Journal of Human Ecology

ISSN: 0970-9274 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rhue20

Human-environment Interactions: The Sociological

Perspectives

O.A. Ogunbameru

To cite this article: O.A. Ogunbameru (2004) Human-environment Interactions: The Sociological
Perspectives, Journal of Human Ecology, 16:1, 63-68, DOI: 10.1080/09709274.2004.11905717

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2004.11905717

Published online: 24 Oct 2017.

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© Kamla-Raj 2004 J. Hum. Ecol., 16(1): 63-68 (2004)

Human-environment Interactions: The Sociological Perspectives

O.A. Ogunbameru

Department of Sociology and Anthropology Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

KEYWORDS Functionalism. Conflict. Symbolic Interactionism. Ecological Environment.

ABSTRACT Writers on ecological environment have concentrated mainly on the political and economic effects of human
populations on the natural environment. Most of the write-ups have not looked beyond outer appearances especially, at what lies
beneath. This paper looks beyond what lies beneath by using sociological thinking and information to explain the human environment
interactions. The paper uses three prominent sociological perspectives – functionalism, conflict, and interactionism, to examine
the interactions. Functionalists identify desertification, deforestation, oil spillage, gas flaring and sea erosion as the source of
environmental problems. To overcome these problems, man should be sensitive to both the manifest and latent consequences of
their actions on the environment. Conflict theorists identify the inequality in the distribution of the world’s resources as the sources
of environmental problems. To overcome these problems, the government and oil companies should take bold steps to arrest
deforestation, oil spillage, gas flaring and sea encroachment. Interactionists identify human actions and inactions as the sources of
environmental problems. To overcome environmental problems, political actions involving human judgements, decisions, and
choices, should be taken.

INTRODUCTION so that fish populations are never damaged or

depleted. For instance, over-fishing can result
Writers and scholars have written extensively in the loss of jobs for those employed in fisheries
on the human environment in general and the and loss of food for a nation’s population.
human environment interaction in particular. For Most of the writers and commentators on
instance, the social, economic, and political human-environment interactions have failed to
factors that result in people having to protect look beyond outer appearances in order to
themselves from a polluted environment, and the encounter new levels of social reality. This is
social, economic, and political consequences of what constitutes the core of the sociological
such pollution have attracted the attention of perspectives. The sociological perspective invites
scholars. us to look beyond what we take for granted about
Demographers in particular, have measured our social lives and to examine them in fresh
population growth and have equally considered and creative ways (Berger, 1963). There are for
humans in their environment. The effect of instance, many layers of meaning in the human
human population on the natural environment experience; things are not always what they
has been considered by demographers while seem. Networks of invisible rules and insti-
sociologists have shown interest in the relation- tutional arrangements guide our behaviour.
ship between size, human organizations, envi- Many of these understandings are below the
ronment and technology (Hughes et al., 1989: usual threshold of our awareness (Randall and
424-425). Makowsky, 1984).
Ecologists and agricultural specialists have The objective of this paper therefore is to
on their part focused interest in the restoration analyse how sociology uncovers new levels of
of land altered by human activity. For instance, reality on human-environment interactions.
restoration ecologists stress the importance of Specifically, the paper uses the three contem-
conservation biology, the protection of existing porary sociological perspectives: the functionist,
ecosystems through national park and wildlife the conflict, and the interactionist perspectives
programmes. Such conservation according to to explain this relationship. A theoretical
Dobson et al.,1997: 515-522) ensures that perspective provides a set of assumptions,
species are preserved and can be used to reco- interrelated concepts, and statements about how
lonise reclaimed land in restoration projects. various social phenomena are related to one
One good example of human factors in another. Theoretical perspectives are tools -
environmental problems is the management of mental constructs – that allow us to visualize
fisheries (Botsford et al., 1997). A major goal of something. The paper also makes some reco-
fisheries is sustainability; that is, to limit catches mmendations on how to reduce environmental
64 O.A. OGUNBAMERU

hazards in Nigeria. and nonliving component comprising the

biosphere (Hughes et al., 1989: 425).
THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE The reciprocal ties that bind human beings
and their physical environment in the Sub-
An accepted premise of the functionalist Sahara region of Africa present a good example
position is that no human custom, institution, of the human-environment interaction. This
or set of behaviour exists in vaccuo; there must region is facing the danger of the growing desert
always be an interplay between, the component causing starvation among its people and an
elements of a social system (including the increase in the death of cattles.
environment), and a continuing interdependence Much of the “ desertification “ is not attribu-
between them is created on many different levels table to basic climatic change, but to the over-
(Spencer, 1965: 13). working of marginal lands for crops, grassing,
Structural – functionalism seeks to describe and firewood. The introduction of western
the social system in terms of structures, mechan- techniques, such, as irrigation, deep plowing,
isms, processes, and functions and to explain and the use of chemical fertilizers, has compoun-
why a given structure rather than another ded the sub-African region’s problems (Tucker
contributes to the satisfaction of a given et al., 1991: 299-301). The irrigated land became
functional requisite at a given time. The waterlogged, accumulated too much salt, and
functionalist draws mainly upon the ideas of the became useless. The wells dug in the arid region
pioneer sociologists – Auguste Comte, Herbert led people and cattle to congregate in the vicinity
Spencer, and Emile Durkheim. And one of the of the wells, with the herds overgrazing the
features of a system stressed by functionalists is pastures and trampling the ground with their
its tendency toward equilibrium, or balance, hoofs.
among its parts and among the forces operating The most obvious impact of desertification
on it. in addition to widespread poverty is the degra-
dation of a large expanse of land. This generally
Human-Environment Interactions: The leads to potential for human and animal carrying
Functionalist Perspective capacity, and decline in soil fertility. Deserts are
known to be environmental extreme on their
The functionalist perspective though has the own. Human-induced desertification has the
following draw backs: has difficulty in dealing potential to counteract any ameliorating effect
with history and processes of change, has the of climatic change on most deserts unless appro-
tendency to exaggerate consensus, integration, priate management actions are taken.
and stability while disregarding conflict, dissent The Niger–Delta (oil-producing) region of
and instability, it is still a useful tool for Nigeria, presents another good example of the
describing society and identifying its structural human-environment interaction. The activities
part and the functions of these parts. of the oil companies- Shell, Chevron-Texaco,
Functionalism for instance, provides a “big British Petrol among others in this region have
picture” of the whole social life, particularly as caused lots of damages especially pollution.
it finds expressions in patterned, recurrent Pollution causes environmental damage and
behaviour and institutions. human health problems. On the economic side,
The functionalist perspective can be used to pollution control and clean up in this area costs
analyse various aspects of the human-environ- money. And anything involving money is always
ment interaction. The functionalists approach the affected by politics. The interwoven roles placed
ecological environment by examining the inter- by politics, the economy, human health, and the
connections between the various parts compo- environment will be fully analysed under the
sing the ecosystem (Faia, 1989: 658-60). conflict and interactionist perspectives.
Functionalists see the ecosystem as exhibiting a Expanding human activities on land and seas
tendency toward equilibrium; in which its lead to a vicious cycle because humans intensify
compo-nents maintain a delicate balanced their exploitation of the land in order to compen-
relationship with one another. Functionalists sate for desertification and pollution. This can
stress that our survival depends on our ability to cause a lot of damage, thereby resulting in what
maintain a precarious balance among the living Merton calls dysfunction on the land .To avoid
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 65

Table 1: Dissimilarities between functionalism and conflict Issues relating to environmental matters are no
perspectives exceptions. Some conflict theorists have linked
S. No. Functionalism Conflict environmental problems to the distribution of
1. Depicts society in Emphasises the processes the world’s resources than to a limited amount
relatively static terms of change that continually of resources available. That is, the main issue is
transform social life.
2. Stresses the order and Focuses upon the interests
not one of how much is available but one of which
stability to be found that divide individuals and groups will secure a dispropor-
in society tionate share of what is available. Consequently,
3. Views consensus as the Insists that social unity is the critical decisions that affect the environment
basis of social unity an illusion resting on are made not in the interests of present and future
coercion
4. Views existing social Sees many of the generations but in the interests of those groups
arrangements as arrangements as neither that can impose their will on others (Hughes et
necessary and justified necessary nor justified al., 1999).
by the requirements From a conflict perspective people are usually
of group life.
separated into two camps on environmental
this damage to the ecosystem, functionalists em- matters. Those who favour economic develop-
phasise that human beings must become more ment and growth even if it results in some
sensitive to both the manifest (those conse- measure of environmental damage, and those
quences that are intended and recognized by the who see environmental protection over economic
participant in a system), and latent (those conse- goals.
quences that are neither intended nor recognized Although conflict theorists also see many of
by the participants in a system) consequences of the same circumstances earlier discussed in
their actions on the environment. Such Africa in general and Nigeria in particular, they
precaution will lead to a state of balance or however, come to somewhat different conclu-
equilibrium. sions. For instance, desertification is not blamed
for Africa’s problems, but rather the growing
THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE indebtedness pressure exerted on African
governments to promote cash crops for export
Like functionalists, conflict theorists; focus rather than for food crops for their people. This
their attention on society as a whole, studying phenomenon is concisely described in the World
their institutions and structural arrangements. Bank Report in the 1980s. The Report explained
Table 1 presents the major dissimilarities the situation in five ways: one, from 1980 to
between functionalist and conflict perspectives. 1987, African farmers increased their food
The main source of conflict in human socie- output by only 1.3 percent, less than half the
ties is scarcity of the resources people require, rise in population; two, commodity prices fell
according to conflict perspective. Wealth, presti- simultaneously on the world market, and this
ge, and power are always in limited supply, so made it impossible for African nations to repay
that gains for one individual or group are often their debts; three, much of the money provided
associated with losses for others (Hughes et al., by Western aid agencies was diverted to highly
1999: 60). Power, the ability to control the visible projects such as roads, port facilities,
behaviour of others, even against their will- airports, and office buildings, thereby recycling
determines who will gain and who will lose the aid money to Western corporations, to the
(Laswell, 1936). Conflict theorists are concerned neglect of the African farmers; four, even when
with how it is that some groups acquire power, Western nations provided funds for African
dominate other groups, and affect their will in governments, they have found an outlet for
human efforts. surplus food in need of market which has
benefited the United States of America and
THE HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT European farmers; finally, assistance is often
INTERACTIONS: THE CONFLICT rendered to African governments that are
PERSPECTIVE friendly toward the donor nations, thus guaran-
teeing the stability of such ‘cooperative’ African
Generally speaking, conflict perspective does nations (Farnsworth, 1990).
not offer a unified point of view on many issues. The Niger-Delta region of Nigeria also fits
66 O.A. OGUNBAMERU

into the human-environment interactions. The human requirements and economic activities are
coastal area of Niger-Delta region contains placing ever increasing pressures on land
diverse and productive habitats in addition to resources, creating competition and conflicts and
minerals that are important for settlements, resulting in sub-optional use of both land and
development and local subsistence. Coastal land resources, and at times loss of lives and
resources in particular are vital for many local property as reported above. If human require-
communities and indige-nous people. But what ments are to be met in a sustainable manner, it
exists in the Niger-Delta region points to the is essential to resolve these conflicts and move
contrary. In addition to the pollution resulting towards more effective and efficient use of land
from gas flaring, degradation of the marine and its natural resources. Integrated physical and
environment has also resulted from a wide range land-use planning and management is an
of activities on land. Human settle-ments, land eminently practical way to achieve this.
use, construction of coastal infrastru-cture,
agriculture, are affecting the marine environ- THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
ment. Shipping also causes marine pollution
and sea based activities. In Nigeria, for instance, While the functionalist and conflict pers-
marine pollution is basically caused by oil pro- pectives focused on the macro or larger-scale
ducing activities. structure of society, the interactionist perspective
The marine environment including the has traditionally been more concerned with the
oceans and all the seas and adjacent coastal areas micro or smaller-scale aspect of social life. Inter-
form an integrated whole that is an essential actionists emphasize that humans are social
component of the global life-support and a beings who live group existence. Basically,
positive asset that presents opportunities for symbolic interaction focuses upon the ways in
sustainable development (Earth Sumit, 1992: which meanings emerge through interaction. Its
139). Also in Nigeria, in addition to prime concern is to analyse the meanings of
desertification and the hazards of oil producing everyday life, in a close observational work and
activities, soil erosion, deforestation and intimate familiarity, and from these develop an
overgrazing are adversely affecting productivity understanding of the underlying forms of human
in the farming; forestry and livestock sectors, interaction.
thereby slowing overall econo-mic growth in a Symbolic interactionsm has four key foci
country that is an agriculturally based economy. (Marshall, 1996: 524). The first highlights the
There is also currently the conflict between ways in which human beings are distinctly
the federal government of Nigeria and the oil always concerned to study the ways in which
producing states on one hand and the non oil people give meaning to their feelings, their
producing states and the federal government on actions, and to the wider social worlds in which
the other hand over the issue of resource control, their lives exist.
especially as this relates to on-shore, and off- The second highlights process and emer-
shore resources. gence. For the interactionist, the social world is
There was also the conflict between the a dynamic and dialectal web, situations are
federal government of Nigeria and the youths of always encounters with unstable outcomes, and
Bayelsa state – one of the leading oil producing lives and biographies are always in the process
states in Nigeria. Specifically, in 1999, of shifting and becoming, never fixed, not upon
immediately the civilian government came to rigid structures, but upon streams of activity with
power, some youths of Odi town in Bayelsa in their adjustments and outcomes.
agitation for improvement of their lives, The third focus highlights that the social
abducted and later killed some law enforcement world is - interactive. From this point of view
agents. In retaliation, the federal government there is no such thing as solidarity individual;
sent a detachment of the army to arrest the humans are always connected to ‘others’. The
situation, but what invariably happened was the most basic unit of interaction analysis is that of
destruction of Odi town by the army. So many the self, which stresses the ways in which people
lives were lost, and property and houses can come to view themselves as objects, and
extensively destroyed. assume the role of others through a process of
According to conflict theorists, expanding the role taking. The final focus is that
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 67

interactionists look beneath the symbols, low in public concerns, but the Nigerian
processes, and interactions in order to determine scientists, who know much about the destructive
the underlying patterns or forms of social life. nature of global warming will place it among
From interactionism, we gain an image of the top risks because their long-term potential
human beings as active agents who fashion their consequences are known to be damaging. Also
behaviour, as opposed to an image of individuals their effects can be so widespread and difficult
who simply respond passively in a manner to reverse.
prescribed by social rules and institutional One is not saying outright that the Nigerian
arrangements. government does not realize the “risk hazards”,
of oil spillage or gas flaring, but the economic
The Human-Environment Interactions: The gains more often override ethical considerations.
Interactionist perspective For instance, the Federal Government
established the Oil Mineral Producing Area
Symbolic interactionists focus their sociolo- Development Commission (OMPADEC)
gical eye upon “people behaviours”. The two through Decree Number 23 of December, 1992.
major points of focus here are: the difference The basic objectives of OMPADEC were the
between people’s attitudes and their actions, and physical and human development of the oil
the difference between expert and public producing communities. Nwogu A. (1998)
perceptions of risk. however in her study found that OMPADEC did
The difference between people’s attitudes and not achieve the objectives for which it was
their actions. Specifically considered here is the established. Her findings even show that
issue of whether people are ready to take action OMPADEC was another strategy for the
or not. People are generally divided into two government to mismanage or waste funds.
groups – those who believe that action should Though OMPADEC was a brilliant concept, one
be taken to preserve the environment, that is of its problems was its misplaced priority of not
environmental protection should take priority involving the people of oil producing areas before
over economic growth, and those who believe embarking on any development project. Rather,
that the economic gains should take precedence government embarked on top-down development
over environmental protection. strategy. Another problem was the inadequacy
Public versus Expert Perceptions of Risks. A gap of development on a sustainable basis and an
exists between public and expert perceptions of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before
risk. Two examples can be used to explain this carrying out its physical development projects.
difference: oil spillage, gas flaring, and global From the symbolic interactionist perspective,
warming. In Nigeria, reports from Newspapers one can conclude that environmental issues
and general public discussions show that oil qualify for the adjective “social” because of two
spillage are not only hazardous waste, they also reasons. One, they involve human judgements,
release radioactive materials. Up-to-date, the decisions, and choices. Two, they entail an
Nigerian government has not found a solution exercise of power. For instance, the poor and
to how the daily flaring of gas that causes air minorities of the Niger-Delta Region are much
pollution can be converted to economic more exposed than other Nigerian citizens to the
advantage. This is not only hazardous to human dangers of environmental hazards. But political
health; it is also an economic waste. Although skirmishes, “settlement syndrome”, and division
the federal government had in the past among the Niger-Delta people have prevented
established Federal Environmental. Protection all efforts to find solutions to these environmental
Agency (FEPA), the political wranglings, problems.
dissolution and re-establishment that had marred
the agency does not show that the government RECOMMENDATIONS
and/or the agency realize much about the
magnitude of the risks in these problems. To radically reduce the risks of environmental
By contrast, if Nigerians in general and Delta problems such as desertification, coastal erosion,
Region people of Nigeria in particular, are asked oil spillage, gas flaring, and deforestation, should
about global warming, and alteration of natural involve concrete and at times combined actions
habitats, the general opinion will rank relatively from both the government of Nigeria and the
68 O.A. OGUNBAMERU

international oil companies. For instance, it is companies. The Niger-Delta Development

known that land resources are used for a variety Commission (NDDC), which replaced
of purposes, which interact and may compete OMPADEC, should be well funded and not
with one another. It is therefore desirable for allowed to die unceremoniously like its pre-
govern-ment to plan and manage all uses in an decessor.
integrated manner. Integration should take place
at two levels: all environmental, social, and eco- CONCLUSION
nomic factors, and all environmental and re-
source components should work together. The This paper has shown that writers and
objective of such integration is two fold. The first scholars on human-environment interactions can
is to review and develop policies to support the use the three major sociological perspectives of
best possible use of land and the sustainable functiona-lism, conflict and interactionism to
manage-ment of land resources. The second is analyse their work. The paper also offers some
to create mechanisms to facilitate the active recommenda-tions on how to reduce the tension
involvement and participation of all concerned, as well as overcome the hazards of environ-
particularly communities and people at the local mental pollution in the Niger-Delta Region of
level in decision making on land use and mana- Nigeria, in particular, and the arid and forest
gement. regions in general.
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