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ANALYSIS OF MARRIAGE SURVIVORSHIP IN

DAMATURU YOBE STATE

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Marriage is one of the oldest social institutions in any society. In Nigeria,

the marriage institution is conceived as a primary and sacred institution through

which a man and a woman enter into some forms of contract for reciprocal

obligations as husband and wife. In the past, the people in Yobe States were

known for their marital stability even though it existed with a complex of

extended family, but recently it has witnessed the increasing rate of divorce and

unless serious attention is paid to the issues there is an indication of more rapid

instability in the future. (Poonawala, 1996). Marital instability is one of the social

problems that is bedeviling our localities especially our customs as well as

religious and ethics which proposes marriage at the early stage of life which is

expected among other reasons total suppression of premarital sexes. Among the

blacklash of the current situation is the prevalent disloyalties of children toward

their parents, many cases were recorded regarding divorce and Islamic ethics have

been eroded. The rate of prostitution is at an alarming rate including abortion and

likes. There has been an increasing report on cases of divorce despite numerous

publications and seminars on marital issues. But people are still being

misinformed about the importance attached to the stability of marriage institution.

Divorce has brought many social ills to the society. Much importance is no longer

attached to the marriage institution, people are impatience and do not tolerate one

another in marriage institution; the situation has actually brought about dissolution

with its attendant problems. Divorce is affecting personal and social life very
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deeply. It causes stress and makes individual liable to a shattered way of life. It

generally puts children at greater risk and exposes them to many kinds of

problems. However, most children of divorced do not experience those serious

problems. Based on this premise this study examines the causes of rampant cases

of divorce among the Muslims in Yobe State. In line with this view, Obi (2006)

sees marriage as an important social contract ordained by nature for the

continuation of human race. For Okoh (2004), it is an institution, which

guarantees the procreation, care and education of the young; the stability of the

family; and the continuity of society upon which the survival of the human race

depends. Marriage is an institution, which is culturally and socially recognized. It

is a legal union of a man and a woman as husband and wife for the primary

purpose of procreation, sexual and emotional gratification, social stratification and

economic dependence.

Njerem (2005) noted that for desired goals to be achieved in marriage there

is need for harmony, reciprocity, cohesion, fidelity, high degree of stability and

unconditional love between couples. He noted that love and understanding are the

twin pillars of marital bliss and stability and that marital bliss often eludes the

couple that enter into marriage with hooded faces and dishonest intention.

Unfavourable conditions in marriage or marital instability set in when the

aforementioned virtues are lacking. Hall and Hoffin (2005) noted that this is

manifested in forms of conflict, violence, mistrust, constant bickering, neglect and

marital distress They noted that such situation may lead to separation, divorce or
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“marital disintegration”. While ideal marriage ought to be a happy institution

every intending couple looks up to, some couples soon after marriage begin to see

immediately that the fantasy that engulfed the courtship or pre-marriage

relationship fades away thereby leaving them with the realities of life. Such

realities of life may be discovering that they are not compatible, that life cannot

always be as perceived and so on. Marriage cannot always be rosy. Mgbodile

(2000) noted that, to go into marriage expecting a never-ending honeymoon is to

experience the disappointment of a child dreaming of a never-ending flow of

chocolate creams.

When unfavourable conditions as mentioned above set in, the result may

be divorce. Divorce for Hornby (2001) is the legal ending of a marriage. Mirror

(2003) defined divorce as the complete break up or dissolution of marriage

through legal means. Divorce is the only ceremony that marks the official end of

marriage, just like a wedding ceremony marks the official beginning of the same

marriage. Divorce is caused by so many things.

Some of the common causes of marital problems or divorce as noted by

Arowolo (2002) are, abuse, power tussle between couples, poor financial

management, infidelity, infertility/childlessness, hot temper, influence of

motherin-law, influence of bad companies, influence of alcohol, improper use of

language, impotence, poor communication between couples, early marriage,

prolonged sickness, prolonged hardship and maltreatment.

The phenomenon of divorce is receiving increasing attention as a

stressinducing factor or a life crisis that affects over two million adults and one
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million children world wide annually (Dohrenwend & Dohrenwend, 2004; Norton

& Glick, 2003). Marriage breakdown presently appears to be on the increase.

Available literature such as Nwoye (1999), Omeje (2000), Aroh (2001), Asogwa

(2003), Mirror (2004) and researcher‟s observation from the Nigerian society

indicate that marriage breakdown appears to be on the increase and it is becoming

increasingly stressful on the part of the divorcees, their children and the society.

According to National Centre for Health statistics (2001), the divorce rate in

United States has been steadily increasing during the past fifteen years and shows

no sign of reduction. Similarly, Rice (2002), noted that as at 1999 the United

States had a divorce rate of 5.0% per 1000 married persons, Australia 4.3% and

Sweden 2.7%. Owing to the fact that issues on divorce in Nigeria context are not

properly documented due to non-involvement of courts and welfare units in most

divorce cases, because most Nigerians would like to treat their divorce issues in

secret, determining the percentage rate seems to be difficult. Arowolo (2002)

found that the incidence of divorce in Nigeria now compared to what it was in

pre-colonial days has increased. Continuing, Arowolo found that this was due to

pressure on the institution of marriage and the family arising from increased quest

for money and having separate purse by couples, the Nigerian civil war and other

agents of liberalization of women. This is also due to the fact that the negative

social sanctions have lessened, so too have the legal and economic constraints

involved in divorcing lessened.

He found also that the cause of high increase rates of divorce includes:
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adultery due to moral laxity, power tussle between couples, impotence, infertility

due to a higher rate spread of infections, in appropriate communication, early

marriage, influence of hard drugs, influence of mother-in-law, influence of bad

companies, blood incompatibility and threat to life by a partner. For Elizabeth

(2001), the main factors that make a marriage work are a combination of the three

CS – communication, compromise, and commitment, with a generous sprinkling

of blind luck and the absence of the above factors leads to divorce. She found that

there is a high rate of increase in divorce as a result of: the gradual collapse of the

social order (diminishing family loyalty, individual irresponsibility and

lawlessness), mental disorders – prolonged ones, constant quarrels, bickering,

high temper and nagging, love at “first sight” marriage, financial mismanagement

and pre – mature marriage

In yobe state, like in every other state northern Nigeria, divorce is likened

to a “semi hell” to the divorcees, their children and society (Epstein, 2002, Omeje,

2000). Although the phenomenal upsurge of divorce in developing countries,

including Nigeria, during the decade has been stimulated by a growing acceptance

of the principle that divorce is a reasonable and at times desirable alternative to an

unhappy marriage, the problems associated with divorce are immeasurable. Obiadi

(2003) listed the following evil effects of divorce: The divorcees are likely to act

like birds let loose from the cage. They now move freely about, most of them,

indulging in sexual excesses and other social misconducts, frustrated divorced

ladies may resort to prostitution to make both ends meet, divorce leads to the

raising of children born out of marriage who may grow up to harass and molest
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the society, the irresponsible action of a divorcee often leads to the breaking up of

other homes. A divorced woman may go to tempt a man who is living happily and

faithfully with his wife and vice versa, divorcees soon lose their respect and

recognition and become objects of gossip and ridicule in the community, divorce

brings about unwanted expenses on both sides. This is more true when litigation is

involved. The divorcee may use his or her money to procure lawyers, corrupt the

police and/or buy witnesses, divorce creates enmity between individuals and

groups and strains existing relationship; the children of divorcees are likely to lack

proper care from both parents and this may lead to breeding misfits in the society.

Epstein (2002) stressed that to go through a divorce is to go through “a

very special private hell”, no matter how much money is available to cushion the

fall. According to Cohen as cited by Omeje (2000), among the Kanuries, divorce

is looked at as a moral failure. For instance, “the first weddings of young girls are

always more elaborate, glamorous and expensive than those involving the

divorced”, because to the Kanuries the divorced have been used very much.

Ifelunni and Asogwa (1995) also noted that among the Igbo, for example, divorce

is akin to moral failure and a divorced woman is shown little or no respect.

Holemsand and White (2005), found that divorced people are likely to develop

physical illnesses and have higher morbidity rate than comparable undivorced

married people. According to Obiadi (1998), divorce in itself is a social evil and

has adverse effects on both parties concerned, their children and the society. Dike

(1999), divorce is one aspect of marital organization, which among other things,

frustrate the life chances of the children of such separation. Some children of such
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families usually constitute a nuisance to the society. Mgbodile (2000), noted that

children are the greatest victims of a battered marital relationship.

Although there have been a great deal of research directed at investigating

the issue of divorce among couples, relatively little is known about divorce

situation among couples in Enugu State. There is an increasing interest in ways of

controlling and minimizing the disruptive experiences of the divorcing adults as a

result of awareness of the extent of the impact of divorce on the individuals and

society. Current researchers on the process of divorce, for example Ezechi (2005)

and Obi (2006) have focused mainly on the specific difficulties like withdrawal

from relationship with others, low self esteem, dissatisfaction with life, financial

insecurity, irritability and inability to relax and few data are available regarding

the adjustment problems encountered by divorcees.

Scholars have discussed a lot about adjustment. Lazarus (2000) in

explaining adjustment maintained that biological concept of adaptation has been

borrowed and changed somewhat by the Psychologists and renamed it adjustment

to emphasize the individual‟s struggle to get along or survive in his or her social

environment. According to Omeje (2000), this entails making oneself fit for the

demands of the external world. It consists of two kinds of processes: fitting

oneself in a given circumstance and changing the circumstance to fit one‟s need.

Adjustment is a process whereby a compromise is struck between the individual

and his environment, the process by which a harmonious relationship is attained.

Agulanna (2002), defined adjustment as a state in which an individual strives to

resolve stress and create new ways of handling new situation of each life stage.
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It is important to note that there are some personal factors that constitute

problems that the divorcees encounter owing to their adjustment pattern. This

stresses individual differences in a reaction to a situation.

Statement of the Problem

Divorce has brought many social ills to the society. Much importance is no longer

attached to the marriage institution, people are impatience and do not tolerate one

another in marriage institution; the situation has actually brought about

dissolution with its attendant problems. Divorce is affecting personal and social

life very deeply. It causes stress and makes individual liable to a shattered way of

life. It generally puts children at greater risk and exposes them to many kinds of

problems.

Ikwuji (2002), Mirror (2003) & Walter (2005) have observed that

marriage breakdown appears to be on the increase and it is becoming increasingly

stressful on the part of the divorcees, their children and the society. Weiss (2000)

found that different divorcees encounter different problems owing to varying

personal factors and their patterns of adjustment and this seems to constitute

untold hardship to the divorcees and to the society at large.

As noted by Obi (2006) in Yobe state, divorcees seem to experience similar

adjustment problems as in other states of the Federation. In order to reach a

compromise within the environment these divorcees find themselves, they adopt

different patterns of adjustment. There are personal factors which contribute in the

variations in the adjustment patterns of these divorcees, such as forewarning,

length of time of marriage, the leaver and the left, being able to find someone
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new, post marital relationship in terms of the availability of children and personal

resources in terms of educational attainment.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify potential determinants affecting to the
dissolution of marriage.

Research Questions

1. What are the causes of rampant cases of divorce among the Christians and

Muslims in Yobe State?

2. What is the rate of marriage dissolutions in Damaturu, Yobe State?

3. What are the Impact of marriage dissolution on the children?

Significance of the Study

This study is significant because the findings of the study will help in no

small way to explain the existing theories on family and marriage counseling.

One of the theories of adjustment and marital dysfunction is the social Learning

theory model and Marital Problems of Bandura (1997). This theory assumes that

human behaviour is a function of the person plus the environment. The findings of

this study, the correlation of personal factors and adjustment patterns of

divorcees will add more facts in explaining the theory. At marital level, the

beneficiaries of the findings of the study will include not only the divorced

couples but also religious leaders; community based organizations, guidance

practitioners, intending divorcees, the secondary school students, the society as

well as the government. The beneficiaries may get assess to the findings of the

study through public enlightenment, workshops, library, seminars and

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conferences.

The study will expose those personal factors, which contribute to the

adjustment problems of divorcees. By unraveling these personal factors, the study

will help to prepare the minds of couples experiencing marital instability on the

intricacy and reality of divorce and the adjustment problems that might follow so

that they could take precautionary measures.

The findings will provide information to the marriage policy makers, both

traditional and religious policy makers, about the fate of the divorcees. This will

help them to formulate policies that will enable them to reach compromise with

their environmental demand without much stress or problems.

The findings of this study will also be useful to guidance counsellors. This

is because the exposure of the personal factors that contribute to the adjustment

problems will help the counselors in organizing talks on family counseling in the

school system in order to inculcate the qualities of good family living in their

students and other members of the staff who may be victims of divorce.

Counsellors will also utilize the findings in counseling their counselees in family

and marriage counseling.

The findings will also assist religious ministers such as priests, imam and

evangelists. They can from the information gathered from the study be in a better

position to reassess and improve on their experiences and content of their

premarital counseling/marriage courses.

Through the assistance of secondary school conusellors who may make use

of the findings of the study, the students who may be the couples of tomorrow will
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be exposed to the benefits of the study by imparting the information into their

students.

The findings of this study will be useful to community based organization

whose leaders or members may come across the study in the making of

community marriage policies and in organizing enlightenment campaign on the

effects of divorce and the adjustment problems of divorcees.

Scope of the Study

This study was delimited to divorcees within Damaturu, Yobe State.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviewed related literature relating to the subject of

investigation. The researcher categorized this chapter into three parts.

(1) Conceptual Framework

- Concept of Adjustment

- Concept of Divorce

- Concept of Marital Dysfunction

- Personal Factors

(2) Theoretical Framework

Theories of adjustment and marital Dysfunction

- Psychoanalytical theory and marital problems

- Social learning theory and marital problems.

- Structural theory and Model

(3) Empirical Studies

(a) Divorce and its causes
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(b) Adjustment problems of Divorcees

(c) Effects of divorce

(d) Variations in Adjustment Strategies

(4) Summary of the Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

In this study, the conceptual framework to be looked at are: the concept of

adjustment, concept of divorce, concept of marital dysfunction and concept of

personal factors.

Concept of Adjustment

Many theorists and scholars have over the years discussed adjustment. The

psychological study of adjustment usually focuses on two kinds of demands. One

is biological make-up of the person which is internal. This make-up requires that

certain conditions be met for survival and comfort. For instance, we need

protection against injury and have sufficient food and water. The other kind of

basic demand is external that is, it arises from the external; physical and social

environment.

According to Lazarus, (2000), adjustment and personality are inextricably

bound together in two ways. First, two people show different kind of adjustment

processes in the same situation. For examples, one conforms or accommodates

while the other acts independently, if exposed to social pressure. Secondly,

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personality refers to stable variation in the techniques of traits of personality, in

other words, characteristics of a person that makes it possible to differentiate

that person and his or her behaviour from others in a variety of situations and

occasions. Morgan, Richard, Weiss and Schoples (2001) seem to agree with what

Lazarus noted in 2000, when they noted that adjustment is a judgment in which

subjective probability estimates start at a certain point and are raised or lowered

depending on the circumstance. In estimating subjective probability the initial

level provides an anchor that biases the estimates. In other words, an individual

decides for himself or herself on how to fit into a given circumstance.

Chauhan (1999), sees adjustment as reaction to demands and pressures of

social environment imposed upon the individual. The demand may be internal

or external to which the individual has to react. For instance, in the life of a

child, he is expected to do certain things and not to do other things. He has to

follow the beliefs and values of his family. He develops, his personality in

continuous interactions with the family environment. There are other demands

which are internal such as need for water, hunger (food), oxygen and sleep.

When these are unfulfilled the child becomes uneasy. As noted by Maslow

(1999), adjustment is a passive stopping of oneself to one‟s culture, to the external

environment.

In his own contribution Haas (2003), defines adjustment as a state in

which the needs of the individual on one hand, the environment on the other

hand are fully satisfied. If they are not fully satisfied, there will be maladjustment

among the organisms of the environment. For Hornby (2001), to adjust means to
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become or to make somebody or something suited to new conditions. Adjustment

according to Omeje (2000) is all about someone changing his or her ways of

living, thinking, working etc to an area that best suits him/her. In the view of

Sawery and Telford (2001) adjustment is the responses elicited by the stimuli of

frustrated whenever anything occurs to disrupt, motivated behaviour. Frustration

can be conceptualized as a response to the disruption of on-going behaviour.

Frustration is a response that has stimulating properties for the organism and it

makes further responses to the stimuli which is adjustment. Adjustment is not

evaluative or confirmative as such but whatever response is made to the

frustrating situation is termed adjustive, from the evaluative point of view it

maybe socially or personally desirable or undesirable and it may be socially

confirmative or non-confirmative or combine elements of both.

The Encyclopedia of Psychology (1990) defines adjustment as a state in

which the needs of the individual on one hand and the claims of the environment

on the other hand are fully satisfied. It is a process by which a compromise is

struck between the individual and his environment, the process by which a

harmonious relationship is attained. As noted by Omeje (2000), adjustment

demands a change by the individual. This change is necessitated by a need to

reach a compromise with the environment. He further noted that adjustment is

seen to be adequacy of the behaviour pattern by means which the individual

satisfies his needs.

In as much as everyone is perfectly faced with adjustment problems,

everyone is therefore potentially capable of being adjusted or maladjusted

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depending on the adequacy of his needs satisfying behaviour. It implies that the

individual must satisfy his needs within the framework of the rules, regulations

and mores of the social group in which he finds himself.

According to Johnson (1999) adjustment is an activity which is motivated

by needs (either primary or learned) and results in the reduction of tension induced

by needs. It is a generally harmonious relationship with the environment. To the

author, drinking sea water and committing suicide are adjustive because they

reduce tensions. Considering the view of the scholar above, these acts are

“maladjustive” but they are nonetheless adjustive. As noted by Omeje (2000)

undesirable forms of behaviour as temper tantrums, pathological lying, blaming

others or extreme shyness are adjustive but socially maladptive, that is, they do

not help the individual to get along well with others. From the author‟s view,

adjustment maybe desirable or undesirable to others within the environment but

the concern is whether it satisfies the need of the individual concerned. Omeje

further noted that adjustment demands a change by the individual. This change is

necessitated by a need to reach a compromise with the environment. Omeje (2002)

defines adjustment as, “all about someone changing his or her ways of living,

thinking, working etc to an area that best suits him or her”. Tershell (2004),

defines adjustment as a reaction to demands and pressures of social environment

imposed upon the individual which may be

internal or external or both.

From the foregoing views of scholars the concern of adjustment is to

satisfy individual needs in order for him or her to reach a compromise with the
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environmental demands. The satisfaction of the need does not matter if it is

desirable or undesirable to the environment.

Concept of Divorce
Scholars have given varied definitions of divorce from their own

perspectives. For Nwoye (1999:453), “divorce is the only ceremony that marks

the official end of a marriage, just like a wedding ceremony marks the official

beginning of the same marriage”. He further noted that it takes place in the court

presided over by a judge.

For Gahler (2006) divorce is the judicial separation of the spouses and

completely disruption of their marital relations. He further noted that it is the

dissolution of marital relations, in this process marriage is completely broken

down either in social or legal context.

Obiadi (2002) noted that divorce is the breaking up or dissolution or

abrogation of marriage. According to Hornby (2001) divorce is the legal ending

of a marriage. It is to end one‟s marriage to somebody by legal means. According

to Mirror (2003) divorce is the complete break up or dissolution of marriage

through legal means. According to Ochagha (1999), marriage is the legal union

between a husband and a wife which manifests two most excellent properties of

unity and perpetuity while divorce is a legal complete break up or end of the

marriage. She further stated that as marriage resorts morality, fosters mutual

love between spouses, confirms families with divine strength, fosters education

and protection of offspring, restores the dignity of the woman and establishes the

honour and prosperity of families and civil associations in a most excellent and
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beneficial way, divorce begets almost the exact opposite of the above marriage

functions.

As noted by Dike (1999) divorce is not a new social phenomenon. It has

always constituted the major source of family disintegration and thus has attracted

much attention. Divorce is one aspect of marital disorganization which could

among other things, frustrate the destiny of the children of such marriages.

Mgbodile (2000) supports the above statement when he noted that, “a broken

home hangs a burden onto the children, while the breakers go about with a noose

round their necks”. He further noted that he who contemplates divorce should

realize that he is holding a sword over the home and the children. He finally

noted that, “children are the greatest victims of a battered marital relationship”.

Epstein (2002) stated that divorce is fraternity of those who have gone through

emotionally ravaging phenomena that are equal to starvation.

According to Mgbodile (2000) a sweet home is the paradise of life, the

first pleasant taste of heaven and it is the handwork of peace, love,

understanding, endurance and tolerance and in such a home the pot of love is

hung conspicuously for all to draw from and refill. He stated that a divorced

home is the opposite of the above.

For Goldsteia (2008) divorce is the legal separation of husband and wife

affected by the judgement of decree of a court and either totally dissolving the

married relations or suspending its effect so far as concern the combination of the

practices. He noted that divorce may create some vital problems in the family,

like adjusting to new life.

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Divorce is a dissolution in whole or in part of the marriage (Weiss, 1999;

Obadi, 2002; Kelly, 2005 William, 2001). Even though divorce is a dissolution in

whole or in part of the marriage, it is noteworthy of fact that divorce grants to

its beneficiaries the authority to re-marry, and map out the way their property

will be distributed were they to die without a will.

Where, in spite of all the various stages of interventions for peace given to

the dissenting couple they still discover that things have really fallen so much

apart with them and that their centre can no longer hold, no matter the type of

sacrifices they each will be ready to offer to the marriage, the usual endpoint is

permanent separation and later on divorce. Our major goal at this juncture is to

institute the observation that there is of course nothing like formal divorce

mediation in Africa in the sense mentioned by Hayness (2002). Hayness 2002)

posited that there is formal divorce mediation. There is nothing like formal

divorce mediation in Africa because in most African communities, there are held

customary or traditional regulations as regards what should be done where divorce

becomes inevitable in a given marriage (Nwoye, 1999). Lika (1999:17) earlier

noted this observation. For instance, he pointed out that:

In nearly every society (Africa) there are rules by which

an unfortunate or unstable marriage maybe dissolved.
Among the Igbo, Ibibio and Yoruba, divorce is
commonly a simple matter. Apart from the fact that the
bride payment must be refunded by the woman‟s
kinsmen, the dissolution of a family is ordinarily an easy
and economical task. If the children are still young they
go with the mother, who usually encounters little
difficulty in contrasting another marriage.
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He further pointed out that in a typical African Community, divorce maybe due to

the woman becoming rather insubordinate to her husband; morale turpitude

on the part of women… prolonged illness on the part of woman such as mental

disorder; barrenness on the part of the woman or impotent on the man‟s part;

Much influence from the relations of the woman; disagreement over religion;

stealing or tale bearing on the part of the woman; harshness or ill treatment such

as incessant beating by the man; prolonged lack of support by the man to his

wife; disagreement over conjugal right; and failure to complete the bride

payment by the man or his kinsmen.

Amadi in Unachukwu and Igborgbo (2001) noted that divorce maybe due

to: the quality of relationship that exists between the wife and her husband‟s

relatives and vice versa; constant and over beating and maltreatment of the wife

by her husband; infidelity; childlessness or bearing female children only;

incompatibility on part of the men; over maltreatment of children by their

father; men going into family life without knowing what it involves and without

preparing for it; abject poverty on the part of the man, lack of emotional maturity

on the man‟s part; problems arising from child-rearing; and a lot of problems

arising from the children themselves.

Mgbodile (2000) noted the following factors as the causes of divorce: economy;

wrong use of tongues; bad company; mother-in-law; infidelity; impatience; lack of

dialogue; alcohol and fighting ; gossips and rumour mongry; and power

tussle.
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When marriage is dissolved as a result of divorce, both parties shall be free

from the obligations and bond of marriage. They could remarry elsewhere or live

any type of life they may choose (Obiadi, 2000). Scholars like Ezechi (2005),

Aroh (2001) and Ogbonnaya (2003), were of the opinion that divorce is the

process of setting both parties free from the bond of marriage which give them

opportunity of new life. Also Omeje (2000) noted that divorce can conclusively be

seen as a separation of the ties of marriage or a process of putting an end to the

ties of marriage. Hornby (2001) defines divorce as the legal ending of marriage so

that husband and wife are free to re-marry. From the point of view of Hornby, it is

the process of putting an end to a marriage by law by separating couples that were

together before. According to Anderson (2004), divorce is defined as one of the

safety values for inevitable tensions of married life thereby ending the relationship

or connection which existed between two parties.

Walter (2005) sees divorce as the legal end of marriage and a relief to the

highly stressed and tensed up couple.

Divorce from this point of view is seen as a kind of device for dealing with the
pressure and problems inevitably experienced in marriage.

Marital Dysfunction
Marital dysfunction can be said to be a situation where all or parts of

marriage function (Procreation, sex gratification, security, love, recognition,

parental roles etc) and the basic elements of marriage (Mutual love, fidelity, unity

etc) are lacking. Marital dysfunction can be said to occur where a given marriage

is devoid of those basic elements of marriage such as mutual love and sharing,
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stability, harmony, integration, honesty, reciprocity, tolerance, fidelity, unity and

cohesion necessary for achieving the primary essence of the union. The love we

have in mind must be unconditional, that is, “for better or for worse”.

Commenting on marital separation (an integral aspect of marital

dysfunction) Weiss (1999: 25) puts it more succinctly:
It means starting all over alone. It means setting off without
the partner or whom one has perhaps, for years relied. It
means new vulnerability, and perhaps isolation and
loneliness. One cannot anticipate everything it will mean,
and this too can be frightening.

Although marriage is ordinarily said to perform a mental hygiene function

(Nwoye 1999) for those who are happily married, yet the threat of marital

dysfunction, this mental hygiene function or the self stabilizing feedback

normal in most healthy marriages is usually absent. This gives rise to actual

bickerings which instead of helping the couples to seek the face of each other in

the presence of their children or outsiders, each party would rather try to

systematically invalidate the strength of each other‟s perceptions or concerns in

all or major aspects of life. The usual pattern in this case is for bickerings to

become barbed with comments that are intended to diminish the other spouse‟s

image, with the major motivation to reduce the spouse‟s capacity to hurt. While in

this situation for instance, the man may start to become very critical of the wife‟s

cooking or house keeping qualities or her appearance or ability to care for the

children and friends. The wife on the other hand may do the same by criticizing

the husband regarding his inability to perform as a father, provider or

breadwinner, companion, sexual partner, mate or indeed as a person. With such

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exchange of disparaging- criticisms one from the other, one can quickly interpret

the state of the union the marital dysfunction.

A more disastrous form of dysfunction in marriage is the type involving

couple or spouse with a neurotic or maladjustive personality. Oates (2004:24)

called this “a paranoid marriage”. Such marriages according to him are those

where:

Real but insignificant justices are magnified out of

proportion to reality; responsibility for failure is blamed
or mistreated and persecuted permeate the day to day
operation of the home; self exaltation and delusions of
perfection take the place of honest participation in
human frailty and sharing of responsibilities for error;
plotting and scheming take the place of planning and
sharing.

Using the term marital conflict in place of marital dysfunction, Jacobson,

and Margolin (2002) identified the following items among the major disposing

factors of marriage and family conflicts. These include: inadequate

problemsolving skills, the phenomenon of reinforcement erosion and

inappropriate family rules and regulations. In line with the above, Nwoye (1999)

outlined the major conditions under which marriage and family conflicts arise.

They are:

(1) lack of value consensus in the context of family of decision making;

(2) lack of agreement among members in the norms of family decision making

and in their application;

(3) presence of inequitable distribution of sacrifice within the family set-up;

 23

(4) damaging of another‟s self-image, like:

- ascription of an unfavourble label to the other.

- casting the other in our unfavourable role situation.

- identification implications and

- betrayal of intimacy

(5) Erosion of structural independence. According to Obiadi (2002), grounds

on which any of the party to the marriage can seek divorce in state

marriage (according to the marriage Ordnance of Nigeria) are adultery,

desertion, cruelty, insanity, rape and sodomy. He further noted that divorce

can be sought for reasons of sterility or barrenness, and if the life of any of

them is threatened or if their blood is incompatible.

Dysfunction in marriage can be manifested in forms of violence, role

conflict, crisis, separation or disintegration and finally dissolution or divorce. It

logically follows that a couple may not have divorced in the real sense of it, yet

they undergo moments of marital strain or dissatisfaction. Mgbodile (2000)

noted that a perfect home does not exist anywhere; what you find is a home

where the couple have learnt to cover their human frailties. Among others, he

noted the following as what cause marital dysfunction: Power tussle between

couple, financial misunderstanding, infidelity, impatience, bad advisers or bad

company, alcoholic influence, wrong use of tongues and learning and working

with heard rumours.

Concept of Personal Factors

According to Hornby (2001) Personality is the various aspects of a person‟s

character that combine to make them different from other people. For him
 24

Personal means your own; not belonging to or connected with anyone else. It

means feelings, character or relationships connected with individual people

especially their feelings, characters and relationship. He defined factor as one of

several things that cause or influence something. Personal factors are those

various aspects of a person‟s character that combine to influence his or her

behaviour or his or her reactions to a situation which differentiates such a person

from other people.

Achebe (2000) in her analysis of psychoanalytic theory pointed out that the way

one‟s superego is formed goes a long way to determining his or her personal

factors. According to Bandura (1997) human behaviours which he likened to

personal factors is a function of the person plus the environment. By the term

person here, Bandura essentially means cognitive factors, while by the term

environment he means the social models around as well as the circumstantial

contingencies pressing upon the individual.

Some dimensions of personality theories have attempted to explain how and why

people react and adjust as they do. Gilbert (2001) summarized the personality

issue by highlighting that traits are influenced from behaviour, but the traits are

properties of a personality. Consequently, individuals are characterized by their

outstanding traits‟ gentle, belligerent, nervous, bright and cheerful.

According to Bandura (1997) all facets of human behaviour are learnt from the

environment with or without immediate reinforcement. Most behaviours of a

child represent carbon copies of the manifestations of what exists within the

society. The model, which the child observes in his environment, plays two
 25

important roles in social learning. The first is that model‟s behaviour may serve to

elicit some responses in an observer that are already in his repertoire. This occurs

when the behaviour is socially prescribed or deviant behaviour (Chauhan, 1999).

It has been observed that children may identify with a person whom they dislike if

his behaviour is successful.

Nwoye (1999) presented the theory of social learning thus: B = FCP and

E. FCPE means factor, cognitive, person and Environment. By the term (P)

Person, here, Bandura essentially means cognitive factors while by the term (E)

environment, he means the social models around as well as the circumstantial

contingences pressing upon the individual. The three elements-the person, the

behaviour (B) and the environmental situations are highly interrelated variables,

with each being capable of influencing the other (Bandura, 1983).

According to Lazarus, (2000), adjustment and personality or personal factors are

inextricably bound together. They are inextricably bound together in two ways.

First, two people show different kinds of adjustment process in the same situation.

For examples, one conforms or accommodates while the other acts independently,

if exposed to social pressure. Secondly, personality or personal factor refers to

stable variation in the techniques of traits of personality, in other words,

characteristics of a person that makes it possible to differentiate that person and

his or her behaviour from others in a variety of situations and occasions. Morgan,

Richard, Weiss and Schoples (2001) seem to agree with what Lazarus noted that

adjustment is a judgment in which subjective probability estimates start at a

certain point and are raised or lowered depending on the circumstance. In

 26

estimating subjective probability the initial level provides an anchor that biases

the estimates. In other words, an individual decides for himself or herself on how

to fit into a given circumstance.

Personal factors are those individual factors which an individual uses to fit in an

environment or in a situation. They are those factors an individual makes use of as

adjustment means to reach compromise with the environment.

According to Weiss (1999) personal factors in marriage are those factors which

can introduce a variation in the suffering of the separated couples or divorcees. He

listed such personal factors in marriage as the issues of forewarning, length of

time married, the concept of the leaver and the left, being able to find someone

new, the quality of the post marital relationship and the factor of personal

resources.

On the issue of forewarning, he has it that it is the view of most studies in this

regard that the experience of marital separation is usually more painful to that

spouse who is less prepared for it. Individuals who belong to this category include

those who happen to be abandoned in the marriage without pre-warning. He

further stated that such people may often first feel disoriented on first finding

themselves alone. On the effect of length of time married, Nwoye (1999) has it

that separation that comes after a few years of marriage such as within one or two

years of marriage is not usually as painful as one that takes place after so many

years of marriage. He further added that the reason for this appears to be that with

longer years in the marriage a lot of interdependencies and intimacies are formed,

making the marriage to become for the couples almost like a second nature to
 27

themselves. Hence he concluded that when the marriage happened to strike the

rocks, getting adjusted to the situation will take more time and effort to come by

than would be possible if the marriage that failed has rather just started. What the

above opinion of the scholar shows is that the longer the length of marriage the

more intimate the couples find it very difficult to adjust to any separating

situation. Weiss (1999: 63) earlier noted this when he stated that:

We might surmise that it takes about years after marriage

before individuals fully integrate the marriage into their
emotional and social lives, and that prior to this full
integration the end of the marriage is less disruptive to well
being. But once the marriage is fully integrated into the
individuals‟ life, the social, psychological and emotional
impact of separation would be very great.

Studies by Goode (2001) have shown that in comparison, the difficulties to be

faced by the two individuals in the separation, he or she that leaves the marriage,

the leaver, is more in the position of advantage to survive quicker the crisis of

separation distress than he or she that might have been left (the left). The left,

according to Nwoye (1999), in this context is understood as that individual who

has the separation imposed on him or her. Goode (2001) found out that the female

respondents in his sample conceded that separation gave rise to a high level of

trauma most if it was the female who was the left. It becomes less if it was the

male and least if the husband and wife mutually arrive at the idea of divorce.

Weiss (1999) contributing opinion in this regard maintains that although there do

not generally seem to be great differences in the level of post marital distress

between those who initiate separation and those whom separation is imposed on,

there do seem to be distinct differences in the kinds of distress two groups

 28

experience. Those who initiated the separation tend to feel guilty, even anguished

at the damage their departure inflicted on those they were pledged to cherish.

It is on the basis of all these indications that separation is assumed to be more

hurtful when one suffers the ugly situation of taking the role of the rejected and

abandoned in the marriage. For it tends, in that case, to force the abandoned or the

left to accept the other spouses‟ accusation that he or she is no longer attractive,

rather is cold, lazy or sexually inadequate and so may have lost all values as a

human being. Such a person will no doubt first end up by rejecting the society at

large, in return, for instance, for having been rejected in the marriage.

According to Nwoye (1999) finding someone new is again another

personal factor that can introduce difference in the nature of the crisis that can

face the divorcees or the separated. Here the advantage is that with the privilege of

finding someone new immediately after separation one acquires the opportunity of

finding the much needed helper to carry on; a resource human being that can offer

to the individual an opportunity for enduring the dislocation of well-being that

separation ordinarily brings. As noted by Weiss (1999:66), “the presence of need

that can make any new relationship seem attractive to the separated increases the

likelihood that a new relationship will be a mistake”. What this shows is that

finding someone new at this stage is a double-edged sword. It can kill as much as

it can heal. A divorcee especially the woman, hardly finds a new spouse. If she

does, such a marriage will not be glamorous, it will be so low and stage managed

that she would regret her divorce. This is because the woman would be regarded

as having been used very much and thus would be regarded as „second hand
 29

material” which had been over used. This is worse if the woman has not come of

beauty. Cohen (1999) asserted this when he noted that among the Kanuris,

divorce is looked at as moral failure; for instance, “the first weddings of young

girls are always much more elaborate, glamorous and expensive than those

involving divorced women‟, because according to the Kanuri society, “she has

been used very much”. For Ifelunni and Asogwa (1995), a divorced woman is

shown little or no respect how much less for her marriage.

On the personal factor of the quality of post-marital relationship, Weiss (1999)

stated that a post-marital relationship in which the spouses, in spite of the discord

between them try to remain considerate of each other can make separation easier

for both to endure the marriage separation while on the other hand a postmarital

relationship in which one spouse especially the man is head bent or determined to

punish or frustrate the other can consume the energy of the targeted. For Obiadi

(2001), divorce brings unhealthy post-marital relationship as it creates enmity

between individuals and groups and strain existing relationship. It usually creates

untold hardship, at times death, to the divorcees especially the woman.

Nwoye (1999) discussing personal resources as a personal factor states that

in separation as in every disappointment in life, those with better resources, level

of educational attainment inclusive, fair better. For instance, surviving the pangs

of separation requires money, the goodwill of kit and kin, the loyal and supportive

friends. In addition to this, it requires possession of a resilient character, better job

skills, strong interpersonal competence and greater ingenuity and energy. People
 30

that suffer more in separation according to Nwoye (1999) are those that are less

provided for in these resources.

Theoretical Framework
In this study, the theories to be looked at are the psychoanalytic theory, the social
learning theory and the structural theory.

Psychoanalytic Theory and Marital Problems

The psychoanalytic theory is associated with Freud and he organized his

personality theory around psychosexual stages of development. He maintained

that body pleasure or erogenous zones shift from one part of the body to the other

as one advances in age, such as mouth, anus and genitals.

Freud (1949) in his explanation of how the personality of an individual evolves

posits that the human being has three personality structures, namely the Id, the

Ego and Superego. The stages of psychosexual development like Oral, anal,

Phallic and genital are the four distinct stages through which a child moves.

Freud maintained that a person‟s experiences at each stage have some

characteristic impressions and imprints that influence his future personality

development.

Freud maintained that there is the constant interaction of the forces of the
powerful.
(a) Unconscious instinctive impulses (ID),

(b) The Ego and

(c) The Superego. The powerful instinctive desire, which emerges from

the unconsciousness, is blocked by the ego and the superego and

 31

this blocking causes conflict. The neurosis is the outward

manifestation of this conflict and can be understood by interpreting

this force/forces. According to Freud, as the child passes through the

psychosexual stages, very lose care by the parents or other relatives

will bring about maladjusted individual. For instance, a child who

overfed during the anal stage grows up to be loose, boisterous,

easily deceived and not independent. This may run through

marriage, which would bring marriage incompatibility with an

opposite personality.

According to Achebe (2000) in her analysis of psychoanalytic theory, the

problem of inadequate superego formation presents a disastrous crisis in situation

where the affected individual possesses a non-viable ego structure. This is also

applicable where parental and home training is silent on matters of balance in

social etiquette and moral values. It applies also to, where, the parental figures

under whom the individual was reared had nothing to tell the child concerning the

restraints, the disciplines, and the moral expectations of the society under which

he is to live, work and have his being. The result is the development of a condition

of moral depravity in the affected individual, an experience that sets such a person

head-on against his own people, especially those of them like the elders in his

larger society. The consequence may bring the individual to a point of being

socially disowned, isolated and in extreme cases anathematized and banished. She

further noted that weak superego formation in personality is not only produced by

inadequate moral training or upbringing but could arise from a direct

 32

internalization by an individual of very rigid and harsh principles and demands in

his environment. She noted so many goals of Psychoanalysis one of which is to

identify the extent to which the client‟s present psychological situation (divorce

inclusive) is related to experiences he has had within his first five years of life.

For Nwoye (1999), a child in a strict home will be stingy, neurotic, aggressive,

stubborn and noisy. An explanation of how marital dysfunctions develop under

this theory, has been provided by him. According to him, “the psychodynamic

theory model is an offshoot of the classical psychoanalytic approach which

proposes that, to discover what has gone wrong in a given sick marriage, one

needs to probe into the deep-seated character traits of the personalities involved.

This theory entails focusing in the diagnostic observations while trying to resolve

the conflict in determining the extent to which one can say for sure or not, that the

presenting discord in the marriage is a function of neurotic conflicts between the

two parties concerned.

Chauhan (1999), the specific sex experiences at any of the stages either in

form of over indulgence or deprivation may produce fixation which means an

arrest of sexual impulses at any early stages of Psychosexual development. This

leads to marriage discord or divorce especially where the couples have opposite

personalities. Sex intercourse deprivation or over indulgence by a couple against

the wish of the other may lead to separation or divorce. According to Ochiagha

(1999) “as cement is used to cement two blocks, so also sex relationship cements

husband and wife”.

 33

Social Learning Theory and Marital Problem

The social learning theory model otherwise known as behavioural family therapy

has Albert Bandura as its chief proponent. Bandura (1997), assumed that human

behaviour is, in general, a function of the person plus the environment. By the

term person here, Bandura essentially means cognitive factors, while by the term

environment he means the social models around as well as the circumstantial

contingencies pressing upon the individual. The three elements, the person, the

behaviour and the environmental situations are highly interrelated variables, with

each being capable of influencing the other.

According to Bandura (1997), all facets of human behaviour are learnt

from the environment with or without immediate reinforcement. Most behaviours

of a child represent carbon copies of the manifestations of what exists within the

society. The model, which the child observes in his environment, plays two

important roles in social learning. The first is that model‟s behaviour may serve to

elicit some responses in an observer that are already in his repertoire. This occurs

when the behaviour is socially prescribed or deviant behaviour (Chauhan, 1990).

It has been observed that children may identify with a person whom they dislike if

his behaviour is successful.

Nwoye (1999) presented the theory thus B = FCP and E. FCPE means =

Factor, cognitive, Person and Environment. By the term (P) Person, here, Bandura

essentially means cognitive factors while by the term (E) environment, he means

the social models around as well as the circumstantial contingences pressing upon

the individual. The three elements –the person, the behaviour (B) and the
 34

environmental situations are highly interrelated variables, with each being capable

of influencing the other (Bandura, 1983).

Applied to life in marriage, the theory assumes that when two individuals

interact, they become part of each other‟s environment and the behaviour of the

other when marriages fail, therefore, the two individuals in the interaction can at

times be liable to be blamed equally for the failure, since each can by his or her

respective neglect of his or her roles contribute immensely to generating the crisis

at hand. This implies that the traditional African practices as well as legal

proceeding where a spouse is declared guilty and the other exonerated during

disputes (or what Nwoye 1991 referred to as monocausality) does not hold with

marriage counseling using the social learning theory model.

Some dimensions of personality theories have attempted to explain how and why

people react and adjust as they do. Gilbert (2001) summarized the personality

issue by highlighting that traits are influenced from behaviour, but the traits are

properties of a personality. Consequently, individuals are characterized by their

outstanding traits-gentle, belligerent, nervous, bright and cheerful.

In dealing decisively with these other factors of marital dysfunction,

therapists functioning within the framework of the social learning principle

emphasize the role of helping their adult clients to achieve cognitive behaviour

modification in the course of the treatment process (Epstein, 2000 and

Jacobson, 2000).

The social learning theory hinges on environmental correlates of

maladjustment. It stresses on the reinforcing factors within the environment,

 35

which can cause divorce or maladjustment. In the same vein, the environment can

be manipulated to bring about a desired change in behaviour. According to

Mgbodile (2000), as the iroko tree resists and withstands the violent storms, of the

forest, so will a sweet home resist and withstand the pressures and attacks of

outside invaders. He further noted that those who are quick in believing and

acting on all they hear about their marriage partners are quick in chasing away the

peace and tranquility of their home as gossips and tale bearers are dangerous war

mongers who often direct the nozzle of their guns against family peace and

stability. That a marriage is sure to come to brinks of disaster, if a woman fails to

be careful of what she hears from other women about their own marriage and

homes, and that a man that wants to keep his home intact must beware of other

women. Supporting that outside environmental factors contribute to marriage

breakdown, Mgbodile (2000) posits that when a home (marriage) goes in

shambles there is usually the finger of another man or woman in it and that no

home (marriage) should consider itself so stable that it cannot be pulled down by

determined gossips and intriguers. A home that is teleguided from outside dances

the music of the enemy and he or she who wants to keep his or her home or

marriage must beware of bad advisers and bad company. A good home never

invites an outside judge because the marriage problem presented to the public

suffers the fate of the „Okoro‟ fruit which often returns from the market with

wounds from finger nails. For him, marriage, cannot be the same again when

family secrets become public property through the flippant tongue of the

husband or the wife because when either of the couple starts telling tales about
 36

his or her marriage and family life he or she is indirectly opening the floodgate

that will eventually rock the foundation of his or her marriage.

Social learning theory stresses on environmental correlates of

maladjustment and on the reinforcing factors within and outside the environment

which can cause divorce or maladjustment. In the same way, the environment can

be manipulated to bring about a desired change in behaviour. It is in this light that

the present study examines the correlates of Adjustment Problems of Divorcees.

Structural Theory and Model

The structural theory was developed by Minuchin (1974). It was a popular

theory of marriage and family counselling. Arising as one of the main responses

of family counsellors to the concept of man not as an isolate but rather as part of

his environment, the structural theory proposes that marital pathology is

prompted:

where one member in the dyad is swallowed up by the personality of

the other (the problem of enmeshment);. where one member‟s interests are in

conflict with the general interests of the marriage; where one member in the

marriage has the neurotic tendency to lord it over to other his or her wishes;

where the couple‟s approach to stress is frantic and immature; where the

interactions between the interior and exterior aspects of the marriage are too

fluid and too free as to allow significant outsiders like in-laws, business

associates, neighbours and friends to influence the value orientation of the

members; a problem which generates the conflict of loyalties between the

parties involved; and where the boundary between the interior members of the
 37

union (the husband and wife) is too impermeable as to generate the problem of

insufficient communication and the crisis of emotional separation between the

parties involved (Minuchin, 1994).

Skymer (2002), brought out the significance of marriage boundary

assertion very clearly when he stated that:

failure of the boundary to restrict exchange across it leads

to a loose of difference between the living system and its
surroundings of its separate identity; instead there
develops as identity of inside and outside, one meaning of
death. Too impermeable a boundary prevent any exchange,
brings another form of death, the fixed and stained tissues
we see beneath a microscope.

Much as the structural theory model seems simple and relevant to the present, study

the researcher deems it necessary to include in this study, a systematic investigation of

possible difficulty areas that are characteristics of divorcees in the area of study.

Empirical Studies
This sub section is concerned with a review of empirical studies done in the areas
of divorce and adjustment. It reviews literature on the variations in the adjustment
problems of divorcees, causes of divorces, problems of divorce, effects of divorce
and adjustment strategies.
 38

Divorce and its Causes

Marriage collapses because of several reasons ranging from personal,
family to environmental.
According to Weiss (1999) in a study on causes of Divorce: which he
carried out in six randomly selected town in New York, USA, using 600 couples:
300 male and 300 female divorcees made up of 500 couples with children and 100
couples without children, he found out that the following are the major causes
of divorce: abuse, early marriages, political and economic awareness and
independence and sexual insatiability. He further noted that divorce occurs
when the marriage relationship finally becomes intolerable and unmanageable
and all attempts to restore harmony fail.
Obiadi (2001) in his study of why couples divorce in the selected 12
communities in Nnewi of Anambra State using 400 couples found the following
as to why couples divorce: adultery, desertion, cruelty, insanity, rape, sodomy,
sterility or barrenness, threat of life and blood incompatible.
According to Arowolo (2002) in his study of “On becoming a divorcee in Ekiti:
Implication for counselling”, using 3000 divorcees as sample and structured quesionnaire
as instrument, the following were found to exist both before and after the war. Table 1:
Percentage rate of causes of Divorce before and after Nigerian civil war
Causes of Divorce Percentage Rate
Before Nigerian After Nigerian Civil War
Civil War
1 Abuse 30 70
2 Power tussle between couples 82 80
3 Poor financial management 20 70
4 Infidelity 50 30
5 Infertility/childlessness 80 55
6 Quick temper/impatience 52 75
7 Influence of bad company 46 77
8 Influence of mother-in-law and other relations 66 85
9 Influence of Alcohol 60 40
10 Bad use of tongues, rumour mongering 65 70
11 Impotence 70 75
12 Adultery 80 40
13 Tender age in marriage. 60 60
 39

14 Prolonged sickness 75 78
15 Faith differences 66 43
16 Poor or inappropriate communication 50 57
17 Libidal differences/sexual deprivation 65 75
18 Prolonged stealing 74 60
19 Harsh/ill treatment/beating /fighting 78 80
20 Insubordination of wife to husband 90 75
21 Prolonged cruelty 86 80
22 Prolonged insanity 46 55
23 Blood incompatibility 50 65
24 Threat to life by a partner 80 75
25 Less involvement of kin group 40 80
26 Bearing of female children only 90 65
27 Misunderstanding from child training 55 45
28 Incomplete payment of bride price 80 45
29 Couples with different cultural background 40 85
30 Political awareness by women 30 55
The summary of this study shows 30 causes of divorce and the variations
according to times.
Elizabeth (2001) in her study of blended families-problems and solutions
found that the main factors that make a marriage work are a combination of
the three “C‟S” – communication, compromise, and commitment, with a
generous sprinkling of blind luck and the absence of the above factors leads to
divorce. In the study carried out by Omeje (2000) on “Adjustment Strategies of
Divorcees in some selected communities in Enugu State”, in which he used 400
sample which he randomly selected with questionnaire as the instrument found
that one likely factor in marriage breakdown amongst women who marry in their
teens is substantially greater than that for women who marry at late ages. For
him, other factors of divorce seem to be determined by the structure of the society
which, in turn, depends on whether the society is developed or developing. This
finding supports Giddens (1999) which found that factors of divorce differ
between and even within the industrial and no-industrial societies of the world,
albeit some similar factors can also operate in both:
 40

In a study he carried out on “marriage in Industrial and Non-industrial

Societies in which he used 600 samples; 300 industrial and 300 non-industrial
societies and questionnaire as instrument he found out that:
In the industrially advanced societies marriage is seen as an
arrangement between two individuals who enter into it for
their mutual benefit; such as sexual and emotional
satisfaction. These objectives are arguably more difficult to
achieve and consequently more easily frustrated than the
objectives of marriage in non-industrial societies.

He found out that other factors of divorce are the increasing political and
economic independence of women in the contemporary period which result to
changes in the “ideas” or attitudes to marriage. Again, there is absence of effective
kin-group pressures which all contributed to make marriage there more fragile and
susceptible to divorce. Supporting the finding of Giddens (1999) that there is
absence of effective kin group pressures on marriage and it contributes greatly in
divorce rates, Asogwa (2003) in his study on “the dissolubility of the
indissolubility of marriage: The causes”, in some selected communities in Rivers
State using 500 samples and questionnaire as instrument found that:
“The old extended family which encourages loyalty and
affection among its members is becoming moribund because
it is well suited only to the predominantly agricultural
society. Since Nigeria is moving from a basically
agricultural society, the modern Nigerian family being
transferred from a closely knit group with considerable
authority over its members to a rather loose individualistic
arrangement in which divorce is very frequent”.

According to Goddy (2002) and Asogwa (2003) divorce rates would be

higher in society where life expectancy is much longer than in societies where it
is shorter. Goddy (2002) found that:
In the U.S.A., there are the operation of some forces in
different classes which account for the differences in
divorce rates. Thus, divorce rate is lower towards the higher
social strata because the discrepancy between the potential
income of the husband and the wife is much greater towards
 41

this upper social strata, so that wives could see the greater
cost of leaving their marriage.

This was found in a study he carried out in New York City on “Higher life
expectancy on marriage”. He used 800 samples and his instrument was structured
questionnaire. He found also that imitation of divorced parents by their off-
springs is another cause of divorce. They called this “transmission hypothesis”
They found that family disorganization affects another generation. His finding
include that divorce itself is a cause of divorce because frequent divorces
weaken the norms of marital stability and that off-springs imitate divorced parents
and also that the divorce of numerous friends makes the choice of divorce more
normal and respectable. Otite and Ogionwo (1999) in a study they carried out
titled: “Before and After Divorce” in 15 communities of Rivers State with a
population of 1000 divorcees and questionnaire as their instrument have identified
some factors or causes of divorce as:

Male impotence, sexual deprivation or cruelty by one of the

spouses, childlessness, poverty and hard labour in the
family, adultery and infidelity, growing incompatibility
between one of them and the in-law, women‟s
emancipation and income earning which could enable such
women to refund the bride price even without the assistance
or knowledge of their parents, and in most African societies
refusal of a widow to be subjected to widow inheritance is
interpreted as amounting to plea for a divorce.

In his study of Arochukwu and Umuahia people among the Igbo, Okorie (2000)
found that childlessness is the greatest calamity that can be fall on Igbo woman.
Many without off-springs are regarded as unsuccessful hence the alternatives for
such childlessness or infertility are divorces or at best polygamy. This finding of
Okorie (2000) supports that of Norton and Glick (1999) who found that the
recently declining fertility rate may have contributed to the rise in the divorce
rates. They found out also that among other factors which may have influenced
 42

the recent rise in divorce are on increase is pre-marital conceptions and the so-
called “incentives” towards disruption found in the present welfare system. Davis
(1998) in his study in England on stress and the woman manager, using 600
women as sample and questionnaire as his instrument found out that pre-marital
conception is conducive to divorce, and an increase in such family formation in
such circumstances tends to increase the divorce rates. In a study carried out by
Makinwa (2000) on “the national cost of illegal abortion” in 14 communities of
Imo State with a population of 1000 divorcees and questionnaire as instrument
found out among others that abortion leads to some infertilities which increase the
rates of divorces. Philips-Yonas (2004)in his study of the effects of pre-marital
pregnancies in London City using 800 divorcees as population found out that
pre-marital pregnancies which lead to forceful marriages increase the high rates
of divorces especially when love fades. In a study of the causes of high rate of
divorce in Umuahia and Aba Cities of Abia State with 700 divorcees, as his
population and questionnaire as his instrument Oko (2001) identified the causes
of divorce in Nigeria as not knowing the family background of the would-be
partners, infidelity, sexual insatiability and sexual incompatibility, childlessness,
partiality by the polygamist, value differences, dictatorship on the part of the
man and where wife assumes the authority of being the head of the family.
According to the provision of the section 15 (1) of the matrimonial causes
Decree 1999 of the Nigeria “Marriage Act” a petition for divorce may be
presented by either party to the marriage on the ground that the marriages has
broken down irretrievably and because of which the marriage can be dissolved
are: that the respondent has willfully and persistently refused to consummate the
marriage; That since the marriage, the respondent has committed adultery and the
petitioner finds it intolerable to live with the respondent; that since the marriage
the respondent has behaved in such a way that the petitioner cannot reasonably be
expected to live with the respondent; that the respondent has deserted the
petitioner for a continuous period of at least two years immediately preceding the
presentation of the petition; and the respondent does not object to a decree being
granted; that the party of the marriage has for a period of not less than one year
 43

failed to comply with a degree of restitution on conjugal rights made under this
decree; that the parties to the marriage have lived apart for continuous period of at
least three years immediately proceeding the presentation of the petition; that the
other party to the marriage has been absent from the petitioner for such a time and
in such circumstances as to provide reasonable grounds for presuming that he or
she is dead.
Asogwa (2003) in his study of “The Dissolubility of the Indissolubility of
Marriage”: causes: in five local government areas of Rivers state using 800
divorcees and structured questionnaire as his instrument. found out the following
as the causes of divorce: the gradual collapse of the social order (diminishing
family loyalty, individual irresponsibility and Lawlessness); mental disorders-
prolonged ones; couples with different cultural background; incompatibility;
constant quarrels, bickering, high temper and nagging. shaking foundation right
from courtship; constant frictions and tensions within marriage; love at “first
sight marriage; financial mismanagement and lack of interdependence between
couple.
Levinger (2001) in his study on “A Social Psychological” perspective on marital
dissolution” found out that divorce is imminent “when either or both partners see
an attractive, such as another lover and going along or living in groups other than
the nuclear family”. The finding of Ikwuju (2002) on “the status of Information
Service about Divorcees in Kogi State” using five randomly selected local
government areas with 500 as the population for the study supports Levinger
(2001) that one of the reasons why women want divorce is that the other woman”
is becoming so important to the extent that their man is spending most of his time
with her. Other causes of divorce according to Ikwuji (2002) are: barrenness,
impotence, adultery, in-laws interference, sexual deprivation, weakened kin group
pressure, political and economic independence of women, early or pre-mature
marriages, inappropriate communication, prolonged madness, prolonged sickness,
borning of female children only, quick temper, faith difference, child training
problems and couples with different background.
 44

According to Unachukwu and Igborgbor (2001), causes of divorce include:

childlessness, bearing only female children, infidelity, incompatibilities, a lot of
problems arising from their children themselves, going into family without
knowing what it involves and without preparing for it, emotional immaturity
and leadership tussle between couple.

In a study by Thara (2002) on, “why is the divorce rate climbing up?” in Hindu

Metro Plus Kochu using 500 population of divorcees comprising male and female

divorcees with structured questionnaire as his instrument found the following as

the causes of the climbing up of divorce rate: women becoming more educated,

women becoming economically independent and women becoming aware of their

rights. Others include: rising violence, cruelty, character assassination,

alcoholism, problems of adjustment especially in a joint family, growing

individualism of the wrong kind, extramarital affairs and the undesirable impact of

the outside world in terms of falling values and lack of role models.

Adjustment Problems of Divorcees

It is pertinent to point out that factors influencing variations in the
adjustment problems of the divorcees are varied. According to a study carried out
by Grossman (1999) on the “Hardships of the separated” in ten selected
communities in New York” , where he used 1000 divorcees as his population and
questionnaire as the instrument neglect, misconduct, frustration, prostitution,
enemity, litigation, lack of parental training among others were some of the
hardships the separated undergo. In the study carried out by Okorie (2000) on the
“Position of Female Divorcees in some selected Local Government Areas in
Cross River State, where 500 divorcees were the population of the study, he
found that female divorcees are not duly respected, quickly contract sexually
transmitted diseases, are easily irritated and frustrated and their male children
 45

hate them. He further noted that their children usually become hooligans armed
robbers and juvenile delinquents.
According to Weiss (1999), the following are the major factors which can
introduce a variation in the suffering of the separated couples or divorcees:
(1) the issues of forewarning
(2) length of time married
(3) the concept of the leaver and the left
(4) being able to find someone new
(5) the quality of the post marital relationship and
(6) the factor of personal resources.
On the issue of forewarning, he has it that it is the view of most studies in
this regard that the experience of marital separation is usually more painful to
that spouse who is less prepared for it. Individuals who belong to this category
include those who happen to be abandoned in the marriage without pre-warning.
He further stated that such people may often first feel disoriented on first finding
themselves alone. On the effect of length of time married, Nwoye (1999) has it
that separation that comes after a few years of marriage such as within one or
two years of marriage is not usually as painful as one that takes place after so
many years of marriage. He further added that the reason for this appears to be
that with longer years in the marriage a lot of interdependencies and intimacies are
formed, making the marriage to become for the couples almost like a second
nature to themselves. Hence he concluded that when the marriage happened to
strike the rocks, getting adjusted to the situation will take more time and effort
to come by than would be possible if the marriage that failed has rather just
started. What the above opinion of the scholar shows is that the longer the length
of marriage the more intimate the couples find it very difficult to adjust to any
separating situation. Weiss (1999: 63) earlier noted this when he stated that:
“We might surmise that it takes about years after marriage
before individuals fully integrate the marriage into their
emotional and social lives, and that prior to this full
integration the end of the marriage is less disruptive to well
being. But once the marriage is fully integrated into the
 46

individuals life, the social, psychological and emotional

impact of separation would be very great”.

Studies by Goode (1956) in Omeje (2000) have shown that in comparison,

the difficulties to be faced by the two individuals in the separation, he or she that
leaves the marriage, the leaver, is more in the position of advantage to survive
quicker the crisis of separation distress than he or she that might have been left
(the left). The left, according to Nwoye (1999), in this context is understood as
that individual who has the separation imposed on him or her. Goode in Omeje
(2000) found out that the female respondents in his sample conceded that
separation gave rise to a high level of trauma most if it was the female who was
the left. It becomes less if it was the male and least if the husband and wife
mutually arrive at the idea of divorce. Weiss (1999) contributing opinion in
this regard maintains that: although there do not generally seem to be great
differences in the level of post marital distress between those who initiate
separation and those whom separation is imposed on, there do seem to be distinct
differences in the kinds of distress two groups experience. Those who initiated
the separation tend to feel guilty, even anguished at the damage their departure
inflicted on those they were pledged to cherish.
It is on the basis of all these indications that separation is assumed to be
more hurtful when one suffers the ugly situation of taking the role of the rejected
and abandoned in the marriage. For it tends, in that case, to force the abandoned
or the left to accept the other spouse‟s accusation that he or she is no longer
attractive, rather is cold, lazy or sexually inadequate and so may have lost all
values as a human being. Such a person will no doubt first end up by rejecting the
society at large, in return, for instance, for having been rejected in the marriage.
According to Nwoye (1999) finding someone new is again another
factor that can introduce difference in the nature of the crisis that can face the
divorcees or the separated. Here the advantage is that with the privilege of finding
someone new immediately after separation one acquires the opportunity of finding
the much need helper to carry on; a resource human being that can offer to the
individual an opportunity for enduring the dislocation of well-being that
 47

separation ordinarily brings. As noted by Weiss (1999:66) “the presence of need

that can make any new relationship seem attractive to the separated increases the
likelihood that a new relationship will be a mistake”. What this shows is that
finding someone new at this stage is a double-edge sword. It can kill as much as it
can heal. A divorcee, especially the woman, hardly finds a new spouse. If she
does, such a marriage will not be glamorous, it will be so low and stage managed
that she would regret her divorce. This is because the woman would be regarded
as having been used very much and thus would be regarded as “second hand
material” which had been over used. This is worse if the woman has not come of
beauty. Cohen (2000) noted that among the Kanuries, divorcee is looked at as
moral failure; for instance, “the first weddings of young girls are always much
more elaborate, glamorous and expensive than those involving divorced women”,
because according to the Kanuri society, “she has been used very much”. For
Ifelunni and Asogwa (1995), divorced woman is showed little or no respect how
much less for her marriage.
On the quality of post-marital relationships, Weiss (1999) stated that a
post-martial relationship in which the spouses, in spite of the discord between
them try to remain considerate of each other can make separation easier for both
to endure the marriage separation while on the other hand, has a post-marital
relationship in which one spouse especially the man is head bent or determined to
punish or frustrate the other can consume the energy of the persecutor and sap the
morale of the target. For Obiadi (1999), divorce brings unhealthy post-marital
relationship as it crates enmity between individuals and groups and strains existing
relationship. It usually creates untold hardship, at times death, to the divorcees
especially the woman.
Nwoye (1999) discussing personal resources states that in separation as in
every disappointment in life, those with better resources, level of educational
attainment inclusive, fair better. For instance, surviving the pangs of separation
requires money, the goodwill of kit and kin, the loyal and supportive friends. In
addition to this it requires possession of a resilient character, better job skills,
strong inter-personal competence and greater ingenuity and energy. People that
 48

suffer more in separation according to Nwoye (1999) are those that are less
provided for in these resources.

Variation in Adjustment Strategies

Divorcees like any other organism device means or strategies to cope with
adjustment problems:
According to Hetheringtone, Cox and Cox (2001), Kressel and Deutsch
(2002) in a study they carried out on the Adjustment and Health of the Divorcees
in 18 randomly Selected Communities in New Delhi, India, with 1,200 as their
population and questionnaire as their instrument, found among others that many of
the problems arising during and after a divorce recede with time and the
individual eventually reaches an equilibrium and reintegration into society. They
found that although some people require counselling many seem to adjust without
formal intervention. Hetherington et al (2002) found that, “the most important
factor in changing the self concept two years after the divorce was the
establishment of a satisfying intimate heterosexual relationship”. They suggested
that the flurry of social activities by men at one year after divorce maybe
important in re-establishing a sense of identity and improving self concept.
Research on coping with other forms of life stress has identified numerous active
coping strategies that facilitate adjustment and reduce perceived distress.
Agulanna (2003) in his study of the stresses Nigerian people (executives) suffer
and their coping strategies in ten states of Nigeria using 1000 executives as
population and questionnaire as his instrument found the following as the coping
mechanisms or strategies people adopt: mortuotheraphy, mid-road therapy,
communication therapy, tripod therapy, diversionary therapy, confrontation
therapy, the engine therapy, regular exercises therapy, sleep therapy,
musicotherapy, vitamin therapy, Ecclesiastical (prayer) therapy, Highlighting
Negativism, Effective-Time – management, and sweet smell therapy.
Pearlin and Schooler (2001) in their study on “The Structure of Coping” a
study they carried out in New York with 800 population and questionnaire as their
instrument, identified several types of coping strategies used to deal with different
 49

life stress, including self reliance, emotional discharge, positive comparison and
selective ignoring. Mc Cubbin, Dahl, Lester, Benson and Robertson (1999) in
their study on “Coping Reporters of families Adapting to Prolonged Warinduced
separation” in 18 cities in Iraq with 1,500 population and questionnaire as their
instrument found several specific strategies used by Prisoner-of-war wives to
deal with spouse absence, including social involvement, home activities and
emotional expression. They found that wives of military who had more or greater
educational achievements, who had more employable skills, who felt less
satisfied with life in the military, and who experienced legal problems during the
separation were more likely to emphasize a combination of autonomy
(employment and independence from the military) and maintenance of family
ties as approach to strengthening their individual resources to endure the
stresses of separation.
In the study carried out by Omeje (2000) on “Adjustment Strategies of
Divorcees in some selected communities in Enugu State”, using 300 divorcees
as his population and structured questionnaire as instrument he found that
divorcees make use of social, religious, financial; family interaction and support
services and personal understanding strategies in adjustment and that they are
all effective in helping them to resolve their adjustment problems. He further
noted that divorcees also make use of different sources of counselling in
adjustment. Berman and Turk (2002) in their study on “Adaptation to Divorce:
Problem and coping strategies” a study their carried out in 5 randomly selected
districts in New Delhi found that coping factors have differential effects on post
divorce adjustment. That social and inter-personal involvements using 1000
couples and questionnaire as their instrument are directly related to lower mood
disturbance and heightened life satisfaction as are the development of autonomy
and independence. They found that the coping strategies are related to problems
only in the inter-personal and emotional spheres, and have little effect on former
spouse or family problems. They noted that expressing feelings or catharsis is
related to high mood disturbance and low life satisfaction and is not related to any
specific problem area.
 50

According to the study by Lazarus (2000) on Patterns of Adjustment in

New York found coping process as a cognitive activity involving. an
assessment of the impending harm and an assessment of the consequences of
any coping action. He found coping behaviour as a function of the location of the
stress and the viability of alternative actions and the situational constraints.
In the study carried out by Newman and Newman (2002) on “living: The
Process of Adjustment” in ten randomly selected districts in London using 800
randomly selected males and females, coupled and youths and questionnaire as
their instrument he found that people adjust to problems by the use of the
following in a higher level form: sublimation, projection, identification,
rationalization, repression, reaction formation, regression and displacement.

Problems and Effects of Divorce

Divorce has tremendous traumatic effects on both the husband, wives and
children. According to Ikwuji (2002) in his study on “the status of Information
Service about Divorcees in Kogi State”, using 5 randomly selected Local
Government Areas with 500 as the population of the study, the following are the
problems and effects of divorce: indulging in sexual excesses and other social
misconducts by both parties; frustrated divorced lady may resort to
prostitution to make both ends meet; divorce leads to the raising of bastard and
illegal children who grow up to harass and molest the society; the irresponsible
action of a divorcee often leads to the breaking up of other homes. A divorced
woman may go to tempt a man who is living happily and faithfully with his wife
and vice versa; divorce brings about futile expenses on both sides especially when
litigation is involved and payment of alimony; divorced couples soon lose their
respect and recognition and become objects of gossip and ridicule in the
community; divorce creates enemity between individuals and groups and strains
existing relationships; where children have been raised before divorce, they are
bound to lack parent care. The children will grow to be bad eggs and undesirable
elements in the society. They will lack education, training and those other
 51

qualities which promote harmonious living; divorce promotes indiscipline,

hooliganism and juvenile delinquency.
Pope and Mueller (2002) in studying “marital instability: A study of its
transmission between generation, using 800 divorcees as population and
structured questionnaire as instrument found that a broken family undergoes
economic hardship, at least for the period in which the child lives with a single
parent. This means that the child is more likely to be forced to forgo education for
work or marriage.
According to Brown (2000) in a study he carried out on “Sex role and
Psychological outcome for black and white women experiencing marital
dissolution” at London metropolitan city, with a population of 1000 divorcees,
500 white and 500 black and questionnaire as the instrument found that divorce
consequences could either be positive or negative. On the negative side, he
found that data on the prevalence of physical and mental health problems among
divorced population suggests an association between divorce and poor health
including mental health. Thus, divorce becomes a turning point towards stress. On
the positive side, he found that divorce could be a source of growth and well being
by providing a woman with an opportunity to realize her potentials for growth that
might have been thwarted in the marriage, to expand her personal competence and
esteem.
The study carried out by Cohen (2000) on Marriage Instability among the
Kanuri of Northern Nigeria with 500 divorcees as his population and
questionnaire as instrument found that divorce is looked at as a moral failure and
divorcees especially women are shown no respect and regard in the society. In
their own study of Demographic correlates of Post Divorce Adjustment among
female Divorcees Ifeunni and Asogwa (1995) found that divorce is a kin to
moral failure and divorced woman is shown little or no respect. Bloom, Asher
and White (1998) who carried a study of “Divorce, change of a new life time” in
4 districts in New York, with1,000 divorcees as their population structured
questionnaire as their instrument found that divorced people develop physical
illnesses and have higher morbidity rate than comparable undivorced married
 52

people. Epstein (2002) in his own study on Divorce: American Experience; a

study he carried out in New York City using 800 divorcees as his population and
structured questionnaire as instrument found that the divorced and their children
are a fraternity of the emotionally ravaged and that to go through a divorce is to go
through “a very special private hell” no matter how much money is available to
cushion the fall.
In the study carried out by Omeje (2000) on “Adjustment Strategies of
Divorcees in some selected communities of using 300 divorcees as his population
and structured questionnaire as the instrument Enugu State, he found that
adjustment problem itself is one of the difficulties or problems of divorce. Oko
(2001) in his study on “Decreasing the Divorce Rate in Our Society”, a study he
carried at Owerri Imo State using a population of 800 divorcees described divorce
as an “ill-wind” that blows neither the man, the woman nor children any good
because it generates frustration and misery. He found out that divorce weights
more on the affected children who lack complete parental care, and in
development are affected psychologically. Mgbodile (2000) in a study of the
Hangover of a broken home found that “as you cannot run away from your
shadow, so you cannot avoid the hangover of a broken marriage”, and that
“children are the greatest victims of a battered marital relationship”. Weiss
(1999) in his study of the Emotional Impact of Marital separation”, a study
he carried out in some selected districts in New York. America, using 500
divorcees as his population and questionnaire as his instrument found that effects
of divorce include deviant behaviours such as juvenile delinquency, alcoholism,
prostitution and drug addition. Others are hooliganism, robbery, fighting, telling
lies, stealing, dropping out of school, loose talk and quick temper.
Kuppuswany (2003) in a study he carried out in some selectaed
communities in New Delhi, with a population of 600 divorcees and a structured
questionnaire as the instrument found that:
Divorce, among other factors, is the cause of certain
misbehaviours like chain–smoking, excessive alcoholic
drinks, extreme wickedness, juvenile delinquency,
prostitution; drug abuse robbery and loose life. Divorce cause
 53

timidity, emotional imbalance, telling lies, lack of parental

care, constant fighting, suicide, waste of money if litigation
is involved and strain of relationship between in-laws.

According to Asogwa (2003) in his study of some selected communities of

Rivers state on the causes of high rate of divorce with a population of 800
divorcees and questionnaire as instrument a divorced home is a home
characterized by neglect, demoralization and lack of parental care and such a
home could be expected to breed delinquent and social misfits. The study shows
that those who suffer most during divorce are children for whom divorce could be
a painful and bewildering emotional experience. Finally, the study shows that high
increase in mental disorder could be attributed to high rate in divorce where there
is the failure of the family to provide individuals with basic indispensable
emotional satisfaction.
According to Hetherington, Cox and Cox (1999) and Mendesel (1999) in a
study they carried out on “Divorced fathers” found that during the first year
following a divorce both men and women report low self-esteem, confusion
concerning social and sexual roles and feelings of anger, anxiety, ambivalence
and depression. The study shows that women divorcees feel unattractive, helpless,
personally and socially incompetence, lack both structure and coherent personal
identity and feelings of rootlessness, guilt and loss. According to Dike (1999) both
the man and woman experience psychological truma and misery even if short
lived. The study further shows that in parts of Igbo communities some children of
divorced parents have become school drop-outs, prostitutes and deviants of
different kinds. On the contrary, Sill (1999) in his study of divorcees‟ ownership
of their children using 1000 divorcees as his population and questionnaire as the
instrument in New York found that children from broken homes fared as well or
better than children from intact but unhappy homes. He found that this obtains
mostly in developed societies where social welfare systems are well advanced and
their legal system operates in such away that children of divorced parents are kept
in the custody of the parent that is considered best able to take care of them. But
not so in African societies the upbringing and social rights of such children are
 54

dependent on their family and lineage members and the rule of children remaining
in their father‟s lineage in patrilineal societies or in their mother‟s lineage in
matrilineal societies is still upheld. According to Morgan (1999) in his study of
social life of the divorced in 18 cities in London using questionnaire as his
instrument found that among the consequences of divorce include the fact that a
divorced woman loses her rights over the husband, his property and where there
is not sentimental attachment between mother and children, is cut from her
children. That is to say that all her efforts and contributions in building up the
home are unrewarded.
In a study carried out by Weiss (1999) on the Emotional Impact of marital
separation in some randomly selected districts in New York, American, using 800
divorcees as the population of the study and structured questionnaire as the
instrument found that:

Divorce produces distress and that:

the disruption of marriage regularly produces emotional

distress, almost irrespective of the quality of the marriage or
of desire for its dissolution. The distress is similar to that
described as occurring in children who have lost attachment
figures and suggests that although other components of live
fade in trouble marriages, attachment persists. Separated
individuals however, not only want to rejoin their spouses
but also to express among with them. They may manage the
resulting ambivalence by partial suppression, by alternating
expression of positive or negative feelings.

The study of recovery from bereavement by Glick, Weiss and Parke (1999)

in 5 distsricts in California, America using 500 divorcees as his population and

 55

questionnaire as instrument found that marital disruption almost uniformly gives

rise to distress, irrespective of the quality of marriage. Bloom, Asher and White

(1998) in their study of divorcees: change of a new life time in London city, using

300 divorcees found that as many as 40% of all divorced people receive some

forms of psychiatric care. Parke (2004) in a study of the trauma of the separated

in 6 districts of London using 700 separated as his population and questionnaire as

his instrument found that the loss of attachment is the primary causes of the

“separation distress” syndrome in which he listed in his term to include the

organization of attention around the image of the lost figure, guilt for having

produced the loss and the presence of an “alarm reactions”, great restlessness and

feeling of fear and panic, difficulties in sleeping and to a lesser extent, loss of

appetite and also expression of heightened vigilance.

Another problem of and consequence of divorce is teenage pregnancies of

the daughter of divorcees. In a study carried out by Akingba (2001) on The

Problem of Unwanted Pregnancy in Nigeria Today, in Lagos Island with 800

population and questionnaire as instrument for data collection found that 80% of

the teenage and unwanted pregnancies are rooted from divorced people. He found

that a poor relationship which divorced parent holds with children provides

conditions for early sexual activity which results usually into teenage and

unwanted pregnancies. He found that usually there is poor or inadequate

communication and it creates room for their children to become morally loose.

This finding supports the earlier finding of Zelnik, Kanter and Ford (1999) which

held that poor communication and single parent training of children as a result of
 56

divorce result in a loose moral and thus leads to early or teenage pregnancies.

According to the finding of Abernethy (2004) in his study of illegitimate

conception among teenagers in some selected communities in New York, with

800 separated as his population and questionnaire as the instrument found that

adolescents from homes with poor or inadequate communication patterns with

their parents, divorced homes for samples, usually suffer the unwanted teenage

pregnancies. The finding of Jessor and Jessor (2002) on Transition from virginity

to non-virginity among youths: A social-psychological study over-time”, in

Pretoria South Africa, with 600 as population and questionnaire as instrument

shows that in a broken home adolescents (children) usually lack support and

affection from their parents and this would lead to teenage pregnancies.

Another effect of divorce is over crime rate in a society. In a broken home

parents fail to provide firm and consistent discipline. Their children are loose and

over influenced by peers. Izundu (1999) in her study on Contemporary Issues that

bother Nigerian Adolescents and Youths: Implication for Counselling, in 6 states

of the federation with a population of 800 youths and questionnaire as instrument

listed the following as different types of crimes youths commit and are mostly

traceable to broken homes: homicide, robbery, rape, drug addiction, drug

trafficking, occultism, hooliganism, vandalism, abortion, telling lies and

examination malpractices and certificate racketing. She found that this is because

children from broken homes are loose and over influenced by peers who in most

cases initiate them into crimes. This study supports Klein (1998) who found that
 57

children are likely to exhibit the same characteristics as peers. If such children

belong to bad and criminal peers, they would be bad and criminal children.

These among many others are the problems and effects of divorce.

Summary of the Literature Review

The chapter reviewed all related literature to personal factors as correlates

of adjustment patterns of Divorcees in Enugu State.

From the review, theories of adjustment and marital dysfunction which

centre on psychoanalytic and marital problems, social learning theory and marital

problems were discussed. Also concepts of adjustment, divorce and marital

dysfunction were reviewed and from the review Adjustment is seen as reaction to

demand and pressures of social environment imposed upon the individual.

Divorce is seen as an end of marriage while marital dysfunction is defined as a

situation where all or parts of marriage functions and the basic elements of

marriage are lacking.

From the empirical studies reviewed, divorce and its causes, adjustment

problems of divorcees, effects and problems of divorce and adjustment problems

were looked into. From the review it was seen that factors like issue of

forewarning, length of marriage, concept of the leaver and the left, being able to

find someone new, the quality of the post martial relationship and the factor of

personal resources were some of the speculated factors which can introduce

variations in the suffering of the separated couples.

Based on the review, it was discovered that most studies carried out were

foreign based only few are locally based. It was also discovered that some of the

studies were based on speculations.

 58

It was discovered also that the extent to which personal factors determine

the adjustment pattern of divorcees has never been tested in Enugu State.

Again, the previous studies merely treated personal factors of divorcees and

their adjustment problems without empirically testing and correlating their

personal factors with their adjustment patterns.

Based on these, and on the significances of the study, it becomes pertinent

to embark on the present study which is on the personal factors as correlates of

Adjustment Patterns of Divorcees in Enugu State.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD
 59

This chapter presents the methodological approach which the researcher employed

in carrying out the study

Research design

The researcher adopted a descriptive survey design for this study. Ogolo

(2007:75) defined descriptive survey design as “a systematic empirical inquiry

which the researcher has no direct control of the independent variables.”

Descriptive survey design was considered appropriate in gathering the information

required for the study, because the descriptive data was collected through the use

of questionnaire and achievement test. According to Udo and Joseph (2005),

descriptive survey design is appropriate when trying to compare, contrast and find

out the relationship that exist between variables involved in the study. A

descriptive survey design makes it easy for a researcher to infer on the population

by studying the sample.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

A random sampling technique was adopted in composing the sample. During the

first stage, the researcher randomly sampled 18 communities. After the random

sampling of the communities, the researcher adopted the stratified and

proportionate random sampling in composing the sample.

Instrument for Data Collection

The study explores the various methods used in order to analyze the information

gathered. These methods are structured questionnaires and oral interviews. The

population and sampling techniques are also highlighted. The questionnaire is

designed for divorced men and women, in the area of study. The questionnaires
 60

contain of six items which focuses on testing the extent of the research topic the

aims of gathering information about the causes of rampant cases of divorce among

the Muslims and Christians in Damaturu, Yobe State.250 questionnaires were

distributed and Two hundred and ten were returned. However, the nature of the

interview is unstructured. In the case; the interview has a free chance to express

his/her view. The researcher effort is geared toward collecting relevant

information on the topic; the responses of the interview are recorded immediately.

The interview schedule is drafted in a way that analysis will be precise and

accurate to achieve the aims and objectives. The researcher derived some of the

information from the family structure in Christains and Islamic textbooks like the

Islamic law (Shari'ah), essential of social studies for schools, journals of women

in the college of education, encyclopaedia, magazine, and Daily trust. The

researcher consulted such materials in order to obtain ultimate information on

guideline concerning the topic of research.

Method Of Data Analysis: The information gathered was analyzed using sample

percentage, regression and correlation analyses. The percentage is the proportional

component and required that information needed to be divided into separate part

or groups each with distinct characteristics.

REFERENCES

Abernethy, V. (2004) “Illegitimate Conception among Teenagers”. American

Journal of Public Health 64 (7) 662- 665.
 61

Achebe, C.C. (2000) Theories of Individual Counselling: Relevance to the

Nigerian Situation. Floria USA. Five College Black Studies Press.

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