Zece 1

DI F F ER EN TI A L A N D I N TEG R A L
C A L CU L U S .
EL EM EN TA R Y I L L U ST R A T I O N S .
H E D i fferenti al and I n tegral C alculus o r a s i t, ,
was form e rly cal le d i n this coun t ry [E n gl an d ] ,
th e D octri ne o f F l u x i on s h as always bee n s uppo sed

,
to presen t re m a r k ab le ob s t acle s to the beg inner It .
i s m a tter of c om m on ob s erva tion th at any o ne wh o

,
co m m en ces thi s s tudy even wi th t he be s t ele m en tary

,
wor k s fi nd s hi m sel f in the d ar k as to the re al m e an in g

,
o f th e pro ces se s wh i ch he le arn s u n ti l at a certai n

, ,
s ta ge of hi s p rogress depe n din g upo n h i s cap aci ty

, ,
so me acci den tal co m b in atio n of hi s o wn id e a s th ro ws

l i gh t upo n th e s u bj ect Th e re a so n o f thi s m ay be th at
.
,
i t i s u su al to i n t rod uce h i m at th e s am e ti me to new

pri n ci ple s p ro cesses and sym b ol s th u s p reventi n g
, , ,
h i s atten ti o n fro m bei n g e x clu sively d irec te d to on e

n ew th in g at a ti m e . I t i s o ur b el ief th at th is sh o uld
be avoi ded an d we p rop o se th erefo re to try the e x
, ,
pe rim e n t wh e ther by unde rta k i n g th e sol u ti o n o f

,
so m e prob le m s by co m m on al gebrai c al m e th ods wi th ,
o u t c allin g fo r the recep tio n o f m ore th a n one new

sym b ol at on ce o r l essen in g th e i m m edi ate evi dence
,
o f e ach i nves ti gati o n by re feren ce to ge ner al r ule s the ,
s tudy of m ore m ethodi c al trea ti se s m ay no t be so m e

2 E LE M E N T ARY I LLU S T RA TI O N S O F
wh at facili tated We would no t nevertheless th at

.
, ,
the s tuden t sho uld i m agi ne we c an re m ove all o b

s t acles we m ust i n trod uce n otion s the con sideration ,
o f whi ch h as n o t hi therto occupied h i s m in d ; and

S h all therefore co n sider o ur obj e c t as gained i f we ,
can succeed in so pl acin g the subj ect before hi m th a t ,
two indepen dent d iffi cul ties sha ll never o ccu p y hi s

m in d at once .
O N T H E R A TI O O R P R O P O R T I O N O F T WO M A G N IT U D E S .
The ra ti o or proportio n of t wo m a gni tude s i s bes t

conceived by e x pressin g the m i n num bers of so m e
uni t when th ey are com m en surable o r wh en thi s i s ,
not the c ase the s am e m ay still b e done as ne arl y as

,
we please by m ean s o f n u mbers T hus the ratio o f .

,
the d i agon al o f a squ are to i ts side i s th at o ft/ 2 to 1 ,
wh ich i s ver y ne arl y th at of 14 1 4 2 t o 1 0000 an d is ,
certainly between th i s and th a t o f 1 4 1 4 3 to 1 0000 .
A g ain any ratio whatever num b ers e x press i t m ay

, , ,
b e the rati o o f two m agn i tudes each of wh ich is as ,
s m al l as w e p lease ; by which we m ean th at i f we ,
t ake an y given m agni t ude h owever s m all s uch as the , ,
li ne A we m ay fin d two o ther l ines B and C each

, ,
less th an A whose rat io sh all be wh atever w e p lease

,
.
L e t the given r at i o be th at of the n um bers m an d n .
Then P bein g a l ine m P and n P are in the prop or

, ,
t ion o f m to n ; and i t i s eviden t th a t le t m n an d A , , ,
be wh at the y m ay P c an be so taken th at mP sh all b e

,
l ess th an A Th is i s on l y s ay i n g th at P can be t a k en
.
les s th an the m p art of A wh ich i s obvi ous S in ce A

h t
, , ,
h owever s m al l i t m ay b e h as i ts ten th its hun dredth

, , ,
i ts th o us and th p ar t etc as certainl y as i f i t were

,
.
,
l arger We are no t therefo re entitl ed to say th a t

.
, ,
b ec au se two m agni tudes are dim inished th ei r rati o is ,

T H E D I FFE RE NT I A L AN D I NT E G RA L CA L C ULUS .
3
di m i ni she d i t i s p ossible th at B wh ich we wil l s up ,
pos e t o be a t first a h un dre dth p art o f C m ay after , ,
a di m i n ut ion o f bo th b e i ts tenth or th o u s an dth or

, ,
'
m ay st ill rem ain i t s h un dre d th as the foll owi n g ex ,
am pl e w il lsho w
'
(2 3 6 00 1 8 00
B 36
1 1
B C B C B C B
100 1 000
H e re the val ue s o f B an d C i n the seco nd th ird an d , ,
fo ur th col u m n are le ss th an th o se i n th e fi rs t ; n ever

th e l ess the ratio of B to C i s les s i n the seco nd col
,
u m n th an i t was i n the fi rst rem ain s th e s a m e i n the

,
third a n d i s gre ate r i n the fourth

, .
I n e sti m at in g the app ro ach to or de p artu re from ,
e q u ali ty wh ich t wo m agn i t ude s u ndergo i n c o n se

,
q u e n ce o f a ch an ge i n their v a l ues we m u s t n o t lo ok ,
at thei r di fferen ces b u t at th e p roportio n s wh i ch those

,
d i fferen ces be ar to the whole m a gni tudes F o r ex .
a m ple if a geo m e tri c al fi gu re two of who se S i de s are

, ,
3 and 4 i nch e s now b e altered i n d i m en s i on s so th at

, ,
the corresp ondin g sides are 1 00 an d 1 01 i n ch es th ey ,
are ne arer t o e qu ali ty i n th e seco n d c ase th an i n the

firs t ; bec ause tho u gh th e di fferen c e i s the s am e i n
,
bo th n am ely one inch i t i s o ne third o f the l eas t si de

, ,
i n the fi rs t case an d o nly on e hu ndredth i n the sec

,
o nd . Thi s corre s po nds to th e co m m o n u s ag e which ,
rej ects q u an t i t ie s n o t merely b ecau se th ey are sm al l

, ,
b u t be cause they are s m al l i n propo rti on to th ose o f

whi ch they are co n sidered as p a rts T hu s twenty .
,
m i le s wo ul d b e a m ateri al error i n tal k in g o f a day s ’
j o urn ey b u t wo ul d n o t be consi dere d worth m en tion

,
in g i n o ne of three m on ths and wo ul d be c al led to ,

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DI F F ER EN TI A L A N D I N TEG R A L

H E D i fferenti al and I n tegral C alculus o r a s i t, ,

was form e rly cal le d i n this coun t ry [E n gl an d ] ,

th e D octri ne o f F l u x i on s h as always bee n s uppo sed

to presen t re m a r k ab le ob s t acle s to the beg inner It .

i s m a tter of c om m on ob s erva tion th at any o ne wh o

co m m en ces thi s s tudy even wi th t he be s t ele m en tary

wor k s ﬁ nd s hi m sel f in the d ar k as to the re al m e an in g

o f th e pro ces se s wh i ch he le arn s u n ti l at a certai n

s ta ge of hi s p rogress depe n din g upo n h i s cap aci ty

so me acci den tal co m b in atio n of hi s o wn id e a s th ro ws

i t i s u su al to i n t rod uce h i m at th e s am e ti me to new

h i s atten ti o n fro m bei n g e x clu sively d irec te d to on e

pe rim e n t wh e ther by unde rta k i n g th e sol u ti o n o f

so m e prob le m s by co m m on al gebrai c al m e th ods wi th ,

o u t c allin g fo r the recep tio n o f m ore th a n one new

o f e ach i nves ti gati o n by re feren ce to ge ner al r ule s the ,

s tudy of m ore m ethodi c al trea ti se s m ay no t be so m e

wh at facili tated We would no t nevertheless th at

the s tuden t sho uld i m agi ne we c an re m ove all o b

o f whi ch h as n o t hi therto occupied h i s m in d ; and

can succeed in so pl acin g the subj ect before hi m th a t ,

two indepen dent d ifﬁ cul ties sha ll never o ccu p y hi s

The ra ti o or proportio n of t wo m a gni tude s i s bes t

not the c ase the s am e m ay still b e done as ne arl y as

we please by m ean s o f n u mbers T hus the ratio o f .

the d i agon al o f a squ are to i ts side i s th at o ft/ 2 to 1 ,

wh ich i s ver y ne arl y th at of 14 1 4 2 t o 1 0000 an d is ,

certainly between th i s and th a t o f 1 4 1 4 3 to 1 0000 .

A g ain any ratio whatever num b ers e x press i t m ay

b e the rati o o f two m agn i tudes each of wh ich is as ,

s m al l as w e p lease ; by which we m ean th at i f we ,

t ake an y given m agni t ude h owever s m all s uch as the , ,

li ne A we m ay ﬁn d two o ther l ines B and C each

less th an A whose rat io sh all be wh atever w e p lease

L e t the given r at i o be th at of the n um bers m an d n .

Then P bein g a l ine m P and n P are in the prop or

t ion o f m to n ; and i t i s eviden t th a t le t m n an d A , , ,

be wh at the y m ay P c an be so taken th at mP sh all b e

les s th an the m p art of A wh ich i s obvi ous S in ce A

h owever s m al l i t m ay b e h as i ts ten th its hun dredth

i ts th o us and th p ar t etc as certainl y as i f i t were

l arger We are no t therefo re entitl ed to say th a t

b ec au se two m agni tudes are dim inished th ei r rati o is ,

di m i ni she d i t i s p ossible th at B wh ich we wil l s up ,

pos e t o be a t ﬁrst a h un dre dth p art o f C m ay after , ,

a di m i n ut ion o f bo th b e i ts tenth or th o u s an dth or

m ay st ill rem ain i t s h un dre d th as the foll owi n g ex ,

H e re the val ue s o f B an d C i n the seco nd th ird an d , ,

fo ur th col u m n are le ss th an th o se i n th e ﬁ rs t ; n ever

u m n th an i t was i n the ﬁ rst rem ain s th e s a m e i n the

third a n d i s gre ate r i n the fourth

I n e sti m at in g the app ro ach to or de p artu re from ,

e q u ali ty wh ich t wo m agn i t ude s u ndergo i n c o n se

at thei r di fferen ces b u t at th e p roportio n s wh i ch those

d i fferen ces be ar to the whole m a gni tudes F o r ex .

a m ple if a geo m e tri c al ﬁ gu re two of who se S i de s are

3 and 4 i nch e s now b e altered i n d i m en s i on s so th at

the corresp ondin g sides are 1 00 an d 1 01 i n ch es th ey ,