2

Free Vibration

PREVIEW

A structure is said to be undergoing free vibration when it is disturbed from its static equi-
librium position and then allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. In
this chapter we study free vibration leading to the notions of the natural vibration frequency
and damping ratio for an SDF system. We will see that the rate at which the motion decays
in free vibration is controlled by the damping ratio. Thus the analytical results describing
free vibration provide a basis to determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of a
structure from experimental data of the type shown in Fig. 1.1.4.
Although damping in actual structures is due to several energy-dissipating mech-
anisms acting simultaneously, a mathematically convenient approach is to idealize them
by equivalent viscous damping. Consequently, this chapter deals primarily with viscously
damped systems. However, free vibration of systems in the presence of Coulomb friction
forces is analyzed toward the end of the chapter.

2.1 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION

The motion of linear SDF systems, visualized as an idealized one-story frame or a mass–
spring–damper system, subjected to external force p(t) is governed by Eq. (1.5.2). Setting
p(t) = 0 gives the differential equation governing free vibration of the system, which for
systems without damping (c = 0) specializes to
m ü + ku = 0 (2.1.1)

39
40 Free Vibration Chap. 2

Free vibration is initiated by disturbing the system from its static equilibrium position by
imparting the mass some displacement u(0) and velocity u̇(0) at time zero, defined as the
instant the motion is initiated:
u = u(0) u̇ = u̇(0) (2.1.2)
Subject to these initial conditions, the solution to the homogeneous differential equation is
obtained by standard methods (see Derivation 2.1):
u̇(0)
u(t) = u(0) cos ωn t + sin ωn t (2.1.3)
ωn
where

k
ωn = (2.1.4)
m
Equation (2.1.3) is plotted in Fig. 2.1.1. It shows that the system undergoes vibra-
tory (or oscillatory) motion about its static equilibrium (or undeformed, u = 0) position;
and that this motion repeats itself after every 2π/ωn seconds. In particular, the state (dis-
placement and velocity) of the mass at two time instants, t1 and t1 + 2π/ωn , is identical:
u(t1 ) = u(t1 + 2π/ωn ) and u̇(t1 ) = u̇(t1 + 2π/ωn ). These equalities can easily be proved,
starting with Eq. (2.1.3). The motion described by Eq. (2.1.3) and shown in Fig. 2.1.1 is
known as simple harmonic motion.
The portion a–b–c–d–e of the displacement–time curve describes one cycle of free
vibration of the system. From its static equilibrium (or undeformed) position at a, the
mass moves to the right, reaching its maximum positive displacement u o at b, at which
time the velocity is zero and the displacement begins to decrease and the mass returns
back to its equilibrium position c, at which time the velocity is maximum and hence the

˙
u(0) Tn = 2π/ωn
u
1 b

u(0) Amplitude, uo
a c e
t

d
uo uo

a b c d e

Figure 2.1.1 Free vibration of a system without damping.

Sec. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration 41

mass continues moving to the left, reaching its minimum displacement −u o at d, at which
time the velocity is again zero and the displacement begins to decrease again and the mass
returns to its equilibrium position at e. At time instant e, 2π/ωn seconds after time instant
a, the state (displacement and velocity) of the mass is the same as it was at time instant a,
and the mass is ready to begin another cycle of vibration.
The time required for the undamped system to complete one cycle of free vibration
is the natural period of vibration of the system, which we denote as Tn , in units of sec-
onds. It is related to the natural circular frequency of vibration, ωn , in units of radians per
second:

2π
Tn = (2.1.5)
ωn

A system executes 1/Tn cycles in 1 s. This natural cyclic frequency of vibration is

denoted by

1
fn = (2.1.6)
Tn
The units of f n are hertz (Hz) [cycles per second (cps)]; f n is obviously related to ωn
through
ωn
fn = (2.1.7)
2π
The term natural frequency of vibration applies to both ωn and f n .
The natural vibration properties ωn , Tn , and f n depend only on the mass and stiffness
of the structure; see Eqs. (2.1.4) to (2.1.6). The stiffer of two SDF systems having the same
mass will have the higher natural frequency and the shorter natural period. Similarly, the
heavier (more mass) of two structures having the same stiffness will have the lower natural
frequency and the longer natural period. The qualifier natural is used in defining Tn , ωn ,
and f n to emphasize the fact that these are natural properties of the system when it is
allowed to vibrate freely without any external excitation. Because the system is linear,
these vibration properties are independent of the initial displacement and velocity. The
natural frequency and period of the various types of structures of interest to us vary over a
wide range, as shown in Figs. 1.10.1, 1.10.2, and 2.1.2a–f.
The natural circular frequency ωn , natural cyclic frequency f n , and natural period Tn
defined by Eqs. (2.1.4) to (2.1.6) can be expressed in the alternative form
  
g 1 g δst
ωn = fn = Tn = 2π (2.1.8)
δst 2π δst g

where δst = mg/k, and where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is the static de-
flection of the mass m suspended from a spring of stiffness k; it can be visualized as the
system of Fig. 1.6.1 oriented in the vertical direction. In the context of the one-story frame
of Fig. 1.2.1, δst is the lateral displacement of the mass due to lateral force mg.
 Figure 2.1.2a Alcoa Building, San
Francisco, California. The fundamental
natural vibration periods of this 26-story
steel building are 1.67 s for north–south
(longitudinal) vibration, 2.21 s for east–west
(transverse) vibration, and 1.12 s for
torsional vibration about a vertical axis.
These vibration properties were determined
by forced vibration tests. (Courtesy of
International Structural Slides.)

Figure 2.1.2b Transamerica Building, San

Francisco, California. The fundamental
natural vibration periods of this 49-story
steel building, tapered in elevation, are
2.90 s for north–south vibration and also
for east–west vibration. These vibration
properties were determined by forced
vibration tests. (Courtesy of International
Structural Slides.)

42
Figure 2.1.2c Medical Center Building, Richmond, California. The fundamental natural
vibration periods of this three-story steel frame building are 0.63 s for vibration in the
long direction, 0.74 s in the short direction, and 0.46 s for torsional vibration about a
vertical axis. These vibration properties were determined from motions of the building
recorded during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. (Courtesy of California Strong Motion
Instrumentation Program.)

Figure 2.1.2d Pine Flat Dam on the Kings River, near Fresno, California. The funda-
mental natural vibration period of this 122-m-high concrete gravity dam was measured by
forced vibration tests to be 0.288 s and 0.306 s with the reservoir depth at 94.5 m and
105 m, respectively.

43
 Figure 2.1.2e Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California. The fundamental natural
vibration periods of this suspension bridge with the main span of 1280 m are 18.2 s for
transverse vibration, 10.9 s for vertical vibration, 3.81 s for longitudinal vibration, and
4.43 s for torsional vibration. These vibration properties were determined from recorded
motions of the bridge under ambient (wind, traffic, etc.) conditions. (Courtesy of Interna-
tional Structural Slides.)

Figure 2.1.2f Reinforced-concrete

chimney, located in Aramon, France. The
fundamental natural vibration period of
this 250-m-high chimney is 3.57 s; it was
determined from records of wind-induced
vibration.

44
Sec. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration 45

The undamped system oscillates back and forth between the maximum displacement
u o and minimum displacement −u o . The magnitude u o of these two displacement values
is the same; it is called the amplitude of motion and is given by

 
u̇(0) 2
u o = [u(0)]2 + (2.1.9)
ωn

The amplitude u o depends on the initial displacement and velocity. Cycle after cycle it
remains the same; that is, the motion does not decay. We had mentioned in Section 1.1 this
unrealistic behavior of a system if a damping mechanism to represent dissipation of energy
is not included.
The natural frequency of the one-story frame of Fig. 1.3.2a with lumped mass m and
columns clamped at the base is

k 24E Ic 12ρ + 1
ωn = k= (2.1.10)
m h 3 12ρ + 4

where the lateral stiffness comes from Eq. (1.3.5) and ρ = (E Ib /L) ÷ (2E Ic /h). For the
extreme cases of a rigid beam, ρ = ∞, and a beam with no stiffness, ρ = 0, the lateral
stiffnesses are given by Eqs. (1.3.2) and (1.3.3) and the natural frequencies are
 
24E Ic 6E Ic
(ωn )ρ=∞ = 3
(ωn )ρ=0 = (2.1.11)
mh mh 3

The natural frequency is doubled as the beam-to-column stiffness ratio, ρ, increases

from 0 to ∞; its variation with ρ is shown in Fig. 2.1.3.
The natural frequency is similarly affected by the boundary conditions at the base
of the columns.If the columns are hinged at the base rather than clamped and the beam
is rigid, ωn = 6E Ic /mh 3 , which is one-half of the natural frequency of the frame with
clamped-base columns.

1
(ωn)ρ = ∞
ωn ÷ √ 24EIc / mh3

0.5
(ωn)ρ = 0

10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102

ρ

Figure 2.1.3 Variation of natural frequency, ωn , with beam-to-column stiffness ratio, ρ.

46 Free Vibration Chap. 2

Derivation 2.1
The solution of Eq. (2.1.1), a linear, homogeneous, second-order differential equation with
constant coefficients, has the form
u = eλt (a)
where the constant λ is unknown. Substitution into Eq. (2.1.1) gives
(mλ2 + k)eλt = 0
The exponential term is never zero, so
(mλ2 + k) = 0 (b)
Known as the characteristic equation, Eq. (b) has two roots:
λ1,2 = ±iωn (c)
√
where i = −1. The general solution of Eq. (2.1.1) is
u(t) = a1 eλ1 t + a2 eλ2 t
which after substituting Eq. (c) becomes
u(t) = a1 eiωn t + a2 e−iωn t (d)
where a1 and a2 are complex-valued constants yet undetermined. By using the Euler relations,
ei x = cos x + i sin x and e−i x = cos x − i sin x, equation (d) can be rewritten as
u(t) = A cos ωn t + B sin ωn t (e)
where A and B are real-valued constants yet undetermined. Equation (e) is differentiated to
obtain
u̇(t) = −ωn A sin ωn t + ωn B cos ωn t (f)
Evaluating Eqs. (e) and (f) at time zero gives the constants A and B in terms of the initial
displacement u(0) and initial velocity u̇(0):
u(0) = A u̇(0) = ωn B (g)
Substituting for A and B from Eq. (g) into Eq. (e) leads to the solution given in Eq. (2.1.3).

Example 2.1
For the one-story industrial building of Example 1.2, determine the natural circular frequency,
natural cyclic frequency, and natural period of vibration in (a) the north–south direction and
(b) the east–west direction.
Solution (a) North–south direction:


3.675 × 106
(ωn )N−S = = 20.21 rad/s
9000
2π
(Tn )N−S = = 0.311 s
20.21
1
( f n )N−S = = 3.22 Hz
0.311
Sec. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration 47

(b) East–west direction:


1.885 × 107
(ωn )E−W = = 45.77 rad/s
9000
2π
(Tn )E−W = = 0.137 s
45.77
1
( f n )E−W = = 7.28 Hz
0.137

Observe that the natural frequency is much higher (and the natural period much shorter) in
the east–west direction because the vertical bracing makes the system much stiffer, although
the columns of the frame are bending about their weak axis; the vibrating mass is the same in
both directions.

Example 2.2
For the three-span box girder bridge of Example 1.3, determine the natural circular frequency,
natural cyclic frequency, and natural period of vibration for longitudinal motion.
Solution
 
k 4.218 × 108
ωn = = = 11.05 rad/s
m 3.456 × 106

2π
Tn = = 0.569 s
11.05

1
fn = = 1.76 Hz
0.569

Example 2.3
Determine the natural cyclic frequency and the natural period of vibration of a mass of 10 kg
suspended as described in Example 1.4.
Solution

1 ke
fn =
2π m

1 2313
fn = = 2.42 Hz
2π 10

1
Tn = = 0.413 s
fn
 48 Free Vibration Chap. 2

Example 2.4
Consider the system described in Example 1.7 with b = 9 m, d = 6 m, h = 4 m, slab mass
= 500 kg/m2 , and the lateral stiffness of each column in the x and y directions is k x = 300
and k y = 200, both in kN/m. Determine the natural frequency and period of torsional motion
about the vertical axis.
Solution From Example 1.7, the torsional stiffness kθ and the moment of inertia I O are
kθ = k x d 2 + k y b2 = (300 × 103 )(6)2 + (200 × 103 )(4)2

= 3.08 × 107 N-m/rad = 30,800 kN-m/rad

 
b2 + d 2 (6)2 + (4)2
IO = m = (500)(6)(4) = 340,000 kg-m2
12 12

kθ
ωn = = 9.52 rad/s f n = 1.51 Hz Tn = 0.66 s
IO

2.2 VISCOUSLY DAMPED FREE VIBRATION

Setting p(t) = 0 in Eq. (1.5.2) gives the differential equation governing free vibration of
SDF systems with damping:
m ü + cu̇ + ku = 0 (2.2.1a)
Dividing by m gives
ü + 2ζ ωn u̇ + ωn2 u = 0 (2.2.1b)
√
where ωn = k/m as defined earlier and
c c
ζ = = (2.2.2)
2mωn ccr
We will refer to
√ 2k
ccr = 2mωn = 2 km = (2.2.3)
ωn
as the critical damping coefficient, for reasons that will appear shortly; and ζ is the damp-
ing ratio or fraction of critical damping. The damping constant c is a measure of the
energy dissipated in a cycle of free vibration or in a cycle of forced harmonic vibration
(Section 3.8). However, the damping ratio—a dimensionless measure of damping—is a
property of the system that also depends on its mass and stiffness. The differential equa-
tion (2.2.1) can be solved by standard methods (similar to Derivation 2.1) for given initial
displacement u(0) and velocity u̇(0). Before writing any formal solution, however, we
examine the solution qualitatively.

2.2.1 Types of Motion

Figure 2.2.1 shows a plot of the motion u(t) due to initial displacement u(0) for three val-
ues of ζ . If c < ccr or ζ < 1, the system oscillates about its equilibrium position with a pro-
gressively decreasing amplitude. If c = ccr or ζ = 1, the system returns to its equilibrium