proof
Steel is homogenous material and has uniform and predictable material properties
Steel sections are fabricated at a factory, giving excellent quality control and tighter
construction tolerance
Steel is a versatile construction material, the speed of erecting a steel structure is much
faster than using other materials
12.
Properties of steel can drastically degrade at high temperatures or during a fire. Hence,
it is important to take necessary measures to protect steel structural members from fire.
Concrete is often used to encase steel members to protect them from fire damage.
Steel is also susceptible to corrosion which can lead to loss of its strength, resulting in
serious damage to the structure. A protective coating or paint is applied to prevent
corrosion in steel structures.
Strength of steel may also have an undesirable brittle failure (abrupt failure without
warning) at low temperatures. A large number of stress reversals can also lead to
reduced strength in steel members.
Steel structures, due to steel’s high strength-to-weight ratio, are generally slender
compared to timber or concrete structures. Buckling failure can be critical in slender
71
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steel members subjected to compression and bending. Proper lateral resistance and
bracing needs to be provided to prevent buckling in slender steel beams and columns.
13.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) Process
In the BOS process pig iron and scrap steel is converted into steel by blowing pure
oxygen at supersonic speed over the molten pig iron produced in a blast furnace. Scrap
metal and molten pig iron from blast furnace is charged into the BOS vessel. The
proportion of charge is controlled precisely to produce quality steel. Oxygen combines
with carbon and other impurities to purify steel.
Lime-based fluxes are added which removes the impurities in the form of slag. The
BOS converter is then tilted to pour the steel into a steel ladle.
Due to the simplicity and flexibility of the process, BOS is now the main bulk
production process used around the world for refining iron ore into steel.
The BOS process also uses 25–35 percent steel scrap (recycled products made of steel)
to make new steel.
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Process
In the EAF process, charged material (consisting of scrap metal and limes) is heated by
means of an electric arc. Steel scrap and lime are poured into the furnace, and the
electrical current is passed through the electrodes, producing an electric arc on the scrap
metal. The scrap is melted with the heat generated from the arc. Other metals, if
necessary, are added at this stage to form special steels with required chemical
compositions.
Oxygen is blown into the furnace to remove impurities, such as aluminium, silicon,
manganese, phosphorus, and carbon. The metallic oxides thus formed are removed as
slag.
The use of 100 percent scrap metal in the EAF process reduces the resources and energy
required to produce steel.
14.
The carbon content in wrought iron is very low (0.02–0.08%) and contains traces of
slag (1–2%), which gives its fibrous look. Tensile strength of wrought iron along the
grain ranges from 310–380 MPa; tensile strength is lower across the grain. The use of
wrought iron is now mostly limited to decorative purpose only.
Cast iron has relatively high carbon content (2–4%), compared to wrought iron and
steel. Due to its high carbon content, cast iron is hard, brittle, and not malleable. Cast
iron is strong in compression but weak in tension.
Structural steel used in construction industry fall under the low-carbon (less than
0.25%) and medium-carbon (0.3 to 0.6%) categories. Steel has much better structural
performance due to its ductility and high tensile strength, compared to wrought iron
and cast iron. Structural steel is predominantly produced, using the basic oxygen
steelmaking (BOS) and the electric arc furnace (EAF) processes.
72
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15.
Concrete is strong in compression while very weak in tension. Hence, concrete
structures need steel reinforcement to take the tensile stresses.
Steel reinforcement in concrete structures increases its tensile strength, ductility and
improves its resistance to cracking.
Steel can be used in concrete as a normal reinforcement or as prestressed reinforcement.
16.
The ductility of a material is its property to sustain large deformation without failure.
An increase in carbon content in steel decreases its ductility. Low-carbon steel with
carbon content less than 0.25% and medium-carbon steel with 0.3-0.6% carbon content
has good ductility. Most of the structural steel used in construction industry fall under
the low-carbon and medium-carbon categories.
High-carbon content (0.6 to 0.95%) has high tensile strength but has low ductility.
17.
Appropriate design detailing needs to be considered to avoid accumulation of moisture
and debris. Proper drainage and ventilation to enable steel to dry out and to minimize
the “time of wetness” needs to be provided.
Apply appropriate paint coatings after adequate surface preparation. Surface
preparation includes thorough cleaning and abrasive blast cleaning to remove any initial
rusting. After blast cleaning the surface, prefabrication primers are applied on the rust-
free surface. The paint coating is then applied to the members. Brush, roller, air spray
or airless spray can be used for painting steelwork.
Metallic coating which includes hot-dip galvanizing and thermal spraying can also be
applied on structural steel to prevent corrosion of structural steelwork. Hot-dip
galvanizing consists of immersing steel in molten zinc. Thermal spraying involves
coating the steel surface with molten metal (eg. zinc or aluminum) blown by a
compressed air jet.
18.
Hot-rolled steel:
In the hot-rolling process, billets or blooms are reheated above the recrystallization
temperature of steel (1200–1300°C) in a reheat furnace, and the red hot metal is pushed
through rollers that squeeze the metal into the desired shape, depending on the profile
of the rollers. Hot steel from a continuous-casting operation can also be rolled by
directly passing it through the rolling mills without the need to reheat. Steel produced
through the hot-rolling process are relatively cheaper than cold-formed steel. Hot
rolling, along with a suitable heat treatment process, enhances mechanical properties of
the steel as well.
73
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Structural steel members with various sectional shapes, such as wide-flange sections,
I-beams, channel sections, equal or unequal angles, sheet piling, rails, and bars are
produced by the hot-rolling process. These structural steel products are used in
structures as columns, beams, bracing members; as members of trusses; and as bridge
girders.
Cold-formed steel:
Cold-formed steel is produced by rolling or pressing thin steel sheets through rollers
or press brakes at room temperature to produce lightweight steel sections. More
precise dimension sections can be achieved in cold-formed sections compared to
hot-rolled steel products as the hot-rolled steel members tend to shrink after cooling.
Cold-formed steels are used as structural framing members or in panels and decks.
Individual structural framing members can be made of channel section (C-section),
Z-sections, angles, Sigma sections, I-sections, T-sections, and tubular members.
Cold-formed steel sections are usually used as primary load-bearing systems for
low-rise, light structures, space frames, or in storage racks.
19.
Stress, f
Ultimate tensile
strength, fu
Fracture
Yield stress, fy
Elastic 1
range
O y u Strain,
20.
𝑓𝑦 = 𝐸 × 𝜀𝑦
74
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𝑓𝑦 550
𝜀𝑦 = = = 0.00275
𝐸 200000
𝑇𝑢
𝑓𝑢 = ⁄𝐴
0
21.
Yield load = 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦 × 𝐴0 = 50 × 0.6 = 30𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
2 2
Stress = 𝑓 = 3 𝑓𝑦 = 3 × 50 = 33.33 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝑓𝑦 33.33×1000
Strain = 𝜀 = = = 0.0011
𝐸 30×106
75
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and was much relieved by the signs of returning vivacity and colour.
“Tarnley, you’ve been a faithful creature and true to me; I hope I
may live to reward you,” said the lady, extending her hand vaguely
towards the old servant.
“I’m true to them as gives me bread, and ever was, and that’s old
Mildred Tarnley’s truth. If she eats their bread, she’ll maintain their
right, and that’s only honest—that’s reason, ma’am.”
“I have no right to cry no; I cry excellent, good, good, very good,
for as you are my husband’s servant, I have all the benefit of your
admirable fidelity. Boo! I am so grateful, and one day or other, old
girl, I’ll reward you—and very good tea, and every care of me. I will
tell Mr. Vairvield when he comes how good you have been—and, tell
me, how is the fire, and the bed, and the bedroom—all quite
comfortable?”
“Comfortable, quite, I hope, ma’am.”
“Do I look quite well now?”
“Yes ’m, pure and hearty. It was only just a turn.”
“Yes, just so, perhaps, although I never felt it, and I could dance
now only for—fifty things, so I won’t mind.” She laughed. “I’m sleepy,
and I’m not sleepy; and I love you, old Mildred Tarnley, and you’ll tell
me some more about Master Harry and his wife when we get
upstairs. Who’d have thought that wild fellow would ever tie himself
to a wife? Who’d have fancied that clever young man that loves
making money so well, would have chosen out a wife without a florin
to her fortune? Everything is so surprising. Come, let’s have a laugh,
you and me together.”
“My laughing days is over, ma’am—not that I see much to laugh at
for any one, and many a thing I thought a laughing matter when I
was young seems o’erlike a crying matter now I’m grown old,” said
old Mildred, and snuffed the kitchen candle with her fingers.
“Well, give me your arm, Mildred; there’s a good old thing—yes.”
And up she got her long length. Mildred took the candle, and took
the tall lady gently by the wrist. The guest, however, placed her great
hand upon Mildred’s shoulder, and thus they proceeded through the
passages. Leaving the back stair that led to Alice’s room, at the right,
they mounted the great staircase and reached a comfortably warm
room with a fire flickering on the hearth, for the air was sharp. In
other respects the apartment had not very much to boast.
“There’s fire here, I feel it; place my chair near it. The bed in the
old place?” said the tall woman, coming to a halt.
“Yes ’m. Little change here, ever, I warrant ye, only the room’s bin
new papered,” answered Mildred.
“New papered, has it? Well, I’ll sit down—thanks—and I’ll get to
my bed, just now.”
“Shall I assist ye, ma’am?”
“By-and-by, thanks; but not till I have eaten a bit. I have grown
hungry, what your master calls peckish. What do you advise?”
“I would advise your eating something,” replied Mildred.
“But what?”
“There’s very little; there’s eggs quite new, there’s a bit o’ bacon,
and there’s about half a cold chicken—roast, and there’s a corner o’
Cheddar cheese, and there’s butter, and there’s bread—’taint much,”
answered Mrs. Tarnley, glibly.
“The chicken will do very nicely, and don’t forget bread and salt,
Mrs. Tarnley, and a glass of beer.”
“Yes ’m.”
Mrs. Tarnley poked the fire and looked about her, and then took
the only candle, marched boldly off with it, shutting the door.
Toward the door the lady turned her face and listened. She heard
old Mildred’s step receding.
This tall woman was not pleasant to look at. Her large features
were pitted with the small-pox and deadly pale with the pallor of
anger, and an unpleasant smile lighted up the whiteness of her face.
“Patience, patience,” she repeated, “what a d——d trick! no
matter, wait a little.”
She did wait a little in silence, screwing her lips and knitting her
brows, and then a new resource struck her, and she groped in her
bag and drew forth a bottle, which she applied to her lips more than
once, and seemed better. It was no febrifuge nor opiate; but though
the flicker of the fire showed no flush on her pallid features, the
odour declared it brandy.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE BELL RINGS.
When she reached the foot of the stairs that leads to the gallery on
which the room occupied by Alice opens, instead of pursuing her
way to the kitchen she turned into a narrow and dark passage that is
hemmed in on the side opposite to the wall by the ascending
staircase.
The shadows of the banisters on the panelled oak flew after one
another in sudden chase as the old woman glided by, and looking up
and back she stopped at the door of a small room, constructed as
we see in similar old houses, under the stairs. On the panel of this
she struck a muffled summons with her fist and on the third or fourth
the startled voice of Tom demanded roughly from within—
“What’s that?”
“Hish!” said the old woman, through a bit of the open door.
“’Tis Mrs. Tarnley—only me.”
“Lauk, woman, ye did take a rise out o’ me. I thought ye was—I
don’t know what—I was a-dreaming, I think.”
“Never mind, you must be awake for an hour or so,” said Mrs.
Tarnley, entering the den without more ceremony.
Tom didn’t mind Mrs. Tarnley, nor Mrs. Tarnley Tom, a rush. She
set the candle on the tiled floor. Tom was sitting in his shirt on the
side of his “settlebed,” with his hands on his knees.
“Ye must get on your things, Tom, and if ever you stirred yourself,
be alive now. The master’s a-comin’, and may be here, across
Cressley Common in half an hour, or might be in five minutes, and
ye must go out a bit and meet him, and—are ye awake?”
“Starin’. Go on.”
“Ye’ll tell him just this, the big woman as lives at Hoxton——”
“Hoxton! Well?”
“That Master Harry has all the trouble wi’, has come here, angry, in
search of Master Harry, mind, and is in the bedroom over the hall-
door. Will ye mind all that now?”
“Ay,” said Tom, and repeated it.
“Well, he’ll know better whether it’s best for him to come on or turn
back. But if come on he will, let him come in at the kitchen door,
mind, and you go that way, too, and he’ll find neither bolt nor bar, but
open doors, and nothing but the latch between him and the kitchen,
and me sitting by the fire; but don’t you clap a door, nor tread heavy,
but remember there’s a sharp pair of ears that ’d hear a cricket
through the three walls of Carwell Grange.”
She took up the candle, and herself listened for a moment at the
door, and again turned her earnest and sinister face on Tom.
“And again, I say, Tom, if ever ye was quick, be quick now,” and
she clapped her lean hand down on his shoulder with a sort of fierce
shake; “and if ever ye trod soft, go softly now, mind.”
Tom, who was scratching his head, and staring in her face,
nodded.
“And mind you, the kitchen way, and afraid o’ slips, say ye the
message over again to me?”
This he did, glibly enough.
“Here, light your candle from this, and if ye fail your master now,
never call yourself man again.”
Having thus charged him, she went softly from this nook with its
slanting roof, and thinking of the thankless world, and all the trouble
her old bones and brain were put to, she lost her temper, at the foot
of the great staircase, and was near turning back again to the
kitchen, or perhaps whisking out of the door herself, and marching
off to Cressley Common to meet her master, and shock and scare
him all she could, and place her resignation, as more distinguished
functionaries sometimes do theirs, in the hands of her employer, to
prove his helplessness and her own importance, and so assert
herself for time past and to come.
Her interview with Tom had not occupied much time. She knocked
at the Vrau’s door, and entering, found that person at the close of a
greedy repast.
Emotions of fear, I suppose, disturb the appetite, much more than
others. Not caring one farthing about Charles, she did not grieve at
his infidelity; taking profligacy for granted as the rule of life, it did not
even shock her. But she was stung with a furious pang of jealousy,
for that needs no love, being in its essence the sense of property
invaded, supremacy insulted, and self despised. In this sort of
jealousy there is neither the sublimity of despair nor the pathos of
sorrow, but simply the malice, fury, and revenge of outraged egotism.
There she sat, unconscious of the glimmer of the firelight, feeding
as a beast will bleeding after a blow. Beast she was, with the bestial
faculty of cherishing a long revenge, with bestial treachery and
seeming unconcern.
“Ho oh! you’ve come back,” she cried, with playful reproach, “cruel
old girl! you leave your poor vrau alone, alone among the ghosts—
now, sit down, are you sitting? and tell me everything, and all the
news—did you bring a little brandy or what?”
Her open hand was extended, and gently moving over the tray at
about the level of the top of a bottle.
“No, ma’am, I haven’t none in my charge, but there’s a smell o’
brandy about,” said Mildred, who liked saying a disagreeable thing.
“So there ought,” said the gaunt woman placidly, and lifted a big
black bottle that lay in her lap, like a baby, folded in a grey shawl.
“But I’ll want this, don’t you see, when I’m on my rambles again—get
a little, there’s a good girl, or if you can’t get that, there’s rum or gin,
there never was a country-house without something in it; you know
very well where Harry Vairvield is there will be liquor—I know him
well.”
“But he baint here now, as is well known to you, ma’am,” said
Mildred, dryly.
“I’m not going to waste my drink, while I think there’s drink in the
house. Who has a right before me, old girl?” said the stranger,
grimly.
“Tut, ma’am, ’tis childish talkin’ so, there’s none in my charge,
never a drop. Master Harry, I dare say, has summat under lock and
key, but not me, and why should I tell you a lie about the like?”
“You never tell lies, old Mildred, I forgot that—but young as she is,
I lay my life the woman, Mrs. Harry Vairvield, upstairs, likes a nip
now and then, hey? and she has a boddle, I’ll be bound, in her
wardrobe, or if she’s shy, ’twixt her bed and her mattress, ole rogue!
you know very well, I think, does she? and if she likes it she sleeps
sound, and go you, and while she snores, borrow you the bottle.”
“She’s nothing of the sort, she drinks nothing nowhere, much less
in her bed-room, she’s a perfect lady,” said Mrs. Tarnley, in no mood
to flatter her companion.
“Oh, ho! that’s so like old Mildred Tarnley! Dear old cat, I’m so
amused, I could stroke her thin ribs, and pet her for making me laugh
so by her frisks and capers instead of throwing you by the neck out
of the window for scratching and spitting—I’m so good-natured. Do
you tell lies, Mildred?”
“I ’a told a shameful lot in my day, ma’am, but not more mayhap
than many a one that hasn’t grace to say so.”
“You read your Bible, Mildred,” said the lady, who with a knife and
fork was securing on her plate the morsels to which old Mildred
helped her.
“Ay, ma’am, a bit now, and a bit again, never too late to repent,
ma’am.”
“Repentance and grace, you’ll do, Mrs. Tarnley. It’s a pleasure to
hear you,” said the lady, with her mouth rather full; “and you never
see my husband?”
“Now and again, now and again, once and away he looks in.”
“Never stays a week or a month at a time?”
“Week or a month!” echoed Mrs. Tarnley, looking quickly in the
serene face of the lady, and then laughing off the suggestion
scornfully. “You’re thinking of old times, ma’am.”
“Thinking, thinking, I don’t think I was thinking at all,” said the lady,
answering Mildred’s laugh with one more careless; “old times when
he had a wife here, eh? old times! How old are they? Eh—that’s
eighteen years ago—you hardly knew me when I called here?”
“There was a change surely. I’d like to know who wouldn’t in
eighteen years, there’s a change in me since then.”
“I shouldn’t wonder,” said the lady, quietly. “Did he ever tell you
how we quarrelled?”
“Not he,” answered Mildred.
“He’s very close,” said the stranger.
“A deal closer than Mr. Harry,” acquiesced Mildred.
“Not like you and me, Mrs. Tarnley, that can’t keep a secret—
never. That tell truth, and shame the devil. I, because I don’t care a
snap of my fingers for you, or him, or the Archbishop of Canterbury;
and you, because you’re all for grace and repentance. How am I
looking to-night—tired?”
“Tired, to be sure; you ought to be in your bed, ma’am, an hour
ago; you’re as white as that plate, ma’am.”
“White are they?—so they used to be long ago,” said the visitor.
“The same set, ma’am. ’Twas a long set in my mother’s time,
though ’tis little better than a short set now; but I don’t think there’s
more than three plates, and the cracked butter-boat, that had a stitch
in it. You’ll mind, although ye may ’a forgot, for I usen’t to send it up
to table—only them three, and the butter-boat broke since; and that
butter-boat, ’twouldn’t a brought three ha’pence by auction, and
’twas that little slut downstairs, that doesn’t never do nothing right,
that knocked it off the shelf, with her smashing.”
“And I’m not looking well to-night?” said this pallid woman.
“You’d be the better of a little blood to your cheeks; you’re as white
as paper, ma’am,” answered Mildred.
“I never have any colour now, they tell me—always pale, pale,
pale; but it isn’t muddy; ’taint what you call putty?”
“Well, no.”
“Ha! no; I knew that—no, and I’d rather be a little pale. I don’t like
your great, coarse peony-faced women; it’s seven years in May last
since I lost my sight. Some people are persecuted; one curse after
another—rank injustice! Why should I lose my sight, that never did
anything to signify—not half what others have, who enjoy health,
wealth, rank—everything. Things are topsy-turvey a bit just now, but
we’ll see them righted yet.”
CHAPTER XXX.
THE OLD SOLDIER GROWS MORE FRIENDLY, AND FRIGHTENS MRS.
TARNLEY.