Introduction To SQL

Introduction to SQL
SQL is a standard language for accessing and

manipulating databases.
What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language
SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?
SQL can execute queries against a database
SQL can retrieve data from a database
SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new databases
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create stored procedures in a database
SQL can create views in a database
SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and
views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....
Although SQL is an ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) standard, there are many
different versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard,
they all support at least the major commands (such
as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE)
in a similar manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have
their own proprietary extensions in addition to the
SQL standard!
Using SQL in Your Web Site
To build a web site that shows some data from a
database, you will need the following:
An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL
Server, MySQL)
A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
SQL
HTML / CSS
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database
Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern
database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects
called tables.
A table is a collections of related data entries and it
consists of columns and rows.
SQL Syntax
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables.
Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers"
or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each
person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a
database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the
records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons
Keep in Mind That...
SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?
Some database systems require a semicolon at the
end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL
statement in database systems that allow more than
one SQL statement to be executed in the same call
to the server.
We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and
we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL
statement, but some database programs force you to
use it.
SQL DML and DDL
SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data
Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data
Definition Language (DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part
of SQL:
SELECT - extracts data from a database
UPDATE - updates data in a database
DELETE - deletes data from a database
INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be
created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys),
specify links between tables, and impose constraints
between tables. The most important DDL statements
in SQL are:
CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
DROP TABLE - deletes a table
CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL SELECT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT and the
SELECT * statements.
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a
database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-
set.
SQL SELECT
Syntax :
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name and
SELECT * FROM table_name
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same
as select.
An SQL SELECT Example
The "Persons" table:
Now we want to select the content of the columns
named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table
above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName, FirstName FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the
"Persons" table.
Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all
columns!
Navigation in a Result-set
Most database software systems allow navigation in
the result-set with programming functions, like: Move-
To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content, Move-To-
Next-Record, etc.
Programming functions like these are not a part of
this tutorial. To learn about accessing data with
function calls, please visit our ADO tutorial or our
PHP tutorial.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT
statement.
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, some of the columns may contain
duplicate values. This is not a problem, however,
sometimes you will want to list only the different
(distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only
distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT
Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT Example
The "Persons" table:P_Id LastName FirstName
Address City
Now we want to select only the distinct values from
the column named "City" from the table above.
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:City
Sandnes
Stavanger
SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those
records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
WHERE Clause Example
Address City
Now we want to select only the persons living in the
city "Sandnes" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
Quotes Around Text Fields
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most
database systems will also accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in
quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can
be used:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you want to return for
at least one of the columns
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may
be written as !=
SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records
based on more than one condition.
The AND & OR Operators
The AND operator displays a record if both the first
condition and the second condition is true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first
condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first
name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to
"Svendson":
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'
OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first
name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to
"Ola":
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'
Combining AND & OR
You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis
to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last
name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name equal
to "Tove" OR to "Ola":
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')
SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-
set.
The ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-
set by a specified column.
The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in
ascending order by default.
If you want to sort the records in a descending order,
you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY
Syntax
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
ORDER BY Example
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger
Now we want to select all the persons from the table
above, however, we want to sort the persons by their
last name.
ORDER BY LastName
ORDER BY DESC Example
Now we want to select all the persons from the table
above, however, we want to sort the persons
descending by their last name.
ORDER BY LastName DESC
SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new
records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new
row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO
Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in
two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names
where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names
and the values to be inserted:INSERT INTO
table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example
We have the following "Persons" table:
Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons"
table.
We use the following SQL statement:INSERT INTO
Persons
VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only add data in specific
columns.
The following SQL statement will add a new row, but
only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the
"FirstName" columns:INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id,
LastName, FirstName)
VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')
5 Tjessem Jakob
SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update records in
a table.
The UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing
records in a table.
SQL UPDATE SyntaxUPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or
records that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example
5 Tjessem Jakob
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob"
in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND
FirstName='Jakob'
5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes
SQL UPDATE Warning
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted
the WHERE clause in the example above, like
this:UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:
1 Hansen Ola Nissestien 67 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Nissestien 67 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Nissestien 67 Sandnes
4 Nilsen Johan Nissestien 67 Sandnes
SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a
table.
The DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a
table.
SQL DELETE
Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or
records that should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
SQL DELETE Example
Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob"
We use the following SQL statement:
DELETE FROM Persons
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND
FirstName='Jakob'
The "Persons" table will now look like this:P_Id
LastName FirstName Address City
Delete All Rows
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without
deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
or
DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You
cannot undo this statement!
SQL Try It
Test your SQL Skills
On this page you can test your SQL skills.
We will use the Customers table in the Northwind
database:
CompanyName ContactName Address City
Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57
Berlin
Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berglund
Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå
Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang
Sierras de Granada 9993 México D.F.
Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6
Graz
FISSA Fabrica Inter. Salchichas S.A. Diego Roel
C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid
Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Saavedra Rambla
de Cataluña, 23 Barcelona
Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House
Crowther Way Cowes
Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90
Brandenburg
Laughing Bacchus Wine Cellars Yoshi Tannamuri
1900 Oak St. Vancouver
Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via
Ludovico il Moro 22 Bergamo
North/South Simon Crowther South House
300 Queensbridge London
Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard
Charonne Paris
Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson
2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque
Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34
København
The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way
Suite 2 Portland
Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus
Wolski Zajazd Zbyszek Piestrzeniewicz ul.
Filtrowa 68 Warszawa
To preserve space, the table above is a subset of the
Customers table used in the example below.
Try it Yourself
To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL
statements below and paste them into the textarea,
or you can make your own SQL statements.
SELECT * FROM customers
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM
customers
SELECT * FROM customers WHERE companyname
LIKE 'a%'
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName
FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'a'
When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater
than "a" (like in a dictionary).SELECT
CompanyName, ContactName
FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'g'
AND ContactName > 'g'
SELECT * FROM customers
SQL TOP Clause
The TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to specify the number of
records to return.
The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables
with thousands of records. Returning a large number
of records can impact on performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the TOP
clause.
SQL Server SyntaxSELECT TOP number|percent
column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle
MySQL Syntax
FROM table_name
LIMIT number
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
LIMIT 5
Oracle Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE ROWNUM <=5
SQL TOP Example
Now we want to select only the two first records in
the table above.
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons
SQL TOP PERCENT Example
Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the
table above.
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons
SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to
search for a specified pattern in a column.
The LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified
pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example
Now we want to select the persons living in a city that
starts with "s" from the table above.
WHERE City LIKE 's%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards
(missing letters in the pattern) both before and after
the pattern.
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city
that ends with an "s" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE '%s'
that contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'
It is also possible to select the persons living in a city
that NOT contains the pattern "tav" from the
"Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword.
WHERE City NOT LIKE '%tav%'
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data
in a database.
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more
characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE
operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be
used:Wildcard Description
% A substitute for zero or more characters
_ A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist] Any single character in charlist
[^charlist]
or
[!charlist] Any single character not in charlist
SQL Wildcard Examples
We have the following "Persons" table:
Using the % Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons living in a city that
starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'
that contains the pattern "nes" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'
Using the _ Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons with a first name
that starts with any character, followed by "la" from
the "Persons" table.
WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name
that starts with "S", followed by any character,
followed by "end", followed by any character,
followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'
Using the [charlist] Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons with a last name
that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name
that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the
"Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'
SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values
in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN SyntaxSELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example
equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table
above.
WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')
SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause
to select a range of data between two values.
The BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data
between two values. The values can be numbers,
text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example
alphabetically between "Hansen" and "Pettersen"
from the table above.
WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in
different databases.
In some databases, persons with the LastName of
"Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed, because
the BETWEEN operator only selects fields that are
between and excluding the test values).
In other databases, persons with the LastName of
"Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed, because the
BETWEEN operator selects fields that are between
and including the test values).
And in other databases, persons with the LastName
of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not be
listed (like the example above), because the
BETWEEN operator selects fields between the test
values, including the first test value and excluding the
last test value.
Therefore: Check how your database treats the
BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the
previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
SQL Alias
With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to
a column.
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by
using an alias. This can be a good thing to do if you
have very long or complex table names or column
names.
An alias name could be anything, but usually it is
short.
SQL Alias
Syntax for Tables
FROM table_name
AS alias_name
SQL Alias
Syntax for Columns
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and
another table called "Product_Orders". We will give
the table aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.
Now we want to list all the orders that "Ola Hansen"
is responsible for.
SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName
FROM Persons AS p,
Product_Orders AS po
WHERE p.LastName='Hansen' AND
p.FirstName='Ola'
The same SELECT statement without aliases:
SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID,
Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName
FROM Persons,
Product_Orders
WHERE Persons.LastName='Hansen' AND
Persons.FirstName='Ola'
As you'll see from the two SELECT statements
above; aliases can make queries easier to both write
and to read.
SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to query data from two or more
tables, based on a relationship between certain
columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to
query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other
with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of
columns) with a unique value for each row. Each
primary key value must be unique within the table.
The purpose is to bind data together, across tables,
without repeating all of the data in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:
Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the
"Persons" table. This means that no two rows can
have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two
persons even if they have the same name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the
"Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column refers to
the persons in the "Persons" table without using their
names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables
above is the "P_Id" column.
Different SQL JOINs
Before we continue with examples, we will list the
types of JOIN you can use, and the differences
between them.
JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match
in both tables
LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if
there are no matches in the right table
RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table,
even if there are no matches in the left table
FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in
one of the tables
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is
at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN
Syntax
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_n
ame
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example
The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName,
Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName
LastName FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is
at least one match in both tables. If there are rows in
"Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders",
those rows will NOT be listed.
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left
table (table_name1), even if there are no matches in
the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN
Syntax
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT

OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example

Address City
The "Orders" table:O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders -

if any, from the tables above.
We use the following SELECT statement:SELECT
Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName,
Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders
The result-set will look like this:LastName

FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Svendson Tove
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the
left table (Persons), even if there are no matches in
the right table (Orders).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the

right table (table_name2), even if there are no
matches in the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN SyntaxSELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT

OUTER JOIN.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

Address City
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing

persons - if any, from the tables above.

Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders

FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from

the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches
in the left table (Persons).
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a

match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN SyntaxSELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
SQL FULL JOIN Example

Address City

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders,
and all the orders with their persons.

Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
FULL JOIN Orders

FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Svendson Tove
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the
left table (Persons), and all the rows from the right
table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do
not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in
"Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons",
those rows will be listed as well.
SQL UNION Operator

The SQL UNION operator combines two or more
SELECT statements.
The SQL UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-
set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the

UNION must have the same number of columns. The
columns must also have similar data types. Also, the
columns in each SELECT statement must be in the
same order.
SQL UNION SyntaxSELECT column_name(s) FROM
table_name1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct
values by default. To allow duplicate values, use
UNION ALL.
SQL UNION ALL SyntaxSELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
UNION ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION

are always equal to the column names in the first
SELECT statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example
Look at the following tables:
"Employees_Norway":E_ID E_Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA":E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in

Norway and USA.
E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
The result-set will look like this:E_Name

Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all
employees in Norway and USA. In the example
above we have two employees with equal names,
and only one of them will be listed. The UNION
command selects only distinct values.
SQL UNION ALL Example
Now we want to list all employees in Norway and

USA:SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
ResultE_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to

create backup copies of tables.
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one

table and inserts it into a different table.
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to
create backup copies of tables.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax
We can select all columns into the new

table:SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the

new table:SELECT column_name(s)
FROM old_tablename
SQL SELECT INTO Example
Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an

exact copy of the data in our "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:SELECT *

INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into

another database:SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new
table:SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause
We can also add a WHERE clause.
The following SQL statement creates a

"Persons_Backup" table with only the persons who
lives in the city "Sandnes":SELECT
LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables
Selecting data from more than one table is also

possible.
The following example creates a

"Persons_Order_Backup" table contains data from
the two tables "Persons" and "Orders":SELECT
Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to

create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE SyntaxCREATE
DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example
Now we want to create a database called "my_db".
We use the following CREATE DATABASE

statement:CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE
TABLE statement.
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a

table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE SyntaxCREATE TABLE
table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
The data type specifies what type of data the column

can hold. For a complete reference of all the data
types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL
Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that

contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE

statement:CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number.

The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City
columns are of type varchar with a maximum length
of 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:P_Id

The empty table can be filled with data with the
INSERT INTO statement.
SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can

go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created

(with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the
table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:

NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
DEFAULT
The next chapters will describe each constraint in

details.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT

accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always

contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a
new record, or update a record without adding a
value to this field.
The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and
the "LastName" column to not accept NULL
values:CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255)
)
SQL UNIQUE Constraint

SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each
record in a database table.
The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both

provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or
set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a

UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints

per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint per
table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on
the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
MySQL:CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:CREATE TABLE
Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for

defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:CREATE
TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE
(P_Id,LastName)
)
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column
when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:ALTER

TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for

defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns,

TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE
(P_Id,LastName)
To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint
To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP INDEX uc_PersonID
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:ALTER TABLE

Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies
each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each

table can have only one primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the

"P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and

for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple
columns, use the following SQL syntax:

TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY
(P_Id,LastName)
)
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id"

column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:

TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and
for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple

TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY
(P_Id,LastName)
Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add

a primary key, the primary key column(s) must
already have been declared to not contain NULL
values (when the table was first created).
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint
To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the
following SQL:

DROP PRIMARY KEY

Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY

KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look
at the following two tables:

Address City

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table
points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the

PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a

FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent

actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that

invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column,
because it has to be one of the values contained in
the table it points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the

"P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
MySQL:CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES
Persons(P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and

for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple

TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id"

column when the "Orders" table is already created,
use the following SQL:
TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and

for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple

TABLE Orders
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the

following SQL:
MySQL:ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders

Orders
DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
SQL CHECK Constraint

SQL CHECK Constraint
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value
range that can be placed in a column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column

it allows only certain values for this column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can

limit the values in certain columns based on values in
other columns in the row.
SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on

the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is
created. The CHECK constraint specifies that the
column "P_Id" must only include integers greater
than 0.
My SQL:CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CHECK (P_Id>0)
)

Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0),
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for

defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,

TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND
City='Sandnes')
)
SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column

SQL:

TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for

defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,

TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0
AND City='Sandnes')
To DROP a CHECK Constraint
To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person
SQL DEFAULT Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default

value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if

no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on
the "City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:CREATE

TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert
system values, by using functions like
GETDATE():CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
)
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column

SQL:
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

Persons
ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
To DROP a DEFAULT Constraint
To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following

SQL:

ALTER City DROP DEFAULT

Persons
ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create
indexes in tables.
Indexes allow the database application to find data

fast; without reading the whole table.
Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more
quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used
to speed up searches/queries.
Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time

than updating a table without (because the indexes
also need an update). So you should only create
indexes on columns (and tables) that will be
frequently searched against.
SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax
Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are

allowed:CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax
Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values

are not allowed:CREATE UNIQUE INDEX
index_name
Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst

different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax for
creating indexes in your database.
CREATE INDEX Example
The SQL statement below creates an index named

"PIndex" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons"
table:CREATE INDEX PIndex
ON Persons (LastName)
If you want to create an index on a combination of
columns, you can list the column names within the
parentheses, separated by commas:CREATE INDEX
PIndex
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)
SQL DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP

DATABASE
Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be
deleted/removed with the DROP statement.
The DROP INDEX Statement
The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an

index in a table.
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:DROP INDEX
index_name ON table_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:DROP

INDEX table_name.index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:DROP INDEX

index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:ALTER TABLE

table_name DROP INDEX index_name
The DROP TABLE Statement
The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a

table.DROP TABLE table_name
The DROP DATABASE Statement
The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a

database.DROP DATABASE database_name
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
What if we only want to delete the data inside the

table, and not the table itself?
Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE

statement:TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete,

or modify columns in an existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax
To add a column in a table, use the following

syntax:ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following

syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column):ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use
the following syntax:ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:P_Id LastName

FirstName Address City
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth"
We use the following SQL statement:ALTER TABLE

Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type

date and is going to hold a date. The data type
specifies what type of data the column can hold. For
a complete reference of all the data types available in
MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our
complete Data Types reference.
The "Persons" table will now like this:P_Id

DateOfBirth
Change Data Type Example
Now we want to change the data type of the column

named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type
year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-
digit format.
DROP COLUMN Example
Next, we want to delete the column named

"DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

Persons
DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
The "Persons" table will now like this:P_Id

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field
Auto-increment allows a unique number to be

generated when a new record is inserted into a table.
AUTO INCREMENT a Field
Very often we would like the value of the primary key

field to be created automatically every time a new
record is inserted.
We would like to create an auto-increment field in a

table.
Syntax for MySQL
The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id"
column to be an auto-increment primary key field in
the "Persons" table:CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to

perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT
is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with

another value, use the following SQL
statement:ALTER TABLE Persons
AUTO_INCREMENT=100
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we

will not have to specify a value for the "P_Id" column
(a unique value will be added automatically):INSERT
INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')
The SQL statement above would insert a new record
into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be
assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column
would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column
would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for SQL Server

(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY,
City varchar(255)
)
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to
perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it

will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at

value 10 and increment by 5, change the identity to
IDENTITY(10,5).

Syntax for Access

(
P_Id PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
City varchar(255)
)
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT

keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT

is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at

value 10 and increment by 5, change the
autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).


Syntax for Oracle
In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.
You will have to create an auto-increment field with

the sequence object (this object generates a number
sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE
syntax:CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person
MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10
The code above creates a sequence object called

seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment by
1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance.
The cache option specifies how many sequence
values will be stored in memory for faster access.

will have to use the nextval function (this function
retrieves the next value from seq_person
sequence):INSERT INTO Persons
(P_Id,FirstName,LastName)
VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

assigned the next number from the seq_person
sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to
"Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to
"Monsen".
SQL Views
A view is a virtual table.

This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete
a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-

set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real

table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more
real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN

statements to a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW SyntaxCREATE VIEW
view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The

database engine recreates the data, using the view's
SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
If you have the Northwind database you can see that

it has several views installed by default.
The view "Current Product List" lists all active

products (products that are not discontinued) from
the "Products" table. The view is created with the
following SQL:CREATE VIEW [Current Product List]
AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:SELECT *

FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database

selects every product in the "Products" table with a
unit price higher than the average unit price:CREATE
VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM
Products)

FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates

the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this
view selects its data from another view called
"Product Sales for 1997":CREATE VIEW [Category
Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT
CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS
CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName

FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we

want to see the total sale only for the category
"Beverages":SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For
1997]
WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW SyntaxCREATE
OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the

"Current Product List" view. We will update the view
with the following SQL:CREATE VIEW [Current
Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW

command.
SQL DROP VIEW SyntaxDROP VIEW view_name
SQL Date Functions

SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to

be sure that the format of the date you are trying to
insert, matches the format of the date column in the
database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion,
your queries will work as expected. However, if a
time portion is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for

dates, we will look at the most important built-in
functions for working with dates.
MySQL Date Functions
The following table lists the most important built-in

date functions in MySQL:Function Description
NOW() Returns the current date and time
CURDATE() Returns the current date
CURTIME() Returns the current time
DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or
date/time expression
EXTRACT() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD() Adds a specified time interval to a
date
DATE_SUB() Subtracts a specified time interval
from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the number of days between
two dates
DATE_FORMAT() Displays date/time data in
different formats
SQL Server Date Functions
The following table lists the most important built-in

date functions in SQL Server:Function Description
GETDATE() Returns the current date and time
DATEPART() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATEADD() Adds or subtracts a specified time
interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the time between two dates
CONVERT() Displays date/time data in different
formats
SQL Date Data Types
MySQL comes with the following data types for

storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
YEAR - format YYYY or YY
SQL Server comes with the following data types for
storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD
HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when

you create a new table in your database!
For an overview of all data types available, go to our

complete Data Types reference.
SQL Working with Dates
You can compare two dates easily if there is no time

component involved!
Assume we have the following "Orders" table:OrderId
ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate

of "2008-11-11" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:SELECT *

FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
The result-set will look like this:OrderId
ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this

(notice the time component in the "OrderDate"
column):OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09
15:45:21
11:12:01
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29
14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as
above:SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE
OrderDate='2008-11-11'
we will get no result! This is because the query is

looking only for dates with no time portion.
Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy

to maintain, do not allow time components in your
dates!
SQL NULL Values
NULL values represent missing unknown data.
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.

This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT
NULL operators.
SQL NULL Values
If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new

record or update an existing record without adding a
value to this column. This means that the field will be
saved with a NULL value.
NULL values are treated differently from other values.
NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or

inapplicable values.
Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they

are not equivalent.
SQL Working with NULL Values
Look at the following "Persons" table:P_Id
1 Hansen Ola Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23
Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Stavanger
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons"

table is optional. This means that if we insert a record
with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address"
column will be saved with a NULL value.
How can we test for NULL values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with
comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL

operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values

in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NULL operator:SELECT

LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NULL

FirstName Address
Hansen Ola
Pettersen Kari
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL
How do we select only the records with no NULL

values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NOT NULL

operator:SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address
FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL
FirstName Address
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(),

NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions
SQL NULL Functions

SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE()
Functions
Look at the following "Products" table:P_Id

ProductName UnitPrice
UnitsInStock UnitsOnOrder
1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15
2 Mascarpone 32.56 23
3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional,

and may contain NULL values.
We have the following SELECT statement:SELECT

ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder
)
FROM Products
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder"

values are NULL, the result is NULL.
Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how

we want to treat NULL values.
The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions
can also be used to achieve the same result.
In this case we want NULL values to be zero.
Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the

calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the
value is NULL:
SQL Server / MS AccessSELECT

ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(Units
OnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Oracle
Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function.
However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve
the same result:SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOn
Order,0))
FROM Products
MySQL
MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it

works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL()
function.
In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like

this:SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(Units
OnOrder,0))
FROM Products
or we can use the COALESCE() function, like

this:SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(
UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
SQL Data Types
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL
and SQL Server.
Microsoft Access Data TypesData type Description
Storage
Text Use for text or combinations of text and
numbers. 255 characters maximum
Memo Memo is used for larger amounts of text.
Stores up to 65,536 characters. Note: You cannot
sort a memo field. However, they are searchable
Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1
byte
Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768
and 32,767 2 bytes
Long Allows whole numbers between -
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle
most decimals 4 bytes
Double Double precision floating-point. Will
handle most decimals 8 bytes
Currency Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of
whole dollars, plus 4 decimal places. Tip: You can
choose which country's currency to use 8 bytes
AutoNumber AutoNumber fields automatically give
each record its own number, usually starting at 1 4
bytes
Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes
Yes/No A logical field can be displayed as
Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the
constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0).
Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields 1
bit
Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other
BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects) up to 1GB
Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web
pages
Lookup Wizard Let you type a list of options, which
can then be chosen from a drop-down list 4 bytes
MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number,
and Date/Time types.
Text types:Data type Description

CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain
letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed
size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters
VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string
(can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in
parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If
you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted
to a TEXT type
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of
255 characters
TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of
65,535 characters
BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds
up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum
length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects).
Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of
4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects).
Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.) Let you enter a list of possible
values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM
list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank
value will be inserted.
Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter
them.
You enter the possible values in this format:

ENUM('X','Y','Z')
SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may
contain up to 64 list items and can store more than
one choice
Number types:Data type Description

TINYINT(size) -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255
UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
SMALLINT(size) -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to
65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in parenthesis
MEDIUMINT(size) -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0
to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in parenthesis
INT(size) -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to
4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in parenthesis
BIGINT(size) -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to
18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis
FLOAT(size,d) A small number with a floating
decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in the size parameter. The maximum
number of digits to the right of the decimal point is
specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE(size,d) A large number with a floating
decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in the size parameter. The maximum
number of digits to the right of the decimal point is
specified in the d parameter
DECIMAL(size,d) A DOUBLE stored as a string ,
allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum
number of digits may be specified in the size
parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
right of the decimal point is specified in the d
parameter
*The integer types have an extra option called

UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an
negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED
attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero
instead of a negative number.
Date types:Data type Description

DATE() A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD
Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to
'9999-12-31'
DATETIME() *A date and time combination.
Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01

00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'
TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values
are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix
epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-
MM-DD HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01

00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC
TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to
'838:59:59'
YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format.
Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to

2155. Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69,
representing years from 1970 to 2069
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the

same format, they work very differently. In an
INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP
automatically set itself to the current date and time.
TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS,
YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
SQL Server Data Types
Character strings:Data type Description Storage
char(n) Fixed-length character string. Maximum
8,000 characters n
varchar(n) Variable-length character string.
Maximum 8,000 characters
varchar(max) Variable-length character string.
Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters
text Variable-length character string.
Maximum 2GB of text data
Unicode strings:Data type Description Storage

nchar(n) Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum
4,000 characters
nvarchar(n) Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum
4,000 characters
nvarchar(max) Variable-length Unicode data.
Maximum 536,870,912 characters
ntext Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum
2GB of text data
Binary types:Data type Description Storage

bit Allows 0, 1, or NULL
binary(n) Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000
bytes
varbinary(n) Variable-length binary data. Maximum
8,000 bytes
varbinary(max) Variable-length binary data.
Maximum 2GB
image Variable-length binary data. Maximum
2GB
Number types:Data type Description Storage
tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1
byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768
and 32,767 2 bytes
int Allows whole numbers between -
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
bigint Allows whole numbers between -
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
9,223,372,036,854,775,807 8 bytes
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number

of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the
right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1
to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of

digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must
be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0 5-17 bytes
numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number

of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the
right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1
to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of
digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must
be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0 5-17 bytes
smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to
214,748.3647 4 bytes
money Monetary data from -
922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5807 8 bytes
float(n) Floating precision number data from -
1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308.
The n parameter indicates whether the field should

hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and
float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is
53. 4 or 8 bytes
real Floating precision number data from -
3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes
Date types:Data type Description Storage
datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31,
9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds 8 bytes
datetime2 From January 1, 0001 to December 31,
9999 with an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 6-8
bytes
smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6,
2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute 4 bytes
date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001
to December 31, 9999 3 bytes
time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100
nanoseconds 3-5 bytes
datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the
addition of a time zone offset8-10 bytes
timestamp Stores a unique number that gets
updated every time a row gets created or modified.
The timestamp value is based upon an internal clock
and does not correspond to real time. Each table may
have only one timestamp variable
Other data types:Data type Description

sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of
various data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp
uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier
(GUID)
xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum
2GB
cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for
database operations
table Stores a result-set for later processing
SQL Functions
SQL has many built-in functions for performing
calculations on data.
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value,

calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:

AVG() - Returns the average value
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
FIRST() - Returns the first value
LAST() - Returns the last value
MAX() - Returns the largest value
MIN() - Returns the smallest value
SUM() - Returns the sum
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on
the input value.
Useful scalar functions:

UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case
LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
MID() - Extract characters from a text field
LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of
decimals specified
NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions

will be explained in details in the next chapters.
SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a

numeric column.
SQL AVG() SyntaxSELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL AVG() Example
We have the following "Orders" table:O_Id

OrderDate OrderPrice Customer
1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the average value of the

"OrderPrice" fields.
We use the following SQL statement:SELECT

AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders
The result-set will look like this:OrderAverage

950
Now we want to find the customers that have an
OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice
value.

Customer FROM Orders
WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice)
FROM Orders)
The result-set will look like this:Customer

Hansen
Nilsen
Jensen
SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows
that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the

number of values (NULL values will not be counted)
of the specified column:SELECT
COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of

records in a table:SELECT COUNT(*) FROM
table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax

The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function
returns the number of distinct values of the specified
column:SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name)
FROM table_name
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and

Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to count the number of orders from

"Customer Nilsen".

COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM
Orders
WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2,

because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in
total:CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*) Example
If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:SELECT

COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders
The result-set will look like this:NumberOfOrders

6
which is the total number of rows in the table.

SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique
customers in the "Orders" table.

COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS
NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders
The result-set will look like this:NumberOfCustomers

3
which is the number of unique customers (Hansen,

Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.
SQL FIRST() Function

The FIRST() Function
The FIRST() function returns the first value of the

selected column.
SQL FIRST() SyntaxSELECT FIRST(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL FIRST() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the first value of the "OrderPrice"

column.

FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders
Tip: Workaround if FIRST() function is not

supported:SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders
ORDER BY O_Id LIMIT 1
FirstOrderPrice
1000
SQL LAST() Function
The LAST() Function
The LAST() function returns the last value of the

selected column.
SQL LAST() SyntaxSELECT LAST(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL LAST() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the last value of the "OrderPrice"

column.

LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders
Tip: Workaround if LAST() function is not
supported:SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders
ORDER BY O_Id DESC LIMIT 1

LastOrderPrice
100
SQL MAX() Function

The MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the
selected column.
SQL MAX() SyntaxSELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL MAX() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the largest value of the

"OrderPrice" column.
MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM
Orders

LargestOrderPrice
2000
SQL MIN() Function

The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the

selected column.
SQL MIN() SyntaxSELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL MIN() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the smallest value of the

"OrderPrice" column.
MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM
Orders

SmallestOrderPrice
100
SQL SUM() Function

The SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a

numeric column.
SQL SUM() SyntaxSELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL SUM() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice"
fields".

SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders
The result-set will look like this:OrderTotal

5700
SQL GROUP BY Statement

Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP
BY statement.
The GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction
with the aggregate functions to group the result-set
by one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY SyntaxSELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
SQL GROUP BY Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of

each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to

group the customers.

Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer
SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000
Nice! Isn't it? :)
Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY

statement:SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice)
FROM Orders
SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 5700
Nilsen 5700
Hansen 5700
Hansen 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700
The result-set above is not what we wanted.
Explanation of why the above SELECT statement

cannot be used: The SELECT statement above has
two columns specified (Customer and
SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a
single value (that is the total sum of the "OrderPrice"
column), while "Customer" returns 6 values (one
value for each row in the "Orders" table). This will
therefore not give us the correct result. However, you
have seen that the GROUP BY statement solves this
problem.
GROUP BY More Than One Column
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more

than one column, like this:SELECT
Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM
Orders
GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate
SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the
WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate
functions.
SQL HAVING SyntaxSELECT column_name,
FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator
value
SQL HAVING Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a

total order of less than 2000.

Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000

SUM(OrderPrice)
Nilsen 1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or

"Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL

statement:SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice)
FROM Orders
WHERE Customer='Hansen' OR Customer='Jensen'
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500

SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Jensen 2000
SQL UCASE() Function

The UCASE() Function
The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to

uppercase.
SQL UCASE() SyntaxSELECT
UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
Syntax for SQL ServerSELECT

UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL UCASE() Example

We have the following "Persons" table:P_Id
Sandnes
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName"

and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to uppercase.

UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM
Persons
FirstName
HANSEN Ola
SVENDSON Tove
PETTERSEN Kari
SQL LCASE() Function
The LCASE() Function
The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to

lowercase.
SQL LCASE() SyntaxSELECT
LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
Syntax for SQL ServerSELECT
LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LCASE() Example

Sandnes
Now we want to select the content of the "LastName"

and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to lowercase.
LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM
Persons

FirstName
hansen Ola
svendson Tove
pettersen Kari
SQL MID() Function

The MID() Function
The MID() function is used to extract characters from
a text field.
SQL MID() SyntaxSELECT
MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract
characters from
start Required. Specifies the starting position
(starts at 1)
length Optional. The number of characters to
return. If omitted, the MID() function returns the rest
of the text
SQL MID() Example

Sandnes
Now we want to extract the first four characters of the

"City" column above.

MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:SmallCity

Sand
Sand
Stav
SQL LEN() Function
The LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in

a text field.
SQL LEN() SyntaxSELECT LEN(column_name)
FROM table_name
SQL LEN() Example

Sandnes
Now we want to select the length of the values in the

"Address" column above.

LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons

LengthOfAddress
12
9
9
SQL ROUND() Function

The ROUND() Function
The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric

field to the number of decimals specified.
SQL ROUND() SyntaxSELECT
ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name
column_name Required. The field to round.
decimals Required. Specifies the number of
decimals to be returned.
SQL ROUND() Example
We have the following "Products" table:Prod_Id

ProductName Unit UnitPrice
1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 Gorgonzola 1000 g 15.67
Now we want to display the product name and the

price rounded to the nearest integer.

ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice
FROM Products
The result-set will look like this:ProductName
UnitPrice
Jarlsberg 10
Mascarpone 33
Gorgonzola 16
SQL NOW() Function
The NOW() Function
The NOW() function returns the current system date

and time.
SQL NOW() SyntaxSELECT NOW() FROM
table_name
SQL NOW() Example

Now we want to display the products and prices per

today's date.
ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM
Products

UnitPrice PerDate
Jarlsberg 10.45 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Mascarpone 32.56 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Gorgonzola 15.67 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
SQL FORMAT() Function

The FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field

is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() SyntaxSELECT
FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.
format Required. Specifies the format.
SQL FORMAT() Example

Now we want to display the products and prices per
today's date (with today's date displayed in the
following format "YYYY-MM-DD").

ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-
MM-DD') as PerDate
FROM Products

UnitPrice PerDate
Jarlsberg 10.45 2008-10-07
Mascarpone 32.56 2008-10-07
Gorgonzola 15.67 2008-10-07
SQL Quick Reference From W3Schools
SQL Statement Syntax
AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
or
ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias
FROM table_name
or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE
database_name
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name
(
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name
or
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE DELETE FROM table_name
or

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE * FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE
database_name
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX
table_name.index_name (SQL Server)
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS
Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name
GROUP BY SELECT column_name,
FROM table_name
HAVING SELECT column_name,
FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator
value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
or
INSERT INTO table_name

(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON
ame
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT INTO SELECT *
FROM old_table_name
or
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent
column_name(s)
FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM
table_name1
UNION
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM
table_name1
UNION ALL
UPDATE UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
Source :
http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_quickref.asp
SQL Hosting
SQL Hosting
If you want your web site to be able to store and

display data from a database, your web server should
have access to a database system that uses the SQL
language.
If your web server will be hosted by an Internet

Service Provider (ISP), you will have to look for SQL
hosting plans.
The most common SQL hosting databases are

MySQL, MS SQL Server, and MS Access.
You can have SQL databases on both Windows and

Linux/UNIX operating systems.
Below is an overview of which database system that
runs on which OS.
MS SQL Server
Runs only on Windows OS.
MySQL
Runs on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating

systems.
MS Access (recommended only for small websites)
Runs only on Windows OS.

To learn more about web hosting, please visit our
Hosting tutorial.
You Have Learned SQL, Now What?

SQL Summary
This SQL tutorial has taught you the standard

computer language for accessing and manipulating
database systems.
You have learned how to execute queries, retrieve

data, insert new records, delete records and update
records in a database with SQL.
You have also learned how to create databases,

tables, and indexes with SQL, and how to drop them.
You have learned the most important aggregate
functions in SQL.
You now know that SQL is the standard language

that works with all the well-known database systems
like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and
MS Access.
Now You Know SQL, What's Next?
Our recommendation is to learn about ADO or PHP

MySQL.
If you want to learn more about ADO, please visit our

ADO tutorial.
If you want to learn more about MySQL, please visit
our PHP tutorial.

Introduction To SQL

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Introduction To SQL

Uploaded by

Introduction to SQL

SQL is a standard language for accessing and

PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT

The "Persons" table:P_Id LastName FirstName

The "Orders" table:O_Id OrderNo P_Id

Now we want to list all the persons and their orders -

The result-set will look like this:LastName

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the

PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT

The "Persons" table:P_Id LastName FirstName

Now we want to list all the orders with containing

We use the following SELECT statement:SELECT

The result-set will look like this:LastName

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from

The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a

SQL FULL JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:O_Id OrderNo P_Id

We use the following SELECT statement:SELECT

The result-set will look like this:LastName

SQL UNION Operator

Notice that each SELECT statement within the

PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION

Look at the following tables:

Now we want to list all the different employees in

The result-set will look like this:E_Name

Now we want to list all employees in Norway and

SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to

The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one

We can select all columns into the new

Or we can select only the columns we want into the

Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an

We use the following SQL statement:SELECT *

We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into

SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause

We can also add a WHERE clause.

The following SQL statement creates a

SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables

Selecting data from more than one table is also

The following example creates a

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to

CREATE DATABASE Example

Now we want to create a database called "my_db".

We use the following CREATE DATABASE

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a

The data type specifies what type of data the column

Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that

We use the following CREATE TABLE

The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number.

The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:P_Id

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can

Constraints can be specified when a table is created

We will focus on the following constraints:

The next chapters will describe each constraint in

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both

A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a

Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints

MySQL:CREATE TABLE Persons

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:ALTER

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:ALTER

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:ALTER TABLE

Primary keys must contain unique values.

A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.

Each table should have a primary key, and each

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the