Buildings 12 01514 Compressed

Machine Translated by Google
buildings
Article
The Search for Solar Architecture in Asia in the Works of the

Architect Antonin Raymond: A Protracted Balance between
Culture and Nature
2
Jose-Manuel Almodóvar-Melendo 1 , Inmaculada Rodríguez-Cunill and Joseph Cabeza-Lainez 1,*
1
Department of Architectural Composition, University of Seville, Av. Reina Mercedes 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
2
Department of Painting, University of Seville, C. Laraña, 2, 41002 Sevilla, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: The renowned architect Antonin Raymond undertook a large amount of work in Japan for more
than fifty years. He arrived to the archipelago as a partner to Frank Lloyd Wright, who had received the
commission for the paramount Imperial Hotel. However, Raymond became almost revolutionary in that
country for his realizations of projects and buildings. Simultaneously, he pioneered the concept of solar
houses, a notion that proved to be fundamental for bioclimatic design. Raymond realized that because of
the influence of geomancy and Daoism, the buildings of Japan had a sort of cosmic link, especially to the
sun and the seasons, and in this way, he took great concern with solar exposure, shading, and daylighting,
both in the way in which they were composed and also in the materials that were used, such as lumber,
reed roofs, and paper screens. We have tried to identify these trends in his most significant buildings and
establish a sequence of how they evolved towards a contemporary and truly sustainable design. The main
result presented is that for the reasons presented, Raymond influenced a number of celebrated architects
in Japan, India, and the USA. In fact, instead of pursuing the pure abstract minimalism common in his era,
he made use of the ideas of naturalism in architecture, which in the case of Asia were related to ritual
cosmology. In this article, we have outlined how such a procedure was possible and what it was detailed
Citation: Almodóvar-Melendo, J.-M.;
Rodríguez-Cunill, I.; Cabeza-Lainez,
for complex domains such as sun-lighting and daylighting, ventilation, acoustics, and re-interpretation of
J. The Search for Solar Architecture in vernacular architecture. The connection with the main forces of the environment, which effectively interact
Asia in the Works of the Architect through architecture, when considered from a philosophical and even spiritual point of view as he did,
Antonin Raymond: A Protracted resulted in a kind of artistic revitalization of traditions belonging to Daoism and Shintoism and inaugurated a
Balance between Culture and Nature. new manner of sustainable thinking for the building profession that endures today.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101514
Academic Editor: Shi-Jie Cao

Keywords: Antonin Raymond; Japanese vernacular; environmental design; solar design and
Received: 18 July 2022 architecture ; philosophical Daoism; modern design for warm latitudes
Accepted: 20 September 2022
Published: 23 September 2022
Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in 1.Introduction
published maps and institutional affiliations
Antonin Rajman was born in Kladno, Bohemia (nowadays Czechia), on 10 May 1888.
iations.
In 1910, after finishing his professional studies at the Polytechnic Institute of Prague, he
emigrated to the United States.
Raymond became familiar with Frank Lloyd Wright in the US and worked under his
supervision at Taliesin East starting in 1916. After the end of the conflict, he, together with
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
his partner Noémi Pernessin, came back to the US and accompanied Wright to Japan to
This article is an open access article
join the team of designers for the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo.
distributed under the terms and However, instead of a biographical approach, which has been discussed extensively
conditions of the Creative Commons in the references by Helfrich, Cabeza-Lainez, and Vendredi, among others, we would
Attribution (CC BY) license ( https:// like to discuss in a more scientific fashion the structures that he found most revealing in
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the Asian milieu and that marked him in contrast with the European perspective. The
4.0/). deep and intrinsic relationship between Japanese culture and nature was his unfailing source
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101514 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 2 of 19
of inspiration as he performed valuable work toward his revitalization. Our proposal aspires
to contribute new data to these questions that have increased their relevance in light of
emerging environmental and climate challenges. To carry out this investigation, we have
provided architectural examples in Japan, India, and the Philippines and unearthed original
files in the archives of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles. Due to his dilated
trajectory, we would try to outline only the fundamental realizations and facts of Raymond's
career in order to establish a common nexus between solar architecture and the architect's
insight.
Being a sort of xenophile, I have reacted strongly to the beauty of traditional Nipponese
architecture and art. He has extracted many lessons from Japanese traditional solutions
with which he was deeply familiar, as a result of his repeated explorations of Japanese
and Chinese traits prior to the Pacific War. On the contrary, his partner Wright said: “I am
never well here in this Tokyo climate- which is the worst in the world, I believe.”
Raymond always believed that local conditions must play an important role in crafting
modern architecture [1]. In this respect, he was particularly keen to employ traditional
materials suitable for the environment. In fact, this remained a constant trigger for issues
during his partnership with Wright on the construction of the Teikoku Hotel. In this instance,
Raymond mentioned: “The first principle which all great architecture teaches us is to regard
local conditions as the fundamental factor from which to begin, and to let the structure flow
with a logical shape inspired by local conditions. Plants and animals behave like that in
diverse environments” [2] (p. 155). In this context, he was to be followed years later by
Bruno Taut during a brief but intense period of rising militarism (1933–1936).
In his autobiography [2], Raymond introduced the curious name “solar houses”
for his early realizations of the 1920s and compared them to similar initiatives in America.
Solar architecture at the time referred to architecture that was heliocentric for reasons of health, energy, and
perhaps social considerations (since the name “solar” also happens to mean “palace”), but living and learning from
a country with renowned awe for the Sun (who was a goddess, ancestor to the Emperor) and especially Nature
(the Dao), he expanded the concept to cope with the prevailing geomantic notions of Fengshui (Fusui in Japanese)
which mainly included adroit management of water around buildings, favorable and undesirable winds, ventilation
and solar exposure, and rejection of manufactured materials in favor of rash, thatch, wood, and stone, deemed to
be more reliable and easily reconstructed in the likely case of disaster.
There is no modern exact equivalent to this notion; it is a mixture of bioclimatic,

environmentally conscious, and sustainable architecture but with a spiritual nuance
pertaining to Japanese animism (Shinto) and Daoism. We have kept the phrase “solar
architecture” as a witness to the words coined by Raymond in his writings.
During an interview conducted by Kenzô Tange in 1960, Raymond spoke about his
impressions upon arrival in Japan: “As I certainly participated in the new movement in
Europe and was so to speak let alone at that time, 1920, in the USA, imagine my surprise
when I arrived to Japan in finding here expressed in Nipponese farms and Shinto shrines
as the famous Ise, all the features which we so fervently craved to reproduce in the new
modern architecture although we were at the time far from realizing and perchance will
never be be able to achieve those ideals ( . . . ) The people, their garments, their utensils,
their pottery, paintings, gardens, all expressed a wonderful unity of purpose starkly
developed through centuries by a natural process like anything else in nature. It revealed
to me an unsurpassed love of nature with capital letter 'N' and a divine influence” [3] (p. 308).
In 1921, at the age of 32, Raymond began his career as an independent architect in
Tokyo by adapting promising technologies to be used with traditional and vernacular
Japanese forms. However, architecture was not his only means of expression, since he
was also an accomplished painter, sculptor, and musician [4]. Kunio Maekawa, who
worked with Le Corbusier in France, and Kenzô Tange were two of the many assistants
who collaborated with Antonin Raymond in revitalizing the Nipponese tradition in the
contemporary scene [5]. Raymond clarifies that: “Tange is verily an artist and comprehenders
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 3 of 19
the Japanese traditions, as well as all the arts. He is a good writer. He lectured at Harvard
( . . . ) He once told me that I can afford to do things Japanese but he cannot follow my example.
“He must do things Japanese, and in order to create in a modern spirit and creative spirit, he
has to invent a new tradition” [2] (p. 250).
Antonin Raymond penned a series of articles about his experience in Japan [2,6].
More recently, Helfrich and Whitaker published in 2006 a rather complete account of Raymond and his intention to
re-create a modern world. [3] However, these recently printed works [3,5–7] have not contributed definitively to the
understanding of the relations of Raymond's stances with cultural and environmental features of Japanese
architecture, which we believe remain largely underestimated by most western experts, especially in relationship
with his solar architecture [8]. Based on the authors' investigation of the Japanese architectural realm, the objective
of this article is to showcase that the aftermath of his Asian experiences was in fact the achievement of a new
insight into nature and specifically the sun as a form-giver for future architectural realizations, as Walter Gropius
himself was to recognize in a famous postcard of Ryoanji's rock garden sent to Le Corbusier in 1957 [9].
It is important to stress that the notions presented in Raymond's oeuvre were not limited
to the surface in an expressionist way but had to be manifest from the core conception of the
accomplished building.
Relevant examples of his work can be found in many countries, including Ireland, the Philippines, Hawaii,
and the United States. Raymond was inducted into the American Institute of Architects in 1952 and in 1956 was
awarded the New York Association's Medal of Honor. He received accolades from different governments, such as
the Third Class Order of the Rising Sun and a badge of honor for life in the Japanese Institute of Architects.
After leaving Japan, he put his own studio and farm in New Hope (Philadelphia, demolished) in a building
reminiscent of unrealized ideas by Le Corbusier for the Chilean diplomat Errazuriz, with whose sketches he had
experimented in his own Karuizawa studio. He died at the same location on 25 October 1976.
2. The Path to Raymond's Architectural Evolution In the
following pages, and based on our methodology, we will trace a timeline that starts in 1919, when Raymonds
arrived for the first time in Japan to partner with Frank Lloyd Wright in the construction of the Imperial Hotel. We
will describe the significant works and events that led him to adopt a novel environmentally conscious attitude
towards projects and to introduce “solar design”, as he named it [2], in his creations. Whenever necessary, we will
introduce scientific tools such as sunlight simulation, as in Section 4.1, to demonstrate the main points that we
would take into account and to achieve the desired results.
2.1. The Making of the Imperial Hotel

In this subsection, we will describe in brief the aftermath of the construction of the Imperial
Hotel in Tokyo.
Raymond's partnership with Frank Lloyd Wright continued with a years-long sojourn to
sort out the erection of an emblem hotel intended to impress foreign dignitaries and visitors.
Although Wright had performed several brief stints in the island nation, the association between
him and Raymond became problematic, because the American master was not inclined to
acknowledge local singularities, especially those related to the climate and building materials.
After a year working on the Imperial Hotel, Raymond turned sour due to the “incessant
reiteration of Wright's manners and moods”, to which he could not respond positively.
Furthermore, he had the impression that “the design did not bear any relationship to Japan,
neither to its climate, traditions, or people and culture”, and consequently “the lodge finally
transmogrified into a sort of cenotaph for the effigy of the same architect ” [2] (p. 76) (Figure 1).
Machine Translated
Buildings 2022, 12, x by
FORGoogle
PEER REVIEW 4 of 20
not bear any relationship to Japan, neither to its climate, traditions, or people and culture”,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 4 of 19
and consequently “the lodge finally transmogrified into a sort of cenotaph for the effigy of the
same architect” [2] (p. 76) (Figure 1).
Figure
and open1.disregard
Imperial for
Hotel reconstruction
local at Inuyama
conditions and (Gifu) grey:
climate. 1.—In showing masonry,inabundant
decorations ornamentation
stone, resembling , ,
and open disregard for local conditions and climate. 1.—In gray: decorations in stone, resembling
bling Mayan claddings. Stone is a very unusual material in façades in Japan, inadequate for resisting
Mayan claddings. Stone is a very unusual material in façades in Japan, inadequate for resisting
seismic forces, and it was nowhere to be found near Tokyo. 2.—In clay color: artistic brickwork,
seismic forces, and it was nowhere to be found near Tokyo. 2.—In clay color: artistic brickwork,
which had already proven to fail when subjected to earthquakes and other stresses. Source: authors.
which had already proven to fail when subjected to earthquakes and other stresses. Source: authors.
On the contrary, Wright's opinion about Raymond's work was reflected in some letters
ters the American master sent to R. Schindler. At that time, Schindler was assisting Wright
the American master sent to R. Schindler. At that time, Schindler was assisting Wright
in the construction of the Aline Barnsdall's Olive Hill Complex in Los Angeles while he in the
construction of the Aline Barnsdall's Olive Hill Complex in Los Angeles while he
visited Japan.
visited Japan.
Schindler,who
Schindler, whohad hadworked
workedwithwithRaymond
RaymondatatWright's
Wright'sstudio
studiobefore
beforethey
theymoved
movedtoto
Tokyo,attempted
Tokyo, attemptedininvain vaintotodefend
defendthe theposture
postureofofhis
hisformer
formercolleague.
colleague.Lastly,
Lastly,Raymond
Raymond
received a letter terminating the
received a letter terminating the partnership. partnership.
From
the the former
former it seems it seems clear
clear that that Raymond
Raymond made amade a strenuous
strenuous effort,
effort, not not entirely From
entirely
devoid of insecurity, to free himself from the strict mind frame of Wright's whims in design.
sign. At the same time, Raymond's preoccupations were far from stylistic and belonged to the
to theofrealm
realm nature.of nature. After quitting
After quitting workingworking with Raymond,
with Raymond, Wright Wright sent several
sent several letters toletters to the
Schindler expressing discontent and the urgent need to find a replacement for him.him.
to Schindler expressing discontent and the urgent need to find a replacement for In
In one
one of them, Wright even pointed out his discontent
them, Wright even pointed out his discontent and mixed feelings. and mixed feelings. of
Schindlerand
Schindler andhis hiscompanion
companionNeutra, Neutra,whomwhomhe hehad
hadencountered
encounteredduringduringhishistime
timeinin
academia at the University of Vienna, had been taken into consideration
academia at the University of Vienna, had been taken into consideration as replacements as replacements
Inforfact,
Raymond. In fact,tothey
they planned visitplanned
Tokyo. In tothis
visitrespect,
Tokyo. In this respect,
Wright wrote toWright wrote to for Raymond.
Schindler
Schindler
stating stating hisofapproval
his approval the plan of to the
work plan
on to workhospital
a new on a new hospitalSt.
(probably (probably St. Luke's
Luke's hospital).
hospital).
However, Wright's work in Tokyo ended abruptly, and as a consequence, the two
However,
architects' desiredWright's
journey work
did in
notTokyo ended Therefore,
take place. abruptly, and as a consequence,
Schindler the two
could never travel to
architects' desired journey did not take place. Therefore,
Japan, although he had a great interest in Japanese architecture. In fact, one Schindler could never travel
yearto later,
Japan, although
Schindler built hishe had a
studio great
and owninterest
house in in Japanese
Los Angeles, architecture. In fact,
the innovative andone yearKings
iconic later,
Road
Schindler
House, builtwhich
his studio
showsand clear
own relationships
house in Los with
Angeles,
deep concepts
the innovative
of Japanese
and iconic architech-
Kings
ture
Road [9].House,
Neutrawhichlivedshows
and worked with Schindler
clear relationships withatdeep
Kings Road House
concepts between
of Japanese 1925 and
architecture
1930. Subsequently,
[9]. Neutra lived andNeutra
workedcould finally travel
with Schindler to Japan.
at Kings Road I have
House arranged
between a trip
1925 of and
several
1930.
weeks to Japan,Neutra
Subsequently, which could
was achieved with to
finally travel theJapan.
help ofHethe Tsuchiuras.
arranged a trip of several weeks to In
Japan,Japan,which Neutra gave lectures
was achieved andhelp
with the visited Tokyo,
of the Osaka, Kyoto (including the Katsura
Tsuchiuras.
Imperial Villa, aNeutra
In Japan, requirement according
gave lectures to Bruno
and visited Taut's
Tokyo, opinion),
Osaka, Kyotoand Nara. the
(including ForKameki
his part,
Tsuchiura also encountered
Katsura Imperial Antonin Raymond
Villa, a requirement accordingwhen he came
to Bruno Taut'sback to Japan.
opinion), and Nara. For He
worked at Raymond's studio in Tokyo, which, in addition, he commented on in the
introduction to the first major publication of Raymond's work in Japan, published in 1931
in volume 19 of Kenchiku Jidai (Epochs of Architecture) [10].
his part, Kameki Tsuchiura also encountered Antonin Raymond when he came back to
Japan. He worked at Raymond's studio in Tokyo, which, in addition, he commented on in the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 5 ofin19
introduction to the first major publication of Raymond's work in Japan, published in 1931
volume 19 of Kenchiku Jidai (Epochs of Architecture) [10].
2.2.The
2.2. TheFirst
FirstStructures
StructuresRealized
RealizedininConcrete
ConcreteininTokyo
Tokyo
The bitter departure from the postulates of his former mentor resulted paradoxically
in the introduction of modern structural materials and especially concrete, but its manifold
fold functions and austerity had to produce a remarkable effect on design and expression
in Japan,
Japan, as we as describe
we describe here. here.
In the beginning, Raymond carried out unassuming commissions for small and private
vate villas with a certain Western style that the Japanese were not capable of reproducing at
at theThe
time. time. The foreign
foreign colony in colony
Tokyo in was
Tokyo onewas onemain
of his of hissources
main sources of commissions,
of commissions, more the
more specifically, foreigners in charge of teaching equipment,
specifically, foreigners in charge of teaching equipment, medical attention, religious medical attention, religious
services,
and so on. In time, he evolved considerably in the typology and techniques of detailed of
services, and so on. In time, it has evolved considerably in the typology and techniques
detached residences
residences [11]. [11].
Theofplot
plot oneofofonehisof his early
early buildings buildings
in Japan,in Japan, the house
the house for Dr.for Dr. Rachel
Rachel Reid near The
Reid near
Azabu,was
Azabu, wastoo toolarge
largefor forhis
hisclient.
client.Accordingly,
Accordingly,she shegave
gavepart
partofofthetheland
landtotoRaymond,
Raymond,who
whohis
built built hisresidence
first first residence in Tokyo
in Tokyo therethere (no longer
(no longer extant).
extant). Regarding
Regarding thisthis house,
house, Ray-
Raymond
explained
mond explained that thethat rooms'
the rooms'
orientationorientation
to the South to thetoSouth
bringtoinbring
sunlight,
in sunlight,
the windows'
the win-
position based on
Dows' position basedventilation and daylighting,
on ventilation and daylighting, and theandprinciple
the principleof using unmanufactured
of using unmanu-
materials were all
invoiced materials inspired
were by Japanese
all inspired by Japanesetraditional architecture.
traditional architecture. This
This constitutes
constitutes an early
move toward solar
architecture.
an early move toward solar architecture.
Raymond
Raymond used used a type of concrete concretethat thathe heemphatically
emphaticallycalled calledmonolithic.
monolithic. Hehehadhad
found
from
found thefrom
work the atwork
the Imperial Hotel that
at the Imperial stone
Hotel thatwas scarce
stone in Japan
was scarce in and
Japan lacked
and the
lacked the
tensile
tensileproperties
propertiesofoftraditional
traditionalwood woodused usedfor forresidences.
residences.As Asan anideal
idealsubstitute,
substitute, concrete
was
concrete was reinforced, but only with non-corrugated steel. Many of the were
reinforced, but only with non-corrugated steel. Many of the materials materials were left
exposed
left exposed in their original
in their state,state,
original re-installing the Japanese
re-installing the Japanese architectural idea idea
architectural with with
which which he
disagreed
he disagreed with with
Wright: “The “The
Wright: ornament ornamentshould be part
should beofpart
the of
surface but notbut
the surface lie not
on the
lie on the
surface”
surface” [8] [8] (Box 1-f.1, 31057).
(Box 1-f.1, 31057).Accordingly,
Accordingly,Raymond Raymond reproduced
reproduced as as
much much as possible
as possible the the
ancient simplicity of the Japanese spirit by bringing in modern
ancient simplicity of the Japanese spirit by bringing in modern techniques (Figure 2). techniques (Figure 2).
2.Figure 2. Raymond's
Raymond's own Reinanzaka
own Reinanzaka House inHouse
Tokyo,inentirely
Tokyo,realized
entirely in
realized in monolithic
monolithic reinforced Figure
reinforced
concrete, 1923. Source: authors.
concrete, 1923. Source: authors.
Raymondcame
Raymond cametotothe
thepoint
pointofofchanneling
channelingwater
waterwith
withropes
ropesand
andbamboo
bambooinstead
instead of
gutters. In addition, I have designed large windows and screens that served
sliding of gutters. In addition, I have designed large windows and screens that servedas a sortas
of a sort of
doors that induced a stronger flow of space (and air) from the quiet interior to
sliding doors that induced a stronger flow of space (and air) from the quiet interior tothe green
the green outer spaces [12]. The openings were protected by deep overhangs, taking into
account solar angles and other types of sunshades that contribute to darkening the indoors
spaces, as occurred in Japanese traditional architecture (Figure 3). These interiors seem to
be appreciated by the Japanese mind, and they are the matter of a famous essay named
“In Praise of Shadows” by the novelist Junichiro Tanizaki. On this point, I mentioned:
, ,
outer spaces [12]. The openings were protected by deep overhangs, taking into account solar
angles and other types of sunshades that contribute to darkening the indoor spaces, as occurred in
6 of 19
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514
traditional Japanese architecture (Figure 3). These interiors seem to be prized by the Japanese
mind, and they are the matter of a famous essay called “In Praise of Shadows” by the novelist
Junichiro Tanizaki. On this point, he mentioned: “In “In making for ourselves a place to inhabit, we
first spread
making foraourselves
kind of parasol
a placetotocast somewe first spread a kind of parasol to cast some shadow on
inhabit,
the
shadow on the earth, and in the paleshadow
earth, and in the pale light of this light of we
thisassemble ourassemble
shadow we house” [13]
our house” [13] (p. (p. 28).
At28).
theAtsame time, this house of pure lines set a precedent for
the same time, this house of pure lines set a precedent for his solar
his architecture.
solar architecture.
Figure3.3.Sketch
Figure Sketchshowing
showingthe
thedynamic
dynamicplasticity
plasticityofofconcrete
concreteininReinanzaka's
Reinanzaka'sHouse.
House.Source:
Source:authors.
authors.
This is
This is the
the first
first example
exampleofofthe transformations
the toward
transformations environmental
toward architecture
environmental Raymond
architecture that
thatenvisaged
had Raymondfor hadtheenvisaged for the
contemporary contemporary
scene scenethrough
of Japan, which, of Japan, which, through a for-tunate
a fortunate
ofcombination
skill and circumstances,
of skill and circumstances,
became ratherbecame
successful
rather
[13].
successful [13]. combination
23.
23.Influence
Influence of
of the
the Kantô
Kantô Earthquake (1923)
Earthquake (1923)
InInthis
this subsection,
subsection, wewewill
willcomment
comment that
that thethe previous
previous platitudes
platitudes of intellectual
of intellectual theories
theo- and
cultural discussion were soon to be put to a test by the power of the untamed nature in
ries and cultural discussion were soon to be put to a test by the power of the untamed Japan and
the rise of
nature militarism.
in Japan and the rise of militarism.
Raymond continued
Raymond continued with
with hishis architectural
architectural inventions
inventions and
and was notwas not involved
involved with the
with the construction
frenzy in the occupied
construction frenzy in territories
the occupiedin Asia.
territories in Asia.
Life seemed to pass peacefully
Life seemed to pass peacefully in Tokyo in Tokyo untiltragic
until one one event
tragicboosted
event boosted
Raymond's Raymond's
career in
Japan, the great earthquake of 1923. The architect was surprised by the magnitude
career in Japan, the great earthquake of 1923. The architect was surprised by the magnitude of
the catastrophe
tude in his studio,
of the catastrophe in hisbut he and
studio, butthe
he rest
and of
thehis staff
rest of were able
his staff to escape.
were able to Later,
escape.near
Shinagawa station, Antonin found Noémi with their son Claude. Fortunately,
Later, near Shinagawa station, Antonin found Noémi with their son Claude. Fortunately, House
Reinanzaka
had resisted the earthquake unscathed [14].
Reinanzaka House had resisted the earthquake unscathed [14].
Astonished by the intensity of the damage due to the disaster and the large number of
Astonished by the intensity of the damage due to the disaster and the large number of
casualties, Raymond was personally involved in humanitarian aid. By chance, the Imperial
By chance, Raymond was personally involved in humanitarian aid. By chance, the Im- Hotel also
resisted the earthquake with little damage. Frank Lloyd Wright exultantly spoke
Perial Hotel also resisted the earthquake with little damage. Frank Lloyd Wright exult- about it in
his biography.
previously spoke about it in his biography.
Gradually, daily life was restored, and his studio activity became frantic in order to
Gradually, daily life was restored, and his studio activity became frantic in order to reconstruct
as many buildings as possible. The construction techniques that Raymond
reconstruct as many buildings as possible. The construction techniques that Raymond pi-
pioneered, based on reinforced concrete, unlike those of brick used by Josiah Conder
oneered, based on reinforced concrete, unlike those of brick used by Josiah Conder and and Wright,
were validated. On the contrary, the American steel construction applied
Wright, were validated. On the contrary, the American steel construction applied among other
buildings in the Marunouchi department store was found to be unacceptable
other buildings in the Marunouchi department store were found to be unacceptable for seismic
activity and had to be discarded or reconsidered. Since then, earthquake
seismic activity and had to be discarded or reconsidered. Since then, earthquake resilience was
one of the main features of Raymond's signature; therefore, references to this
It was one of can
characteristic the main features
be found of Raymond's
in almost signature;
all of his later sizeableTherefore,
works [15].references to this charac-
teristic can be found in almost all of his later sizable works [15].
3. Early Achievements and Results in Climate-Responsive Houses
In this section, we will describe how Raymond's trajectory was consolidated, and the
concept of solar housing, elucidated in his Reinanzaka house, is made explicit in its own
words through realizations of private villas such as Karuizawa's and Viscount Hamao's
3. Early Achievements and Results in Climate-Responsive

Houses In this section, we will describe how Raymond's trajectory was consolidated, and the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 7 of 19
concept of solar housing, elucidated in his Reinanzaka house, is made explicit in his own
words through realizations of private villas such as Karuizawa's and Viscount Hamao's
residence and also in virtue of dissemination of his ideas in books, articles, and sundry
residenceThese
lectures. and also in virtueas
are chosen of considering
dissemination
theof his ideas
higher in books,
exponents of aarticles, and sundry
subtler approach to
lectures.
the These
problems are chosen
presented by as considering
dwelling the higher exponents of a subtler approach to the
with nature.
problems presented by dwelling with nature.
3.1. The House for Viscount Hamao
3.1. The House for Viscount Hamao
The starting point of this trend was marked by this project. In 1927, Raymond carried
The starting point of this trend was marked by this project. In 1927, Raymond carried
out an important work for a Japanese nobleman. In relation to that work, the architect
out an important work for a Japanese nobleman. In relation to that work, the architect
himself claims to have reached a cultural syncretism in which environmental Japanese
features are included, resulting in a house that can be considered a precedent for the
first
American “solar” houses [16]. Raymond states about the home that “such design was
an American “solar” houses [16]. Raymond states about the home that “such design was a
precedent of homes which even today could be taken as contemporary; not only in the
precedent of homes which even today could be taken as contemporary; not only in the
disposition of an open plan and adequate orientation, but also in the handling of
materials,
als, maintained untreated as much as possible, and the use of plywood for inner
partitions, maintained untreated as much as possible, and the use of plywood for inner partitions,
etc." [2] (p. 118).
etc." [2] (p. 118).
In truth, he inadvertently foresaw the ideas of Bruno Taut, who in his Japanese
sojourn
journ
writtenwrote
[17], [17],
“Hence“Hence
until until
now now
Japan Japan cannot
cannot possess
possess her own
her own architecture
architecture if such
if such is notis
not
develop in accordance with its own climate ( . . . ). However, this is very difficult to to
developed in accordance with its own climate (…). However, this is very difficult
achieve
achieve and and perhaps
perhaps impossible
impossible in in the
the short
short term
term for
for the
the Japanese
Japanese themselves.
themselves. Several
Several
Centuries
foreigners. must pass before they are ready to act in this manner without the help of
eigners.
The The traditional
traditional JapaneseJapanese
house can house can no
no longer belonger
inhabitedbe inhabited by thepeople
by the current currentofpeople
Japan
of Japan (…). People who sit in chairs and tables will no longer stay crouched
( . . . ). People who sit in chairs and tables will no longer stay crouched under the kotatsu under the
kotatsu (brazier) huddling into several layers of kimonos or remain trembling
(brazier) huddling into several layers of kimonos or remain trembling in the floor while the in the floor
while the cold
“cold winter winter
winds winds
blow blow the
through through the shattered
shattered shoji.” shoji.”
3.2. Raymond's Karuizawa Summer Studio in the Wake of Le Corbusier

A further
further development
development in in this
this typology
typology appeared
appeared asas soon
soon asas 1933,
1933, when
when thethe Ray- A
Raymonds
monds
hot andbuilt a summer residence to carry on with some of their commissions during the
hot
humidandsummer
humid summer
of Tokyo.
ofThe
Tokyo.building
The building
design was
design
based
wason
based
Le Corbusier's
on Le Corbusier's
plans forplans
for the mansion of M. Errazuriz in Chile but adapted to Raymond's previous achievements
(Figure(Figure
ments 4). 4).
(to) (b)
Figure 4. Raymond's Kuruizawa summer studio (reconstruction). A vernacular reconstruction of Le

Corbusier's sketch for the Errazuriz House at Zapallar, near Valparaiso (Chile). (a) General outlook;
(b) external view of the studio. Source: authors.
When the Swiss-born architect first heard about the matter, he reacted negatively but
Later, on May 7th of 1935, Le Corbusier sent Raymond a letter stating: “Please rest assured
that there is no bad feelings between us, but–as you used to say–you made a slight mistake,
. .
Machine Translated by Google Corbusier's sketch for the Errazuriz House at Zapallar, near Valparaiso (Chile). (a) General outlook;
(b) external view of the studio. Source: authors.
When the Swiss-born architect first heard about the matter, he reacted negatively but
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 later, on May 7th of 1935, Le Corbusier sent Raymond a letter stating: “Please rest assured 8 of 19
that there is no bad feelings between us, but–as you used to say–you made a slight mis-take,
that is, you forgot to send me a note when you published the images of your nice Tokyo
house,
you forgot which is very
to send me pretty,
a note by the you
when way”published
[3] (p. 332).
the that is, of your nice Tokyo
images
Furthermore, in October of that year,
in house, which is very pretty, by the way” [3] (p. 332).Raymond spent several days with Le Corbusier
NewFurthermore,
York. Hence,inthe disagreement
October regarding
of that year, Raymondthe plagiarism
spent several of Raymond's
days with Le Karuizawa
Corbusier in
summer
York. studio
Hence, thewas apparently regarding
disagreement resolved. theIn fact, when Le
plagiarism of Corbusier
Raymond's obtained in 1940 in New
Karuizawa
commission
study for developing
was apparently an urbanization
resolved. In fact, whenplan for the new
Le Corbusier city of Izmir
obtained in Turkey, summer
in 1940
where Taut for
commission haddeveloping
worked prior, he sent Raymond
an urbanization another
plan for the new missive
city ofasking
Izmir inabout his experi- a
Turkey,
had worked prior, he sent Raymond another missive asking about his experience where Taut
ence dealing with earthquakes in Japan. This harks back to the acclaim that the
Reinanzaka
dealing house had achieved
with earthquakes in Japan.inThis
Europe,
harksespecially
back to the among
acclaim thethat
French intellectuals.
the Reinanzaka
houseInhad achievedKaruizawa
Raymond's in Europe,summer
especially among
studio, the French
currently the Paynetintellectuals.
museum, everything In
Raymond's
It was based on Karuizawa
the skills ofsummer studio,
traditional currently
Japanese the Paynet
carpenters. Themuseum,
architecteverything
used local chest-
was
nut based
timbers, onrudimentary
the skills of polishes
Japanese traditional
with sand and carpenters.
straw, andThe hadarchitect
only theusedbark local chestnut
removed.
timbers, rudimentary
Local igneous rocks polishes
(lava andwith sand and
magma) werestraw,
selectedandas hadtheonly the barkfor
aggregate removed.
cement.Local
In ad-
igneous rocks (lava and magma) were selected as the aggregate for
edition, sugiki (see glossary) wood (cryptomeria) from nearby forests was employed for the cement. In addition,
sugiki
boards;(see
theglossary)
roof waswood (cryptomeria)
covered with karamatsufrom nearby
straw (aforests
type ofwas employed
larch), for the boards;
kaya ( myscanthus ) reed
ororrash
rash;; and sweat or typical shutters were made from bamboo. The construction incor- and
sweat
poratesor typical shutters
a makeshift were made
system from bamboo.
of evaporative cooling Thethat
construction
relies on incorporates
the vicinity ofa a lakeside
makeshift
(Figure 5).system of evaporative
The orientation cooling
of the living that relies
spaces was setontothe
thevicinity
south asof usually
a lakeside (Figure
happens in 5).
East Asia,
East Asia, although Le Corbusier made no mention of this matter in his sketch and hardly
could
could have, being at the time fairly unaware of the subtleties of solar geometry and especially
cially in the southern hemisphere where Chile lies. In this way, the breezes from the lake in
the
aresouthern hemisphere
also deflected to coolwhere Chile
the inner lies. InMuch
rooms. this way,
later,the breezeswas
Raymond from the lake
bound are a also
to enact
deflected to cool for
similar diagram thehis
inner
farmrooms. Much in
and studio later,
NewRaymond was bound to without
Hope (Pennsylvania), enact ahindrances
similar
diagram
due to different climates and latitudes. In fact, the New Hope studio has recently due
for his farm and studio in New Hope (Pennsylvania), without hindrances beentoto
different climates and latitudes. In fact, the New Hope studio has been recently
demolished, while Karuizawa's still receives visitors and activities with just nominal demolished,
refurbishments.
furbishments.
Figure5.5.Karuizawa
Figure Karuizawasummer
summerhouse,
house,section,
section,and
andnatural
naturalventilation.
ventilation.ItItanticipates
anticipateseco-friendly,
eco-friendly, sus-
tainable houses.
sustainable houses.
To a significant extent, it could be argued that Raymond tried to reinforce the Japanese
nese aesthetic
aesthetic conceptsconcepts
of wabiof(lack
wabiof(lack of decoration
decoration as a of
as a result result of the pursuit
the pursuit for thefor
baretheessence)
bare
essence)
and and sabi or
sabi (depicting (depicting or anticipating
anticipating the passage theofpassage of time)
time) through through
modern modern environment-
environmental
mental trends
predating predatinginsustainability
sustainability architecture. in architecture.
According According
to Bruno to Bruno
Taut, natural Taut, natural trends
wood
represents in Japan
wood represents “the beginning
in Japan and the
“the beginning andend, youth
the end, and and
youth old age. Beautiful
old age. wood
Beautiful woodthat is
that isold
simply simply
is notold is notdue
elegant elegant due to its appearance,
to its appearance, but becausebut because
it has it has endured
been hardened by longawinding
long journey,
winding or we
journey, or wecould state,
could a spiritual
state, a spiritualexperience”
experience”[18]
[18] (p.
(p. 91). Following
Followingthisthisconcept,
Japanese
Raymond's friend Schindler added that the wood only needs to be “slightly
brushed to accentuate the textures” [14] (p. 20).
Thus, in Raymond's Karuizawa studio, all irrelevant ornaments were removed to attain
vacuity, and thus “leave it to everyone's insight to appreciate what it has enshrined” [19]
(p. 89). On this point, Raymond commented that in the Japanese space “it could seem that
the wish to dispose with the useless, to clean the space, to look for the essence in everything,
Eventually, in the silence so created, one hears the pure voice of the form, of the substance
and the space” [2] (p. 151).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 9 of 19
With hindsight, it seems clear that Raymond innovated against all odds he was able
to adapt the sleek plans of avant-garde architecture to Nipponese vernacular construction
and philosophy, which implied natural features.
3.3. Publication and Dissemination Efforts: Book: Antonin Raymond, His Realizations in Japan, 1920–1935
To prove that Raymond's findings were not incidental, we will analyze the subsequent
printing efforts. His first book was published by Jônan Shoin in Tokyo in 1938 with an initial
printing of 700 copies. In 1939, second and third printings were published, reaching 502
and 350 copies, respectively. In this relevant book, now almost unavailable, Raymond
explains his architectural concerns before leaving Japan due to the increased pre-war militarism.
Among other things, Raymond noticed a beautiful atmosphere when his second son Claude
returned from school on a tank's deck, despite having been treated well. Raymond points
out in this book that:
“Everything fulfils a keen purpose and is only sufficient in relation to that purpose. The
greatest satisfaction which a Japanese experiences, can be found in the balance which
the inhabitant identifies between the idea, the act and the results, both through space
and time ( . . . ) The Japanese worships nature fervently, much more than us, and he
reveals it by making sacrifices for it which we are not willing to perform. The garden and
the house constitute an indissoluble one.” [2] (pp. 150–153).
It is convenient to stress that Raymond developed in the latter sentence the concepts
of katei (literally, house garden), equivalent to “home”, and shakkei, or borrowed landscape.
With the exception of genkan, the “hidden barrier”, where shoes must be removed, and some other
minor aspects, it is astonishing that Raymond was able to distinctly recognize key points of the
Japanese domestic tradition that even many natives were not able to perceive . He went so far as
to tolerate and praise Feng-Shui and other geomantic rites, occasionally to be performed and
implemented for some of his buildings; such customs prescribed the southern orientation of the
buildings mentioned elsewhere [20].
4. Pacific War Exiles and Life in India: Ashram for the Guru Sri Aurobindo (1937),
Church in Negros (Philippines) (1948), International Results In
the following section, we analyze two important examples developed outside Japan in purely
tropical surroundings, which Raymond challenged's postulates and capabilities.
Forced to leave Japan in 1937 due to the war-mongering atmosphere and increasing
hostility towards foreigners, Raymond moved to Pondicherry (India), where he had been
commissioned to build a complex for Sri Aurobindo, a sage and guru who took refuge in
southern India (French territory) to elude the British authorities that had falsely accused
and incarcerated him.
Raymond began to design the project in Japan with the participation of the architect
Maekawa, who had stayed for a couple of years with Le Corbusier in Paris. Based on
the original design, Raymond proceeded to construct the roof of the building with a kind
of vaulting made of precast concrete to induce more ventilation in such a harsh climate [21].
Soon-to-be artists such as George Nakashima (sculptor) and François Sammer collaborated
under his guidance. In this pristine resort, in which he himself had to live for quite some
time, he further experimented with the concrete-frame typology built manually by acolytes
of the guru. In order to open the building to the outside and thus respond to the exacting
requirements of a tropical climate, the south façade was designed with long horizontal
blinds, probably constituting the first modern large-scale brise-soleil (Figures 6 and 7). In
the plans, Maekawa minutely writes the French word persianne to refer to this shading system [22].
Even the windows were (and remain) unglazed, thus preventing a greenhouse effect.
some me,
with the and urer experienced
concrete-frame typologywe concree-rame
built manually by ypoogy
acolytesuofmanuay and
the guru. Insome
order time, he further
to open experimented
the building to the
Machine Translated by Google outside and thus respond to the acolytes of the guru. In order to open the building to the outside andhor-
thus
respond to the exacting requirements of a tropical climate, the south façade was designed with long
exacting
probably requirements of first
constituting the a tropical climate,
modern the south
large-scale façade (Figures
brise-soleil was designed withblinds,
6 izontal long hor-izontal blinds,
probably constituting
the first modern large-scale brise-soleil (Figures 6 and 7). In the plans, Maekawa minutely writes
word persianne to refer to this and 7). In the plans, Maekawa minutely writes the French word persianne the French
to
refer to this shading system [22]. Even the windows were (and remain) unglazed, thus preventing
system [22]. Even the windows were (and remain) unglazed, thus preventing a greenhouse effect. greenhouse a shading
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 10 of 19
effect.
Figure
Figure 6.
Figure6. Ashram
6.Ashram of
Ashram of Sri
of Sri Aurobindo.
Sri Aurobindo. Pondicherry,
Pondicherry, India.
Aurobindo. Pondicherry, India.
India.
Figure
Figure7.7. View
7.View from
Viewfrom the
fromthe south
southofof
thesouth the
ofthe sleeping
thesleeping quarters
quartersinin
sleepingquarters the
inthe Ashram
Ashramofof
theAshram Sri
ofSri Aurobindo.
SriAurobindo. Pondicherry,
Aurobindo.Pondicherry,
Pondicherry,
Figure
India. An example of the external louvers.
In
hishis
firstfirst Japanese
Japanese stint,
stint , hehe had
had deeply
deeply studied
studied the
the radiative
radiative intensity
intensity ofof
thethe high In
high
subtropical
subtropicalsun, sun, which
sun,which can
whichcan only
canonly
onlybebe subdued
besubdued
subduedbyby reflection
byreflection and
reflectionand never
andnever admitted
neveradmitted directly.
admitteddirectly.
directly.Este
subtropical
This effort came to the point of labeling a construction detail of the unglazed window cum
effort came to the point of labeling a construction detail of the unglazed window cum cum
This effort came to the point of labeling a construction detail of the unglazed window
louvers with
louverswith
withthe the compelling
thecompelling sentence:
compellingsentence: “Window
sentence:“Window Arrangement
“WindowArrangement
Arrangementfor for Tropical
forTropical Countries”
TropicalCountries”
Countries”[23]
louvers
[23] (Figure
[23] (Figure 8).
(Figure 8). 8).
This building is still in perfect use after 85 years, it features a Japanese garden with a
lantern, a pond, and some worship halls. It pleasantly reveals how a detailed lecture of
local climate, or in other words “the soul of the place” is able to produce transcendental
architectures with the simplest means and resources through integration with a spiritual
community.
Buildings 11
19 of
Buildings2022,
2022,12, 1514
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20
Figure 8. Detail of the pivot system for the façade, indicating the adroit solution (arrangement) de-
vised for tropical countries and the absence of glazing to increase ventilation.
This building is still in perfect use after 85 years, it features a Japanese garden with a lantern, a
pond, and some worship halls. It pleasantly reveals how a detailed lecture of local climate, or in other
words “the soul of the place” is able to produce transcendental Figure 8. Detail of the pivot system for
the resources
and façade,
indicating theindicating
through
adroit the adroit
integration
solution solution (arrangement)
with a spiritual
(arrangement) Figure de- architectures
8. Detail withsystem
of the pivot the simplest
for themeans
façade,
designed for tropical countries and the absence of glazing to increase ventilation.
community.
designed for tropical countries and the absence of glazing to increase ventilation.
This building
Solar Analysis is still in perfect
and Simulation of theuse after 85 Ashram
Aurobindo years, it 4.1.
features a Japanese garden with a 4.1.
lantern, a pond, and some worship halls. It pleasantly reveals how a detailed lecture of To
demonstrate
climate, or in the effectiveness
other of Raymond's
words “the soul ideas,
of the place” casttointuitively,
is able we have simulated
produce transcendental local
the solar trajectories (Figure 9) for this building to ascertain that the orientation and
ulated the solar trajectories (Figure 9) for this building to ascertain that the orientation
and architectures with the simplest means and resources through integration with a
spiritual louvercalculated
Louver details details calculated
by means by means
of the of the
software softwareby
developed developed by[24]
the authors the are
authors
well [24] are well
community.
adapted to the site and the local climate.
4.1. Solar Analysis and Simulation of the Aurobindo Ashram
To demonstrate the effectiveness of Raymond's ideas, cast intuitively, we have simulated
the solar trajectories (Figure 9) for this building to ascertain that the orientation and louver
details calculated by means of the software developed by the authors [24] are well adapted to
the site and the local climate.
(to) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Simulations
Simulations of
of the
the solar
solar movement
movement in
in Pondicherry
Pondicherry (India)
(India) created
created by
by the
the authors:
authors: (a) 3-
dimensional movement; (b) elevation movement.
(a) 3-dimensional movement; (b) elevation movement.
Following the solar study, we conducted a sunlight simulation [ 24] for the current
device
and and several
several alternatives
alternatives such assuch as the ordinary
the ordinary windowwindow or different
or different finishesfinishes
for the for the device
(b)
(a) slats (Figure 10). The behavior, recently checked with accurate monitoring by architect
Figure
Mona 9. Simulations
Doctor-Pingel, of theadequate,
seems solar movement
since, ininthe
Pondicherry
particular (India)
case increated by system
which the the authors:
is (a) 3-
dimensional movement; (b) elevation movement.
set to a horizontal position, the increases in illuminance are relevant as compared with
a normal window, which is hardly predictable without computer tools [25]. The louver
Following the solar study, we conducted a sunlight simulation [24] for the current device is
kept in good condition and is well maintained by disciples even in the curious
device and several alternatives such as the ordinary window or different finishes for the
slats (Figure 10). The behavior, recently checked with accurate monitoring by architect
slats (Figure 10). The behavior, recently checked with accurate monitoring by architect
Mona Doctor-Pingel, seems adequate, since, in the particular case in which the system is
set to a horizontal position, the increases in illuminance are relevant as compared with a
set to a horizontal position, the increases in illuminance are relevant as compared with a
normal window, which is hardly predictable without computer tools [25]. The louver de- 12 of 19
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 normal window, which is hardly predictable without computer tools [25]. The louver de-vice
is kept in good condition and is well maintained by disciples even in the curious absence
of glazing (which prevents the build-up of the greenhouse effect). ). At the site, an absence
of glazing (which prevents the build-up of the greenhouse effect). At the site, a real-scale
model (in wood) of the shading system attached to a single room is still pre- absence of
glazing (which prevents the build-up of the greenhouse effect). At the site, a
real-scale model (in wood) of the shading system attached to a single room is still pre-served. real-scale model
(in wood)
ofserved.
the shading system attached to a single room is still preserved.
Figure 10. Raymond's Golconde Ashram: computer simulation (section) of the performance of the
Figure10.
Figure 10.Raymond's
Raymond'sGolconde
Golconde Ashram:computer
computer simulation(section)
(section) ofthe
theperformance
performance ofthethe
current louvers (blue diamonds),Ashram:
dark-painted slats simulation
(black triangles), andofthe same window of without
current
current louvers (blue diamonds), dark-painted slats (black triangles), and the same window without
blinds louvers
oriented(blue
to thediamonds),
south (reddark -painted
squares) or toslats (black
the east triangles),
(green and existing
“x”). The the same window
system, without
if set to a
blinds oriented to the south (red squares) or to the east (green “x”). The existing system, if set to a
blinds
horizontal
oriented
position,
to theincreases
south (redilluminance
squares) orsignificantly
to the east as
(green
compared
“x”). The
with
existing
a normal
system,
window.
if set to
horizontal position, increases illuminance significantly as compared with a normal window. a
horizontal position, increases illuminance significantly as compared with a normal window.
This building was one of the few key works of modern architecture completed at that
Thisbuilding
building wasone one ofthe thefew
fewkey
keyworks
worksof of modernarchitecture
architecturecompleted
completedat atthat
that
time in India and was
This is still theofmost important outsidemodern
the Chandigarh area. It came to be time
in India
India and
and is still is still the most
the most importantimportant outside the
outside response Chandigarh
the Chandigarh area.
area. It cameIt came to
to[26]. be time
be The project in
considered a pioneering and outstanding to the tropical climate
consideredaapioneering
considered pioneeringand andoutstanding
outstandingresponse
responsetotothe thetropical
tropicalclimate
climate[26].
[26].The
Theproject
project
was to be inspirational and was heavily disseminated through the book Tropical Architec-
wastotobe
was beinspirational
inspirationaland and washeavily
heavilydisseminated
disseminatedthrough
throughthe thebook
bookTropical
TropicalArchitecture
Architec-
ture by Drew and Fry, whowas also collaborated with Le Corbusier in Chandigarh's main ture
by Drew
works. and Fry, who also collaborated with Le Corbusier in Chandigarh's main works.
works.
Dr.
Dr.Otto OttoKoenisberger,
Koenisberger,who whostarted
startedaapractice
practiceininIndia
Indiainin1939
1939and andinin1951
1951became
becamethe
theofdirector
director the of theDepartment
Tropical Tropical Department
of the of the Architectural
Architectural Association Association
in London, intook
London,
good
took good director of the Tropical Department of the Architectural Association in London,
took good notice of the innovations and achievements developed by Raymond at
Pondicherry.
notice of the innovations and achievements developed by Raymond at Pondicherry.
notice
ItItisof the innovations
is convenient
convenient to tonotice
and
notice achievements
that
that the the Golconde
Golconde
developed
Ashram
Ashram bears
bysimilarities
Raymond
somebears some atthe
Pondicherry.
withsimilarities with the
It is convenient to
notice that the Golconde Ashram bears some similarities with the Ministry of Education in Rio de Janeiro
designed by Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, and
Ministry of Education in Rio de Janeiro designed by Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, and
Ministry
other of Education
Brazilian in Rio
architects de Janeiro
inspired by Le designed
Corbusier,byalthough
Lucio Costa, Oscar
actually builtNiemeyer, and[27]
later in 1943
other Brazilian architects inspired by Le Corbusier, though actually built later in 1943 [27]
other Brazilian
(Figure 11). architects inspired by Le Corbusier, though actually built later in 1943 [27]
(Figure 11).
(Figure 11).
Figure 11. Brise-soleil of the Office of Education Authority in Rio de Janeiro. 1943.
Richard Neutra, a colleague of Schindler's at the Vienna University of Technology

who met Raymond at Wright's Oak Park studio before his trip to Japan, was also interested
in the brise-soleil experiments that were being carried out in South America. In this regard,
Neutra explains, seemingly forgetting about Arabic architecture, that “no other element in
Machine Translated by Google Figure 11. Brise-soleil of the Office of Education Authority in Rio de Janeiro. 1943.
Richard Neutra, a colleague of Schindler's at the Vienna University of Technology who

met Raymond at Wright's Oak Park studio before his trip to Japan, was also inter-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 est in the brise-soleil experiments that were being carried out in South America. In this 13 of 19
regard, Neutra explains, seemingly forgetting about Arabic architecture, that “no other
element in and by South American architects has received as much attention as the ever-
present
by Southblinds and integrated
American architectsarchitectural
have received devices for shading
as much attentiontheasoutside of facadesblinds
the ever-present and
“Windows.”
and integrated[28] architectural
(box 01: folder 178 Counter-solar
devices for shading thedevices
outsidelabeled A-50, and
of facades 1946).
windows.” [28]
(boxTo01:this aim,178
folder weCounter-solar
have compared the solar
devices trajectories
labeled for the building of the Ashram and
A-50, 1946).
for thataim,
of the
weMinistry of Healththe
have compared (Figure
solar 12a,b), bothfor
trajectories evolved as design
the building estimates
of the Ashram byandTo this
intuition in places
that of the Ministrycompletely
of Health foreign
(Figureto12a,b),
western climatic
both evolvedtraditions,
as designbutestimates
they showbyan ad- for
intu-
equate
in places
behavior
completely
and performance
foreign to western
after more
climatic
thantraditions,
80 years butof their
theyrespective
show an adequate
construction
tion.
behavior and performance after more than 80 years of their respective construction.
(to) (b)
Figure
Figure12.
12.Comparison
Comparisonofof3D
3Dsolar
solartrajectories
trajectories(a)(a)Golconde
GolcondeAshram.
Ashram.(b)(b)
Ministry ofof
Ministry Health.
Health.
Although
Althoughsome
somewould
wouldspeculate
speculatethat thatLe
LeCorbusier's
Corbusier'ssketches
sketchescould
couldbe betraced
tracedtotothe
the
inception of the twoentwined
soleil formulation, projects, with
in India
his and
own Brazil, it becomes clear
Asian experiences [29], that
doesRaymond's brise-
does not showcase
the soleil formulation, entwined with his own Asian experiences [29], does not showcase the
disadvantages
disadvantagesthat thathave
haveaffected
affectedthe theoperation
operationandandmaintenance
maintenanceofofthe thesimilar
similardevice
deviceinin Rio
Rio
de de Janeiro
Janeiro (Figure
(Figure 11)11) [30].
[30]. WeWe cancansumsumup up
such such divergences
divergences by by arguing
arguing thatthat Ray-
Raymond's
mond's building became more than simply rationalist, stemming from authentic Asian
architectural
architectural solutions,
solutions, while being while being to
responsive responsive to the local
the local climate. climate. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, there was no there
suchare
was no such architectural tradition in Brazil, whose earlier buildings were content to try and
imitate
and
fashioned
imitate Portuguese
old-fashioned models.
PortugueseThis fact
models.
couldThis
alsofact
explain
couldthe
also
intriguing
explainreason
the intriguing
why old-
there are no courtyard houses in the Brazilian Sertao (in the desert).
reason why there are no courtyard houses in the Brazilian Sertao (in the desert).
4.2.Example
4.2. Exampleof of aa Church
Church Adapted
Adapted to to the
theWarm
WarmandandHumid
HumidClimate
Climateinstance
Another Another of instance
the kindofofthe kind of adaptations
adaptations devised bydevised by Raymond
Raymond in response
in response to trop- to
tropical countries is the almost forgotten church of Saint Joseph built in a remote
ical countries is the almost forgotten church of Saint Joseph built in a remote sugar factory sugar
nearVictoria
near Victoriaininthe
theisland
isle ofofNegros
Negros(Philippines).
(Philippines).
InInthis
thissimple
simplebutbut convincing
convincing project
project (Figure
(Figure 13),13), Raymond
Raymond incorporates
incorporates perforated
perforated
walls for ventilation and a belfry tower to provide daylighting to the main altar.
walls for ventilation and a belfry tower to provide daylighting to the main altar.
In this case, the concrete frame is also used but to a bare level and very similar
to wooden construction. As in most vernacular buildings throughout the island, there
is no solid wall, but the significant difference from traditional buildings is the deft use
of skylights, largely unheard of in Eastern Asia. Monitoring of the interior of the church
reveals a satisfactory lighting performance (Figure 14).
After some 80 years since its completion, the building is still in use and is greatly
appreciated and preserved by a thriving community, which is gathered around this intriguing
church in the jungle.
Buildings 14
19 of
Buildings2022,
2022,12, 1514
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20
Figure 13. The Church of St. Joseph in Victoria, island of Negros (Philippines).
In this case, the concrete frame is also used but to a bare level and very similar to wooden construction.
As in most vernacular buildings throughout the island, there is no solid wall, but the significant difference from
traditional buildings is the deft use of skylights, largely unheard of in Eastern Asia. Monitoring of the interior of
the church re- Figure 13. The Church of St. Joseph in Victoria, island of Negros (Philippines).
Figure 13. The Church of St. Joseph in Victoria, island of Negros (Philippines).
veals a satisfactory lighting performance (Figure 14).
In this case, the concrete frame is also used but to a bare level and very similar to
wooden construction. As in most vernacular buildings throughout the island, there is no
solid wall, but the significant difference from traditional buildings is the deft use of skylights,
largely unheard of in Eastern Asia. Monitoring of the interior of the church re-veals a
satisfactory lighting performance (Figure 14).
Figure 14. View of the day-lit interior of the church with registers of 400 lux, under the tower, at the Figure 14.
View of the day-lit interior of the church with registers of 400 lux, under the tower, at the
time of the photograph (July, 12 noon).
After some 80 years since its completion, the building is still in use and is greatly 5.
Definitive Return to Japan: A Statement on Architectural Maturity
appreciated and preserved by a thriving community, which is gathered around this intri-
During
guing churchtheinwar, Antonin Raymond worked in the US, accepting commissions for the
the jungle.
Figure 14. View of the day-lit interior of the church with registers of 400 lux, under the tower, at the army and
designing family houses. In America, he was associated with a young Harvard
graduate, his Czech
5. Definitive countryman
Return and fellow
to Japan: architect Ladislaw
A Statement on Rado; after the Pacific War,
Architectural
Maturity he immediately returned to Japan [31].
During
After some
the war,
80 years
Antonin
since
Raymond
its completion,
worked the
in the
building
US, accepting
is still in use
commissions
and is greatly
for the
The
Reader's Digest Building, located on the vacant plot of the French embassy, was
appreciated
army and preserved
and designing by a thriving
family houses. community,
In America, he waswhich is gathered
associated with around
a youngthis intri-
Harvard
his initial work of this second period. The building suffered demolition in spite of its
guing church in the jungle.
surprising modernity. It was the first construction in Japan with central air conditioning,
acoustic insulation, and integrated lighting. Although the building's seismic stability had
5. Definitive Return to Japan: A Statement on Architectural Maturity
has been verified by experts, it was questioned by some authorities due to its audacious design
During
featuring the war,
a double Antonin Raymond
cantilevered frame [32].worked in the US, accepting commissions for the
army and designing family houses. In America, he was associated with a young Harvard
grauae, s zec counryman an eow arcec asaw ao; aer e acc ar, he immediately returned to Japan [31].
The Reader's Digest Building, located on the vacant plot of the French embassy, was his
initial work of this second period. The building suffered demolition in spite of its sur-prising
modernity. It was the first construction in Japan with central air conditioning, acoustic insulation,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 15 of 19
and integrated lighting. Although the building's seismic stability had been verified by experts, it
was questioned by some authorities due to its audacious de-sign featuring a double
cantilevered frame [32].
The
Thechurch
churchof ofSt.
St.Anselm
Anselm is is another
another poignant
poignant workwork by
by Raymond.
Raymond.ItItwas
wascommissioned
commissionedin
1954 by Father Hildebrand, who was the principal of the Benedictine order in
sioned in 1954 by Father Hildebrand, who was the principal of the Benedictine order in Japan.
Raymond worked for
Japan. Raymond several
worked for years
several onyears
the commission and conceived
on the commission many models.
and conceived I have-
many mods
commented on the project that the result was fruitful due to its advanced structural
els. He commented on the project that the result was fruitful due to its advanced structuralsystem
and economy
system [33]. The
and economy folded
[33]. The panels that shape
folded panels the walls
that shape the and
wallsthe
androof
the are
roofleft
areexposed
left bare in
concrete with steel sheets. In the longitudinal direction, each side is formed by a folded
exposed in bare concrete with steel sheets. In the longitudinal direction, each side is wall six
sun wideby
formed (about 20 cm),
a folded wall and the wide
six sun roof is(about
supported
20 cm),by and
longthe
beams
roof 2.7 sun (Japanese
is supported by long feet) in
thickness
beams 2.7 sun (Japanese feet) in thickness (about 8 cm). Each zigzag wall beams
(about 8 cm). Each zigzag wall portion is embedded with concrete portion is
embedded to create a rigid portico that supports the deck loads and the transverse mechanical stresses
bedded with concrete beams to create a rigid portico that supports the deck loads and those
caused by earthquakes (Figure 15) [34–36].
transverse mechanical stresses caused by earthquakes (Figure 15) [34–36].
Figure 15. Staggering walls embedded with beams in the church of Sei Anselm.
Figure 15. Staggering walls embedded with beams in the church of Sei Anselm.
After suchwork,
acclaimed acclaimed
which work, which
still had still had
a touch a touch
of foreign of foreignmore
spirituality, spirituality, more After such
churchesfollowed
churches followedinindue
duecourse,
course,suchsuchas asSaint
SaintAlban,
Alban,an anAnglican
AnglicanEpiscopal
Episcopaltemple
templefor
for
which Raymond drew on timber frames encompassing the tradition of Nipponese temples
atples
the at theofrisk
risk of a compromised
a more more compromised safetysafety
against against earthquakes
earthquakes [37]. [37].
Other important works of the same typology were
important works of the same typology were St. Paul in Karuizawa, St. Paul in Karuizawa, the Shibata Other
the Shibata
Catholicthe
Church, Church, the Saint
Saint Paul Paul
Chapel at Chapel
Rikkyo at Rikkyo University,
University, and especially
and especially St. Michael St. Michael Catholic
in Sapporo.
Sapporo. In this
In this lastlast case,
case, we we
have have to recognize
to recognize thatthat quakes
quakes are are
rarerare in the
in the Hokkaido in
Hokkaido
regionthe
where where the building
building is located,
is located, and thus, and thus,frames
timber timber seem
frames seemsuited
better bettertosuited
this to this region
kindof
kind ofproject
project [38] (Figures
(Figures 16 16andand17).
17).InInthe
thesupporting
supporting truss, he he
truss, displayed
displayed some rarerare
some and
precious carpentry encounters with three logs
precious carpentry encounters with three logs (Figure 17). (Figure 17). and
It could be stated that, in a serendipitous way, he seemed to return to his origins in
a serene path of spirituality that had deeply overjoyed him in India.
In the final stage of Raymond's residence in Japan, Fusaichiro Inoue, who was a patron
of Bruno Taut, commissioned him for several relevant works, including his marital house
in Nishi-Azabu and the Performing Arts Center in Gunma. Raymond uses, in this latter
building, one of the most celebrated cultural venues in the central regions of Honshû,
the same anti-earthquake typology that he had previously applied in the church of St.
Anselm. Specifically, folded V-shaped plates in concrete, for both the roof and the walls,
form a continuous portico that even accommodates Kakubi and Noh theatrical
performances (Figure 18) [39]. In this case, for acoustic and visual reasons the plan is divergent
Interestingly, a very similar idea was adapted by the Uruguayan architect Eladio Dieste
in the famous Church of Atlantida, although in this case by employing reinforced brick
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 16 of 19
masonry and curved forms, which little by little were being discarded in Raymond's oeuvre
except for the chapel of the Nanzan University
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW in Nagoya and the latter St. Paul's Chapel
16 of 20
at Rikkyo University (Figure 19) [40].
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20
Figure16.
Figure 16.View
ViewofofSaint
SaintMichael
Michael Church
Church byby Raymond
Raymond in Sapporo.
in Sapporo.
Figure 16. View of Saint Michael Church by Raymond in Sapporo.
Figure 17. Inside view of Saint Michael's Church.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20
Figure17.
Figure 17.Inside
Insideview
viewofof Saint
Saint Michael's
Michael's Church.
Church.
It could be stated that, in a serendipitous way, he seemed to return to his origins in
a It could
in a serene pathbeofstated that, in
spirituality a serendipitous
that way, he seemed
had deeply overjoyed him in to return to his origins
India.Inserene path
the final of spirituality
stage of Raymond's that residence
had deeplyinoverjoyed him in India.
Japan, Fusaichiro Inoue, who was a
pa-tron of Bruno Taut, commissioned him for several relevant
marital tron of Bruno Taut, commissioned him for several relevant works, including works, includinghis his
marital house in Nishi-Azabu and the Performing Arts Center in
in this house in Nishi-Azabu and the Performing Arts Center in Gunma. Raymond uses, Gunma. Raymond uses,
in this latter
Hon-shû, thebuilding, one of the mosttypology
same anti-earthquake celebrated thatcultural
he had venues
applied in the central
previously regions
in the churchof
of St.
of shû,Anselm.
the same anti-earthquake
Specifically, folded typology
V-shapedthat he had
plates applied previously
in concrete, for both thein roof
the church
and the
St. Anselm.
walls, form aSpecifically,
continuous folded
porticoV-shaped
that even plates in concrete,
accommodates for both
Kakubi andthe
Noh roof and theper-
theatrical
formances (Figure
formances (Figure 18)
18 )[39].
[39].InInthis
thiscase,
case,forforacoustic
acousticand andvisual
visualreasons
reasonsthetheplanplanisisdiver-
diver-
gent. Interestingly, a very similar idea was adapted by the Uruguayan
gent. Interestingly, a very similar idea was adapted by the Uruguayan architect Eladio architect Eladio
Diestemasonry
brick in the famous Church
and curved of Atlantida,
forms, although
which little by littleinwere
this case
beingby employing
discarded reinforced
in Raymond's
brick masonry
oeuvre except forandthe
curved
chapelforms,
of thewhich littleUniversity
Nanzan by little were being discarded
in Nagoya in Raymond's
and the latter St. Paul's
oeuvre except
Chapel at Rikkyofor University
the chapel(Figure
of the Nanzan
19) [40].University in Nagoya and the latter St. Paul's
Chapel at Rikkyo University (Figure 19) [40].
Figure 18. Folded V-shaped concrete sheets in the Performing Arts Center in Gunma, Japan.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 17 of 19
Figure 19. Parabolic forms in the Chapel of St. Paul at Rikkyo University, Japan.
Figure 19. Parabolic forms in the Chapel of St. Paul at Rikkyo University, Japan.
InInaamanner
mannerofofspeaking,
speaking,wewecancansee
seethat
thatRaymond
Raymondwas wascapable
capableofofdeftly
deftlymanaging
managing
windperformance
wind performance, ventilation,and
, ventilation, andsolar
solarexposure
exposureininand
andaround
aroundhis
hisbuildings
buildingsasaswell
well as
discarding
reaction processed
to modern materialsdemands.
architectural in favor ofHe
reed, thatch,
showed wood,deal
a great and of
bamboo, as aphilos-
bioclimatic surprising
raising reaction to modern architectural demands. He showed a great deal of bioclimatic
ophy in doing
philosophy so. so.
in doing
6.6.Conclusions
Conclusions
Antonin
Antonin Raymond
Raymondproduced a real advance
produced in solar architecture
a real advance due to his experience
in solar architecture due to his experi-
and adequate management of compositional
ence and adequate management of compositional issues and issues and in the wake
in theofwake
the acculturation
of the accultura-
that
tionhe had
that heundergone.
had undergone. He achieved
He achieveda long-sought-for
a long-sought-for attunement between
attunement Eastern
between and
Eastern
Western
and Westernarchitectures, creating
architectures, at the at
creating same time new
the same timekinds of building
new kinds typologies.
of building typologies.
He Heperfectly
perfectlyunderstood
understood what what isis nowadays
nowadaystermed termed“the “theforsaken
forsaken Japan”,
Japan”, stemming
stemming
from
from the long evolution of a singular tradition that experienced secular isolation, thesakoku
the long evolution of a singular tradition that experienced secular isolation, the sa-ÿÿ,
orkoku
“enchained” country. He
ÿÿ, or “enchained” realized
country. Heitsrealized
potential itsinpotential
the contemporary scene andscene
in the contemporary felt at ease
with
andits intelligent
felt pursuit
at ease with his in search ofpursuit
intelligent a distinguished
in search of place in the international
a distinguished place in the inter-
scene.
national scene. On this matter, Antonin Raymond argued: “Anworking
On this matter, Antonin Raymond argued: “An architect architectinworking
Japan has at his
in Japan
disposal the basic principles, whose re-discovery lies at the essence
has at his disposal the basic principles, whose re-discovery lies at the essence of modern of modern architectural
trends” [2] (p. trends”
architectural 150). In[2]
truth, he dealt
(p. 150). with he
In truth, a sophisticated, complex, andcomplex,
dealt with a sophisticated, refined culture,
and re-
which stayed apart from all other civilizations in the self-enclosing
fined culture, which stayed apart from all other civilizations in the self-enclosing movement of sakoku
movement-
(see
ment above),
of sakokuin open
(seedefiance
above), in of open
the common
defianceand of themore fashionable
common principles,
and more as became
fashionable prin-
manifest in many realizations.
ciples, as became manifest in many realizations.
In Japan, scholars have detected an enduring respect for the natural sphere, which
has modeled manifold aspects of human activities and arts, and Raymond was capable
of transporting this to the architectural realm (the Dao). consequently, Japanese tectonic
modes, so described, are singular and sustainable in a similar fashion. Raymond seems
to have anticipated the ideas in the late C. Alexander's A Timeless way of Building, as he
realized the significance of nature for the Nipponese mind: an unfathomable treasure of
creative stints from which to exhaust a repertoire of inventions suitable for architectural
expression.
These expressions move with lissomness in the realms of solar and bioclimatic design,
as we believe we have widely demonstrated.
Raymond clearly understood the vernacular as a precedent for solar and later
sustainable architecture, as we have striven to show above with several examples and computer
simulations crafted by us.
Famous living architects and architectural thinkers should be included in his wake for
such is the true dimension of his intellectual legacy [41,42].
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 18 of 19
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, JC-L. and J.-MA-M.; methodology, JC-L.; software, JC-L.; validation,
J.-MA-M. and JC-L.; formal analysis, J.-MA-M.; investigation, JC-L.; resources, IR-C.; writing—review and
editing, JC-L.; visualization, IR-C.; supervision, JC-L. and J.-MA-M.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This article received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate the kindness and help of Katheryn Smith during our residence at the Getty
Research Institute. The cooperation of the personnel at Raymond Studio in Tokyo has always been inspirational to the authors.
JC-L. I would like to dedicate this article to Toress Lahl.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Glossary
(terms in Chinese characters appearing in the text)
genkanÿÿ katei
ÿÿshakkeiÿÿ
sugiki ÿ sudare
ÿ wabi ÿ
References
1. Lara, F.; Kim, Y. Built global, lived local: A study of how two diametrically opposed cultures reacted to similar modern housing solutions. J.
Archit. Plan. Res. 2010, 27, 91–106.
2. Raymond, A. Antonin Raymond: An Autobiography; Charles, E., Ed.; Tuttle Company: Rutland, VT, USA, 1973. 3.
Helfrich, K.G.F.; Whitaker, W. Crafting a Modern World. The Architecture and Design of Antonin and Noémi Raymond; Princeton
Architectural ¯Press: New York, NY, USA, 2006.
4. Yasumaro, O. The Kojiki; Camberlain, BH, Translator; Tuttle Books: Tokyo, Japan, 1981.
5. Leatherbarrow, D. Uncommon Ground. Architecture, Technology and Topography; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2002; ISBN
0262621614.
6. Oshima, KT International Architecture in Interwar Japan: Constructing Kokusai Kenchiku; University of Washington Press: Seattle,
WA, USA, 2010; ISBN 0295989440.
7. Auzennau, CV Antonin Raymond, un Architecte Occidental au Japon: 1888–1976; Interior: Paris, France, 2012.
8. Almodóvar-Melendo, JM; Cabeza-Lainez, JM Revitalizing environmental features of Japanese architecture. The experience of Raymond,
Schindler and Neutra through their collaboration with Wright. Archit. Sci Rev 2018, 61, 500–515. [CrossRef]
9. Raymond, A. Architectural Details; Antonin Raymond Seisho-Kwan: Tokyo, Japan, 1938.
10. The Getty Research Institute. Inventory of the Frank Lloyd Wright Correspondence with RM Schindler, 1914–1929, Bulk 1918–1922; The Getty
Research Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1983.
11. McCoy, E. Vienna to Los Angeles: Two Journeys Letters between RM Schindler and Richard Neutra Letters of Louis Sullivan to RM
Schindler; Arts & Architecture: Santa Monica, CA, USA, 1979.
12. Almodóvar-Melendo, JM; Jiménez, JR; Domínguez, I. Similarities Between RM Schindler House and Descriptions of Traditional
Japanese Architecture. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2014, 13, 41–48. [CrossRef]
13. Baek, J. Fudo: An East Asian Notion of Climate and Sustainability. Buildings 2013, 3, 588–597. [CrossRef]
14. Anghel, AA; Cabeza-Lainez, J.; Xu, Y. Unknown Suns: László Hudec, Antonin Raymond and the Rising of a Modern Architecture
for Eastern Asia. Buildings 2022, 12, 93. [CrossRef]
15. Tanizaki, J. Praise of Shadows; Vintage: London, UK, 2001.
16. Cabeza-Lainez, J.; Verdejo-Jimenez, JR The Japanese experience of environmental architecture through the works of Bruno Taut
and Antonin Raymond. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2007, 6, 33–40. [CrossRef]
17. Taut, B. Fundamentals of Japanese Architecture; Baker, G.F.; Pringsheim, H.E., Translators; The Society for International Cultural
Relations: Tokyo, Japan, 1937.
18. Taut, B. Houses and People of Japan; Sanseido: Tokyo, Japan, 1958.
19. Almodovar-Melendo, J.-M.; Cabeza-Lainez, J.-M. Environmental Features of Chinese Architectural Heritage: The Standardization
of Form in the Pursuit of Equilibrium with Nature. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2443. [CrossRef]
Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 19 of 19
20. Salguero-Andújar, F.; Prat-Hurtado, F.; Rodriguez-Cunill, I.; Cabeza-Lainez, J. Architectural Significance of the Seokguram
Buddhist Grotto in Gyeongju (Korea). Buildings 2022, 12, 3. [CrossRef]
21. Misawa, H. Antonin Raymond Architecture; Chronology; Kajima Institute Publishing Co., Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan, 1998.
22. Mehrotra, R. Architectural Responses in Tropical India. In Tropical Architecture. Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization; John
Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2001.
23. Misawa, H. Antonin Raymond Architectural Details— (In ÿÿÿÿÿ ÿÿÿÿÿ ÿÿÿÿÿ ; Inkokusha: Tokyo, Japan, 2005.
Japanese)
24. Cabeza-Lainez, J.; Almodóvar-Melendo, J.-M.; Revenga-Dominguez, P.; Rodríguez-Cunill, I.; Xu, Y. New Simulation Tool for
Architectural Design in the Realm of Solar Radiative Transfer. Designs 2022, 6, 72. [CrossRef]
25. Cabeza-Lainez, JM; Pulido-Arcas, JA New configuration factors for curved surfaces. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer 2012,
117, 71–80. [CrossRef]
26. Cabeza-Lainez, J. The quest for light in Indian architectural heritage. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2008, 7, 39–46. [CrossRef]
27. Almodóvar-Melendo, JM; Cabeza-Lainez, JM Nineteen thirties architecture for tropical countries: Le Corbusier's brise-soleil at the Ministry
of Education in Rio de Janeiro. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2018, 7, 9–14. [CrossRef]
28. Charles, E. Richard and Dion Neutra Papers (Collection 1179); UCLA Library Special Collections; Young Research Library, UCLA: Los
Angeles, CA, USA, 2007.
29. Cabeza-Lainez, J. Lighting Features in Japanese Traditional Architecture. In Lessons from Vernacular Architecture; Routledge: London,
UK, 2013; pp. 143–154. ISBN 9780203756164.
30. Schindler, R. M. A Cooperation Dwelling. T-Square 1932, 2, 20–21.
31. Raymond, A. Watashi to Nihon Kenchiku (I and Japanese Architecture; translation and preface by Mizawa, H.); Kajima Kenkyu sho
Shuppankai: Tokyo, Japan, 1967.
32. Gloaguen, Y. The “Architect” in Antonin Raymond's Way of Thinking. A Definition Based on Antonin Raymond's Own Words. J.
Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2006, 5, 245–251. [CrossRef]
33. Salguero Andujar, F.; Rodriguez-Cunill, I.; Cabeza-Lainez, JM The Problem of Lighting in Underground Domes, Vaults, and Tunnel-Like
Structures of Antiquity; An Application to the Sustainability of Prominent Asian Heritage (India, Korea, China).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5865. [CrossRef]
34. Cabeza-Lainez, J.; Almodovar-Melendo, J.-M.; Dominguez, I. Daylight and Architectural Simulation of the Egebjerg School
(Denmark): Sustainable Features of a New Type of Skylight. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5878. [CrossRef]
35. Almodovar-Melendo, J.-M.; Cabeza-Lainez, J.-M.; Rodriguez-Cunill, I. Lighting Features in Historical Buildings: Scientific Analysis of the
Church of Saint Louis of the Frenchmen in Seville. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3352. [CrossRef]
ÿ
36. Capková, H. Antonin Raymond's “Glocal” Modern Architecture (1921–1976). Inheritable Resilience: Sharing Values of Global Modernities.
In Proceedings of the 16th International Docomomo Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 10–14 September 2020; Volume 3, pp. 822–826.
37. Gupta, P.V.; Mueller, C.; Samii, C.; Dilwali, A.; Ganguli, R. Golconde: The Introduction of Modernism in India; Urban Crayon Press:
New Delhi, India, 2010.
38. Raymond, A. Jiden Antonin Remondo; Kajima Kenkyu sho Shuppankai: Tokyo, Japan, 1970.
39. Vendredi-Auzanneau, C. The houses of Antonin Raymond, Czech architect in Japan. Umeni 2005, 53, 156–164.
40. Cabeza-Lainez, JM; Almodóvar-Melendo, JM Daylight, Shape, and Cross-Cultural Influences through the Routes of Discoveries:
The Case of Baroque Temples. Space Cult. 2018, 21, 340–357. [CrossRef]
41. Cabeza-Lainez, J. Architectural Characteristics of Different Configurations Based on New Geometric Determinations for the
Conoid. Buildings 2022, 12, 10. [CrossRef]
42. Almodóvar-Melendo, J.-M.; Quesada-García, S.; Valero-Flores, P.; Cabeza-Lainez, J. Solar Radiation in Architectural Projects as a Key
Design Factor for the Well-Being of Persons with Alzheimer's Disease. Buildings 2022, 12, 603. [CrossRef]

Buildings 12 01514 Compressed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Buildings 12 01514 Compressed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Buildings 12 01514 Compressed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Machine Translated by Google

The Search for Solar Architecture in Asia in the Works of the

Academic Editor: Shi-Jie Cao

Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101514 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 2 of 19

There is no modern exact equivalent to this notion; it is a mixture of bioclimatic,

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 3 of 19

2. The Path to Raymond's Architectural Evolution In the

2.1. The Making of the Imperial Hotel

3. Early Achievements and Results in Climate-Responsive

3.2. Raymond's Karuizawa Summer Studio in the Wake of Le Corbusier

Figure 4. Raymond's Kuruizawa summer studio (reconstruction). A vernacular reconstruction of Le

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 9 of 19

Richard Neutra, a colleague of Schindler's at the Vienna University of Technology

Richard Neutra, a colleague of Schindler's at the Vienna University of Technology who

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 16 of 19

Figure 17. Inside view of Saint Michael's Church.

Chapel at Rikkyo University (Figure 19) [40].

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 17 of 19

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 18 of 19

Funding: This article received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Buildings 2022, 12, 1514 19 of 19

You might also like