Economic Development in Africa Report 2021

Reaping the Potential Benefits of the African Continental Free Trade Area for Inclusive GrowthFree Trad

Table of Contents
Figures
Figure 4: Africa Poverty headcount rates
Figure 5 Growth incidence curves
Figure 6 Growth incidence curves
Figure 7 Sudan: Growth incidence curve , 2009-2014
Figure 8 Cameroon: Growth incidence curve, 2001-2014
Figure 9 Growth Incidence Curves
Figure 10 Zambia: Consumption, poverty headcount, Gini index and gross domestic product per capita
Figure 11 Extra-African exports
Figure 12 Intra-African exports
Figure 13 Extra-African services exports
Figure 14 Intra-African services exports
Figure 15 Africa: Size of informal economy
Figure 16 Expected years of schooling, selected countries in Africa, 2019
Figure 17: Complementarity index of intraregional exports and imports, yearly average, 2015–2019
Figure 18: Untapped static and dynamic export potential, by sector
Figure 19: Additional export potential through anticipated partial tariff liberalization under the African Continent
Figure 20: Untapped and additional export potential of manufactures of food products under the African Contin
Figure 21: Average product coverage ratio of non-tariff measures in countries in Africa, by sector, 2015
Figure 22: Transport costs in Africa, by region and transport mode, 2016
Figure 23: Export entrants among intra-African exporters, 1998–2013
Figure 24: Obstacles faced by exporting African enterprises
Figure 25: Average implementation rates of trade facilitation measures, 2019
Figure 26: Tripartite free trade area online platform on non-tariff barriers, January 2009–January 2021
Figure 27: Tripartite free trade area: Most-reported non-tariff barriers and resolution times, January 2009–Janua
Figure 29: Africa: Aid for Trade initiative disbursements by sector

Tables
Table 1 Africa: inclusive growth patterns
Table 2 Africa: non-inclusive growth patterns
Table 3 Gambia: Growth, poverty and inequality
Table 4 Gambia: Human Development Index, Index of Economic Freedom and Corruption Perceptions Index
Table 5 South Africa: Growth, poverty and inequality
Table 6 South Africa: Human Development Index, Index of Economic Freedom and Corruption Perceptions Index
Table 7 Zambia: Growth, poverty and inequality
Table 8 Selected informal cross-border trade initiatives, by country
Table 9 Announced greenfield foreign direct investment projects by sector and industry, 2016–2020
r Inclusive GrowthFree Trade Area for Inclusive Growth

ontents

c product per capita

rage, 2015–2019

n under the African Continental Free Trade Area, by sector

ucts under the African Continental Free Trade Area
rica, by sector, 2015

2009–January 2021
on times, January 2009–January 2021

uption Perceptions Index

Corruption Perceptions Index

ustry, 2016–2020
Figure 4: Africa Poverty headcount rates (percentage)
a) Various poverty lines

Poverty Poverty line

Poverty line of
Year line of 3.2 of 5.5
1.9 dollars/day
dollars/day dollars/day

2018 34.4438 59.0917 80.3214

2017 35.0435 59.2833 80.1939
2016 35.5601 59.6076 80.158
2015 35.5438 59.4097 79.9956
2014 35.7217 59.5508 80.1083
2013 36.6627 60.2928 80.6485
2012 36.9909 60.5568 80.8587
2011 38.3207 61.7714 81.6078
2010 40.1987 63.2296 82.5343
2009 41.3875 64.3653 83.2724
2008 41.5705 64.8971 83.7624
2007 42.2769 65.6429 84.384
2006 42.9814 66.3697 84.9371
2005 43.888 67.3206 85.6102
2004 45.1114 68.3698 86.0363
2003 47.4621 69.4114 86.3532
2002 47.3021 69.1735 86.187
2001 48.1419 69.4216 86.2481
2000 49.2592 69.8969 86.3073

b) Various regional economic communities at the poverty line of 1.9 dollars per day

Poverty ECCAS
Year
Headcount AMU Except
Except Equator
Libya Guinea
Africa AMU EAC ECCAS ECOWAS
2018 34.4438 0.725617 46.755 57.0177 36.0141
2017 35.0435 0.748717 47.827 56.8155 37.4176
2016 35.5601 0.769241 47.8909 56.0053 38.5472
2015 35.5438 0.830903 47.4309 55.3029 38.8596
2014 35.7217 0.842036 46.9717 55.5687 39.6342
2013 36.6627 0.974725 47.0918 56.9711 42.1949
2012 36.9909 1.14439 47.7052 58.3605 42.392
2011 38.3207 1.37567 46.9895 60.3947 45.7018
2010 40.1987 1.64645 49.347 61.8718 49.2503
2009 41.3875 1.90248 50.8861 64.1257 50.9205
2008 41.5705 2.08425 52.0834 63.5826 51.115
2007 42.2769 2.55269 54.2218 64.897 52.0321
2006 42.9814 2.84617 56.5387 65.9439 52.2078
2005 43.888 3.48202 59.2458 66.7367 52.4091
2004 45.1114 3.8439 61.4659 67.7386 52.6754
2003 47.4621 4.41818 63.5101 69.4369 53.8412
2002 47.3021 5.03989 64.6378 69.2805 55.6314
2001 48.1419 5.64278 65.8304 69.9707 59.1446
2000 49.2592 6.26442 66.2379 70.6213 60.7211
 Figure 4: Africa Poverty headcount rates (percentage)
a) Various poverty lines
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000 Poverty2004
2002 line of 1.92006
dollars/day
2008 2010 Poverty
2012line of203
Poverty line of 5.5 dollars/day

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNe

Note: Poverty lines are calculated at purchasing power parity

e of 1.9 dollars per day b) Various regional economic communities at the poverty line

IGAD 80
Except
70
Eritrea
and 60
Somalia
IGAD SADC 50

28.9521 52.8017 40
30.4157 52.5998
30
32.3865 52.2556
33.1124 51.8259 20
33.228 51.6642
10
33.3196 52.0047
33.8878 52.6085 0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 20
33.6029 53.6977
Africa AMU EAC ECC
35.1473 55.2854
ECOWAS IGAD SADC
35.8228 56.7268
36.3849 56.5256 Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNe
37.0614 57.3812 Note: Poverty lines are calculated at purchasing power parity
38.6429 58.7736
 40.371 60.6151
43.9163 62.1087
52.0484 63.2045
48.4679 63.4019
47.4657 63.4556
51.7125 62.5429
unt rates (percentage)

ars/day
2008 2010 Poverty
2012line of2014
3.2 dollars/day
2016 2018
ars/day

sed on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand
at purchasing power parity

mmunities at the poverty line of 1.9 dollars per day

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018

AMU EAC ECCAS

IGAD SADC

sed on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand
at purchasing power parity
Figure 5 Growth incidence curves (percentage): (a) Gambia, 2003-2015 (b) Lesotho,
x axis GIC 5% 15% 25%
AGR 0 1
Country
GIC 8.2693052 7.0616789 6.4145746
AGR 3.6802166 3.6802166
Gambia
0 0.4614
PPGR
6.7478309 6.7478309

GIC 9.711669 7.7360406 6.7252407

AGR 5.157001 5.157001
Lesotho
0 0.6191
PPGR
7.0030956 7.0030956

Note: GIC is the growth incidence curve. AGR is the average growth rate. PPGR is the rat
bia, 2003-2015 (b) Lesotho, 2003-2017
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%

6.0273919 5.474822 5.1176901 4.4092474 3.8647666 3.0765958 1.5517488

yP0 P01 P02

0 0.4614 0.103
10 0.4614 0.103

6.219708 5.9957681 5.8657842 5.7693996 5.4555993 5.0420489 4.0255218

yP0 P01 P02

0 0.6191 0.2782
10 0.6191 0.2782

e growth rate. PPGR is the rate of pro-poor growth. P0 is the poverty headcount for poverty line of $ 1.9 per day.
Figure 5 Growth incidence curves (percentage)

(a ) GA MBIA , 2003- 2015

10
9
8
7
Average annual growth

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2003 Poverty headcount in 2015
Pro-poor growth rate

(B) L E S O T HO , 2003- 2017

10
9
8
7
Average annual growth

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2003 Poverty headcount in 2017
Pro-poor growth rate

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand database.

Note: Poverty headcounts are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 6 Growth incidence curves (percentage): (a) Burundi, 2006-2014 and (b) Sout
x axis GIC 5% 15% 25%
AGR 0 1

Country
GIC -2.989841 -0.617612 0.2951861
AGR 1.6474833 1.6474833
Burundi
0 0.786
PPGR
0.4048347 0.4048347

GIC 1.611045 3.3176172 3.440073

AGR 4.5387869 4.5387869
South Africa
0 0.3477
PPGR
2.8634677 2.8634677

Note: GIC is the growth incidence curve. AGR is the average growth rate. PPGR is the rat
urundi, 2006-2014 and (b) South Africa, 2001-2015
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%

0.9050212 1.2876457 1.4120181 1.4727476 1.6474826 1.9844191 2.9710867

yP0 P01 P02

-4 0.786 0.728
4 0.786 0.728

3.3281817 3.1337631 3.094363 3.29619 3.7460837 4.5345726 5.4150963

yP0 P01 P02

0 0.3477 0.187
6 0.3477 0.187

age growth rate. PPGR is the rate of pro-poor growth. P0 is the poverty headcount for poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 6 Growth incidence curves (percentage)

( A ) B UR UN DI, 2006- 2014

3

2
Average annual growth

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
-1

-2

-3
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2006 Poverty headcount in 2014
Pro-poor Growth Rate

( B ) S O UT H A FR ICA , 2001- 2015

6

4
Average annual growth

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2001 Poverty headcount in 2015
Pro-poor Growth Rate

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand database.

Note: Poverty headcounts are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 7 Sudan: Growth incidence curve , 2009-2014 (percentage)
x axis GIC 5% 15% 25%
AGR 0 1

Country
GIC 3.2321491 1.6668181 0.7394048
AGR -0.476898 -0.476898
Sudan
0 0.16
PPGR
2.6638443 2.6638443

Note: GIC is the growth incidence curve. AGR is the average growth rate. PPGR is the rat
percentage)
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%

-0.197683 -0.583283 -0.841879 -1.276619 -1.835136 -1.899802 0.3230284

yP0 P01 P02

-2 0.157 0.1216
4 0.157 0.1216

age growth rate. PPGR is the rate of pro-poor growth. P0 is the poverty headcount for poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 7 Sudan: Growth incidence curve , 2009-2014 (percentage)
4

2
Average annual growth

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

-1

-2
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2009 Poverty headcount in 2014
Pro-poor Growth Rate

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand database.

Note: Poverty headcounts are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day.
 Average annual growth in percent

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5

0
Gr
 Gr o w t h i n c i d en c e Cu r v e o f M A UR IT A N IA fr o m
2000 t o 2014
GIC AGR P0 in 2000 P0 in 2014 PPGR
3.5
3
Average annual growth in percent

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
deciles
Figure 8 Cameroon: Growth incidence curve, 2001-2014 (percentage)
x axis GIC 5% 15% 25%
AGR 0 1

Country
GIC -1.246669 -0.537002 -0.020213
AGR 1.6040583 1.6040583
Cameroon
0 0.2601
PPGR
-0.690434 -0.690434

Note: GIC is the growth incidence curve. AGR is the average growth rate. PPGR is the rat
14 (percentage)
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%

0.5981996 1.0594428 1.5020754 1.8628495 2.0647829 2.2504606 1.9209087

yP0 P01 P02

-1.5 0.2601 0.2597
2.5 0.2601 0.2597

age growth rate. PPGR is the rate of pro-poor growth. P0 is the poverty headcount for poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 8 Cameroon: Growth incidence curve, 2001-2014 (percentage)
2.5

1.5
Average annual growth

0.5

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
-0.5

-1

-1.5
deciles

Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate Poverty headcount in 2001

Poverty headcount in 2014 Pro-poor growth rate

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand database.

Note: Poverty headcounts are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day.
 Gr o w t h i n c i d en c e Cu r v e o f M A UR IT A N IA fr o m
2000 t o 2014
GIC AGR P0 in 2000 P0 in 2014 PPGR
3.5
Average annual growth in percent

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
deciles
Figure 9 Growth Incidence Curves (percentage) (a) Cote d'Ivoire, 2002-2015 and (b)
x axis GIC 5% 15% 25%
AGR 0 1

Country

GIC -1.0963 -0.77063 -0.762188

AGR -0.438151 -0.438151
Cote d'Ivoire
0 0.2438
PPGR
-0.902694 -0.902694

GIC -0.915935 -0.41249 -0.451504

AGR -2.064495 -2.064495
Madagascar
0 0.6842
PPGR
-0.888883 -0.888883

Note: GIC is the growth incidence curve. AGR is the average growth rate. PPGR is the rat
ote d'Ivoire, 2002-2015 and (b) Madagascar, 2001-2012
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%

-0.626419 -0.334053 -0.15388 -0.054199 -0.071468 -0.404247 -0.622819

yP0 P01 P02

-2 0.2438 0.2983
0 0.2438 0.2983

-0.646553 -0.900116 -1.283541 -1.747742 -2.095324 -2.578862 -2.861577

yP0 P01 P02

0 0.6842 0.7741
-3 0.6842 0.7741

age growth rate. PPGR is the rate of pro-poor growth. P0 is the poverty headcount for poverty line of $1.9 per day.
Figure 9 Growth Incidence Curves (percentage)

( A ) Co t e d ' Iv o i r e, 2002- 2015

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Average annual growth

-0.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
-2
Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate
deciles
Poverty headcount in 2002 Poverty headcount in 2015
Pro-poor growth rate

( B ) M a d a g a sc a r , 2001- 2012
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
-0.5
Average annual growth

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3
deciles

Growth Incidence Curve Average Growth Rate

Poverty headcount in 2001 Poverty headcount in 2012
Pro-poor growth rate

Source: UNCTAD calculations based on worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand database.

Note: Poverty headcounts are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day.
 Average annual growth in percent

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5

0
Gr
 Gr o w t h i n c i d en c e Cu r v e o f M A UR IT A N IA fr o m
2000 t o 2014
GIC AGR P0 in 2000 P0 in 2014 PPGR
3.5
3
Average annual growth in percent

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
deciles
Figure 10 Zambia: Consumption, poverty headcount, Gini index and gross domestic pr
2003 2005
GDP per capita (constant 2010 dollars; right axis) 1033.3108 1126.03194

Average consumption per capita (dollars per month) 79.07 84.22

Poverty headcount at poverty line of $1.9 per day
(purchasing power parity; percentage) 52.05 58.37
Gini index 42.06 54.29
x and gross domestic product per capita
2007 2010 2015
1248.41842 1489.45931 1641.01336

77.54 75.44 87.16 Figure 10 Zambia: Consumption, poverty headcou

62.14 65.82 58.75

54.62 55.62 57.14 90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Average consumption per capi

Poverty headcount at poverty l
Gini index
GDP per capita (constant 2010

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from th

onsumption, poverty headcount, Gini index and gross domestic product per capita

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Average consumption per capita (dollars per month)

Poverty headcount at poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power parity; percentage)
Gini index
GDP per capita (constant 2010 dollars; right axis)

culations, based on data from the Povcal Net and World Development Indicators databases of the World Bank.
Figure 11 Extra-African exports Merchandise: Intra-trade an
IMF DOTS

Total all products ($US billions)

Rest of the
year World Africa_exports year
2001 125.42 16.89 2001
2002 130.02 20.06 2002
2003 153.66 22.02 2003
2004 195.23 26.99 2004
2005 230.28 32.09 2005
2006 276.56 35.38 2006
2007 338.83 42.36 2007
2008 433.81 52.87 2008
2009 357.99 48.16 2009
2010 421.08 67.75 2010
2011 500.15 87.91 2011
2012 530.49 89.29 2012
2013 550.78 92.30 2013
2014 571.39 93.35 2014
2015 481.26 74.98 2015
2016 440.64 68.47 2016
2017 463.57 70.11 2017
2018 505.76 75.85 2018
2019 509.62 78.44 2019

Figure 11 Extra-African exports

600

500
 600

500

400

Billions of dollars
300

200

100

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Manufactured goods Non-fuel extractive commodities

Intra-African exports Crude oil spot price (right axis)

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the UNCTADstat database

Merchandise: Intra-trade and extra-trade of country groups by product,
annual

Total all Total all products Total all Total all Non elsewhere Non-fuels ($US
products ( US (US dollars at products products ($US allocated ($US billions)
dollars at current current prices in ($US billions) billions)
prices in millions) billions)
millions)

Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group Rest of the world Rest of the world Rest of the
world
13732 121340 14 121 2 59
15593 122274 16 122 2 60
18100 156744 18 157 2 74
23417 210188 23 210 2 90
28617 272291 29 272 2 101
33444 328198 33 328 3 114
42456 386423 42 386 5 141
54927 495328 55 495 1 158
51050 334859 51 335 1 126
70685 444656 71 445 2 163
81890 536954 82 537 2 203
85393 552084 85 552 2 194
86558 504083 87 504 2 191
87795 476014 88 476 2 202
70334 325397 70 325 2 179
66104 292708 66 293 1 183
67907 362598 68 363 2 209
74865 420228 75 420 2 227
73974 403029 74 403 1 221

120

100
 120

100

80

Dollars per barrel

60

40

20

0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Non-fuel extractive commodities Agricultural commodities Fuel

Crude oil spot price (right axis)

e UNCTADstat database
Fuels (SITC Fuels (SITC Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural
3) ($US 3) commodities (SITC commodities commodities commodities
billions) 1+2+4 -27 -28) ($US (SITC 1+2+4 - (% extra- (% intra-
billions) 27 -28) ($US continental African
billions) exports) exports)

Rest of the Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group Rest of the Intra-group
world world
63 4 17 4 14 26
63 4 19 4 15 23
83 5 22 4 14 24
120 7 25 5 12 21
172 9 27 5 10 18
214 11 28 6 9 18
245 14 35 7 9 16
337 17 38 9 8 16
209 16 38 10 11 19
281 20 42 13 10 18
334 24 50 15 9 18
358 26 47 15 8 18
313 23 46 16 9 18
274 27 51 15 11 18
146 16 50 14 15 20
110 14 50 15 17 22
154 14 56 16 15 23
193 18 57 16 14 21
182 18 58 16 14 21
Non-fuel Non-fuel Extractive Extractive Extractive Extractive
extractive extractive commodities commodities commodities (% commodities (%
commodities commodities ($US billions) ($US billions) rest of the world) intra-group
($US billions) ($US billions) exports)

Rest of the Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group
world
15 1 78 4 64 31
13 1 75 5 62 29
17 1 100 6 64 31
23 2 143 9 68 37
27 2 199 12 73 42
35 3 250 14 76 43
43 5 288 18 75 43
50 6 387 23 78 42
37 5 246 20 73 40
58 7 339 27 76 38
83 7 417 31 78 38
82 8 440 34 80 40
80 9 392 32 78 37
79 9 353 36 74 41
64 7 210 23 65 33
68 7 178 21 61 32
80 8 234 22 65 32
87 8 281 26 67 35
84 8 265 26 66 35
Manufactured Manufactured Manufactured Manufactured
goods (SITC 5 to goods (SITC 5 to goods (% rest of goods (% intra-
8 less 667 and 68) 8 less 667 and 68) the world) group exports) UNCTAD
($US billions) ($US billions) Stat
Commodity
prices,
annual
Intra-group Rest of the world Rest of the world Intra-group year Crude oil,
UK Brent,
light blend
6 25 21 42 2001 24
API 38°, spot
7 27 22 46 2002 25
8 33 21 44 2003 29
10 41 19 42 2004 38
11 45 16 39 2005 54
13 47 14 39 2006 65
17 59 15 40 2007 73
23 69 14 41 2008 98
21 50 15 41 2009 62
31 62 14 44 2010 80
36 68 13 43 2011 111
36 64 12 42 2012 112
38 64 13 44 2013 109
36 70 15 41 2014 99
33 64 20 47 2015 52
30 64 22 45 2016 44
31 71 19 45 2017 54
33 80 19 44 2018 71
32 78 19 43 2019 64
Figure 12 Intra-African exports
IMF DOTS Merchandise: Intra-trade and extra-tr

Total all products ($US

billions)

Rest of the
year World Africa_exports year
2000 120.91 18.25 2000
2001 125.42 16.89 2001
2002 130.02 20.06 2002
2003 153.66 22.02 2003
2004 195.23 26.99 2004
2005 230.28 32.09 2005
2006 276.56 35.38 2006
2007 338.83 42.36 2007
2008 433.81 52.87 2008
2009 357.99 48.16 2009
2010 421.08 67.75 2010
2011 500.15 87.91 2011
2012 530.49 89.29 2012
2013 550.78 92.30 2013
2014 571.39 93.35 2014
2015 481.26 74.98 2015
2016 440.64 68.47 2016
2017 463.57 70.11 2017
2018 505.76 75.85 2018
2019 509.62 78.44 2019

Figure 12 Intra-African exports

100

90

80
 100

90

80

70

60

$US billions
50

40

30

20

10

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Manufactured goods Non-fuel extractive commodities

Fuel Crude oil spot price ($/barrel) - r

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the UNCTADstat database

erchandise: Intra-trade and extra-trade of country groups by product, annual

Total all products Total all Total all Total all products Non elsewhere Non-fuels ($US
( US dollars at products (US products ($US billions) allocated ($US billions)
current prices in dollars at ($US billions)
millions) current prices billions)
in millions)

Intra-group Rest of the Intra-group Rest of the world Rest of the world Rest of the
world world
13697 129530 14 130 5 58
13732 121340 14 121 2 59
15593 122274 16 122 2 60
18100 156744 18 157 2 74
23417 210188 23 210 2 90
28617 272291 29 272 2 101
33444 328198 33 328 3 114
42456 386423 42 386 5 141
54927 495328 55 495 1 158
51050 334859 51 335 1 126
70685 444656 71 445 2 163
81890 536954 82 537 2 203
85393 552084 85 552 2 194
86558 504083 87 504 2 191
87795 476014 88 476 2 202
70334 325397 70 325 2 179
66104 292708 66 293 1 183
67907 362598 68 363 2 209
74865 420228 75 420 2 227
73974 403029 74 403 1 221

120

100
 120

100

80

$/barrel
60

40

20

0
06 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Non-fuel extractive commodities Agricultural commodities

Crude oil spot price ($/barrel) - right axis

om the UNCTADstat database

Fuels (SITC Fuels (SITC Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural
3) ($US 3) commodities (SITC commodities commodities commodities
billions) 1+2+4 -27 -28) ($US (SITC 1+2+4 - (% extra- (% intra-
billions) 27 -28) ($US continental African
billions) exports) exports)

Rest of the Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group Rest of the Intra-group
world world
72 4 16 3 13 24
63 4 17 4 14 26
63 4 19 4 15 23
83 5 22 4 14 24
120 7 25 5 12 21
172 9 27 5 10 18
214 11 28 6 9 18
245 14 35 7 9 16
337 17 38 9 8 16
209 16 38 10 11 19
281 20 42 13 10 18
334 24 50 15 9 18
358 26 47 15 8 18
313 23 46 16 9 18
274 27 51 15 11 18
146 16 50 14 15 20
110 14 50 15 17 22
154 14 56 16 15 23
193 18 57 16 14 21
182 18 58 16 14 21
Non-fuel Non-fuel Extractive Extractive Extractive Extractive
extrative extrative commodities commodities commodities (% commodities (%
commodities commodities ($US billions) ($US billions) rest of the world) intra-group
($US billions) ($US billions) exports)

Rest of the Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group Rest of the world Intra-group
world
12 1 84 5 65 33
15 1 78 4 64 31
13 1 75 5 62 29
17 1 100 6 64 31
23 2 143 9 68 37
27 2 199 12 73 42
35 3 250 14 76 43
43 5 288 18 75 43
50 6 387 23 78 42
37 5 246 20 73 40
58 7 339 27 76 38
83 7 417 31 78 38
82 8 440 34 80 40
80 9 392 32 78 37
79 9 353 36 74 41
64 7 210 23 65 33
68 7 178 21 61 32
80 8 234 22 65 32
87 8 281 26 67 35
84 8 265 26 66 35
Manufactured Manufactured Manufactured Manufactured
goods (SITC 5 to goods (SITC 5 to goods (% rest of goods (% intra-
8 less 667 and 68) 8 less 667 and 68) the world) group exports) UNCTAD
($US billions) ($US billions) Stat
Commodity
prices,
annual
Intra-group Rest of the world Rest of the world Intra-group year Crude oil,
UK Brent,
light blend
6 25 19 42 2000 API28.27
38°, spot
6 25 21 42 2001 24.42
7 27 22 46 2002 24.96
8 33 21 44 2003 28.85
10 41 19 42 2004 38.3
11 45 16 39 2005 54.43
13 47 14 39 2006 65.39
17 59 15 40 2007 72.69
23 69 14 41 2008 97.63
21 50 15 41 2009 61.86
31 62 14 44 2010 79.63
36 68 13 43 2011 110.93
36 64 12 42 2012 111.96
38 64 13 44 2013 108.85
36 70 15 41 2014 98.93
33 64 20 47 2015 52.37
30 64 22 45 2016 44.04
31 71 19 45 2017 54.39
33 80 19 44 2018 71.07
32 78 19 43 2019 64.03
Figure 13 Extra-African services exports (billions of dollars)

High Knowledge
year intensive Traditional Non-market
($US billions) ($US billions) ($US billions)
2005 26.1 85.8 7.3
2006 28.6 98.0 8.1
2007 36.2 113.7 8.7
2008 44.6 124.6 10.3
2009 42.1 114.0 9.7
2010 45.0 128.5 9.5
2011 47.2 128.6 12.2
2012 51.2 136.7 10.1
2013 48.3 131.0 10.8
2014 50.2 139.2 12.9
2015 54.6 127.0 11.1
2016 53.7 117.0 11.0
2017 56.6 138.7 12.3
2018 62.2 154.1 12.1
2019 65.4 156.5 11.7
 Figure 13 Extra-African services exports (billions of dollars)
US billions) 250

200

150

100

50

0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Traditional High-knowledge intensive Non-market

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Balanced Trade in Services database
Note: Traditional services include transport, travel and maintenance and repair services not in
high knowledge-intensive services include manufacturing services, construction, insurance, f
telecommunications and information services, personal, cultural and recreational services and
services; and non-market services include public administration services, community service
education services
 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

ntensive Non-market

ade in Services database of OECD and WTO.

and repair services not included elsewhere;
onstruction, insurance, financial services,
recreational services and other business
ices, community services and health and
Figure 14 Intra-African services exports (billions of dollars)

year High-knowledge intensive Traditional Non-market

($US billions) ($US billions) ($US billions)
2005 0.6 3.0 0.2
2006 0.7 3.5 0.3
2007 0.9 4.3 0.3
2008 1.1 4.9 0.4
2009 1.1 4.8 0.4
2010 1.3 5.4 0.4
2011 1.3 5.8 0.4
2012 1.5 6.4 0.4
2013 1.4 6.3 0.4
2014 1.5 6.9 0.5
2015 1.8 6.3 0.4
2016 1.7 5.7 0.4
2017 1.8 6.3 0.4
2018 2.0 7.2 0.5
2019 2.1 7.3 0.4
Figure 14 Intra-African services exports (billions of dollars)

10

0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Traditional High-knowledge intensive Non-market

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Balanced Trade in Services database o
Note: Traditional services include transport, travel and maintenance and repair services not
high knowledge-intensive services include manufacturing services, construction, insurance,
telecommunications and information services, personal, cultural and recreational services a
services; and non-market services include public administration services, community service
education services.
 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

ensive Non-market

de in Services database of WTO and OECD.

e and repair services not included elsewhere;
onstruction, insurance, financial services,
d recreational services and other business
vices, community services and health and
Figure 15 Africa: Size of informal economy (percentage of gross domestic product)
Africa averageWorld average
1990-99 41.3 34.0
2000-09 39.5 32.1
2010-18 36.2 29.5
ross domestic product)

Figure 15 Africa: Size of informal economy (percentage of gross domestic product)

45.0

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
1990-99 2000-09 2010-18

Africa average World average

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on Ohnsorge and Yu, 2021.

Note: Purple bars show unweighted averages of the informal economy of the region. Orange
unweighted world average. The dynamic general equilibrium model used provides an estima
informal sector as a percentage of official GDP. Data are available for 46 countries in Africa
 domestic product)

my of the region. Orange bars show the

used provides an estimate of the size of the
or 46 countries in Africa.
Figure 16 Expected years of schooling, selected countries in Africa, 2019

Country Female
Algeria 14.8
Angola 11
Benin 11.4
Botswana 13
Burkina Faso 9.1
Burundi 11
Cabo Verde 13
Cameroon 11.3
Central African Republic 6.2
Chad 5.9
Comoros 11.1
Congo 11.6
Côte d'Ivoire 9
Democratic Republic of the Congo 8.6
Djibouti 6.7
Egypt 13.34
Eritrea 4.6
Eswatini 11.8
Ethiopia 8.3
Gabon 12.6
Gambia 10
Ghana 11.4
Guinea 8
Kenya 11
Lesotho 11.7
Liberia 9.2
Libya 13.1
Madagascar 10.2
Malawi 11.2
Mali 6.8
Mauritania 8.7
Mauritius 15.7
Morocco 13.3
Mozambique 9.5
Namibia 12.7
Niger 5.7
Nigeria 9.4
Rwanda 11.2
Sao Tome and Principe 12.8
Senegal 8.9
Seychelles 15.3
Sierra Leone 9.7
South Africa 14.2
South Sudan 3.5
Sudan 7.7
United Republic of Tanzania 8.2
Togo 11.5
Tunisia 15.8
Uganda 10.6
Zambia 10.7
Zimbabwe 10.5
Developing Countries 12.2
Least Developed Countries 9.4
Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development 16.6
World 12.7

Africa (Female) Africa (Male)

10.4 11.0
in Africa, 2019

<female >female Male

#N/A 14.8 14.4
11 #N/A 12.7
11.4 #N/A 13.8
#N/A 13 12.7
9.1 #N/A 9.4
11 #N/A 11.1
#N/A 13 12.4
11.3 #N/A 12.9
6.2 #N/A 8.9
5.9 #N/A 8.8
11.1 #N/A 11.4
11.6 #N/A 11.9
9 #N/A 10.9
8.6 #N/A 10.8
6.7 #N/A 6.9
#N/A 13.34 13.31
4.6 #N/A 5.4
11.8 #N/A 11.9
8.3 #N/A 9.3
12.6 #N/A 13.4
#N/A 10 9.8
11.4 #N/A 11.6
8 #N/A 10.8
11 #N/A 11.7
#N/A 11.7 10.9
9.2 #N/A 10.4
#N/A 13.1 12.6
10.2 #N/A 10.2
11.2 #N/A 11.3
6.8 #N/A 8.1
#N/A 8.7 8.5
#N/A 15.7 14.4
13.3 #N/A 14.1
9.5 #N/A 10.5
#N/A 12.7 12.5
5.7 #N/A 7.2
9.4 #N/A 10.6
11.2 #N/A 11.2
#N/A 12.8 12.6
#N/A 8.9 8.2
#N/A 15.3 13.1
 9.7 #N/A 10.6
#N/A 14.2 13.4
3.5 #N/A 5.9
7.7 #N/A 8.3
#N/A 8.2 8
11.5 #N/A 13.8
#N/A 15.8 14.3
10.6 #N/A 12.2
10.7 #N/A 11.6
10.5 #N/A 11.5
12.3
10.4

16
12.7

Organization for Economic Co-

Least Developed operation and Development
World Average Country average Average
12.7 9.9 16.3
Figure 16 Expected years of schooling, selected countries in Africa, 2019

Source: UNCTAD, based on data from the Human Development Data Centre of the United N
 in Africa, 2019

ment Data Centre of the United Nations Development Programme

Figure 17: Complementarity index of intraregional exports and imports, yearly averag
Region Complementarity index
Africa 0.31
Americas 0.73
Asia 0.77
Europe 0.86
Pacific 0.21
al exports and imports, yearly average, 2015–2019 Figure 17: Complementarity index of intraregional ex

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
Africa Americas

Source: International Trade Centre and UNCTAD, 2021

Note: The complementarity index is a measurement of th
two trade partners overlap. There is a value of 1 if every
exports and its partner’s imports, and a value of 0 if ther
by one and those imported by the other.
entarity index of intraregional exports and imports, yearly average, 2015–2019

Americas Asia Europe Pacific

Trade Centre and UNCTAD, 2021.

ntarity index is a measurement of the degree to which the export and import structures of
erlap. There is a value of 1 if every product accounts for the same share of an exporter’s
r’s imports, and a value of 0 if there is no correspondence between the products exported
orted by the other.
Figure 18: Untapped static and dynamic export potential, by sector (millions of dollars)
Description
Cereals (10)
Iron and steel (72)
Beverages, spirits and vinegar (22)
Soap; washing, lubricating, polishing or scouring preparations (34)
Mineral fuels, mineral oils (27)
Preparations of cereals, flour, starch or milk (19)
Apparel and clothing accessories; not knitted or crocheted (62)
Animal or vegetable fats and oils (15)
Nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery and mechanical appliances (84)
Miscellaneous edible preparations (21)
Fertilizers (31)
Electrical machinery and equipment (85)
Copper (74)
Essential oils; perfumery, cosmetic or toilet preparations perfumery, cosmetics (33)
Plastics (39)
Fish and crustaceans (03)
Sugar (17)
Vehicles (87)
millions of dollars)
Static untapped export potential Dynamic untapped export potential
211.69 277.90
226.47 279.22
145.12 379.91
167.32 362.81
66.71 494.48
174.95 408.69
352.61 282.10
244.47 398.52
353.60 320.92
158.80 526.45
346.90 407.79
485.61 332.43
533.93 332.64
234.64 642.51
335.95 595.40
304.63 836.42
591.89 664.60
572.56 819.89
Figure 18: Untapped static and dynamic export potential, by sector (millions of dollars)

Vehicles (87)
Sugar (17)
Fish and crustaceans (03)
Plastics (39)
Essential oils; perfumery, cosmetic or toilet preparations perfumery, cosmetics (33)
Copper (74)
Electrical machinery and equipment (85)
Fertilizers (31)
Miscellaneous edible preparations (21)
Nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery and mechanical appliances (84)
Animal or vegetable fats and oils (15)
Apparel and clothing accessories; not knitted or crocheted (62)
Preparations of cereals, flour, starch or milk (19)
Mineral fuels, mineral oils (27)
Soap; washing, lubricating, polishing or scouring preparations (34)
Beverages, spirits and vinegar (22)
Iron and steel (72)
Cereals (10)

00 00 00
0. 00
.
00
.
2 4

Source: International Trade Centre and UNCTAD, 2021.

Note: Numbers in parentheses refer to the sector classification code under the Harmonized System.
ns of dollars)

ehicles (87)
Sugar (17)
ceans (03)
lastics (39)
metics (33)
opper (74)
pment (85)
tilizers (31)
ations (21)
ances (84)
nd oils (15)
heted (62)
milk (19)
Static untapped export po-
al oils (27) tential
ations (34)
negar (22) Dynamic untapped export
potential
d steel (72)
ereals (10)

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0. 00
.
00
.
00
.
00
.
00
.
00
.
00
.
00
.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Harmonized System.
Figure 19: Additional export potential through anticipated partial tariff liberalization under the African
Continental Free Trade Area, by sector (millions of dollar)
Continental Free Trade Area, by sector
Preparations of cereals, flour, milk... (19)
Machinery, mechanical appliances (84)
Miscellaneous manufactured articles (96)
Salt; sulphur; earths; cement... (25)
Preparations of meat, of fish or crustaceans (16)
Paper, paperboard and articles thereof (48)
Essential oils, perfumery, cosmetics (33)
Iron and steel (72)
Articles of iron or steel (73)
Coffee, tea, mate and spices (09)
Beverages, spirits and vinegar (22)
Fruit and nuts, edible (08)
Electrical machinery and equipment (85)
Plastics (39)
Fish and crustaceans (03)
Soap; washing, lubricating, polishing or scouring
Sugar (17)
Vehicles (87)
ntial through anticipated partial tariff liberalization under the African
sector (millions of dollar)
Additional export potential through anticipated tariff liberalization
169.51
170.26
173.00
181.80
195.05
203.24
214.09
227.98
246.16
246.97
280.52
323.15
351.20
365.57
367.06
372.06
462.81
1950.42
Figure 19: Additional export potential t
Continental Free Trade Area, by sector

Soap; washing, lubricating, polis

Electri

Essenti
Paper, pa
Preparations o
S
Miscella
Mach
Prepar

Source: International Trade Centre and UN

Note: Numbers in parentheses refer to the
dditional export potential through anticipated partial tariff liberalization under the African (millions of dollar)
Free Trade Area, by sector

Vehicles (87)
Sugar (17)
p; washing, lubricating, polishing or scouring preparations (34)
Fish and crustaceans (03)
Plastics (39)
Electrical machinery and equipment (85)
Fruit and nuts, edible (08)
Beverages, spirits and vinegar (22)
Coffee, tea, mate and spices (09)
Articles of iron or steel (73)
Iron and steel (72)
Essential oils, perfumery, cosmetics (33)
Paper, paperboard and articles thereof (48)
Preparations of meat, of fish or crustaceans (16)
Salt; sulphur; earths; cement... (25)
Miscellaneous manufactured articles (96)
Machinery, mechanical appliances (84)
Preparations of cereals, flour, milk... (19)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

$ million

ational Trade Centre and UNCTAD, 2021.

s in parentheses refer to the sector classification code under the Harmonized System.
200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 20: Untapped and additional export potential of manufactures of food products
Countries
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Côte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Eswatini
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
South Sudan
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe

SUM
and additional export potential of manufactures of food products under the African Continental Free Trade Area (Millions of dolla
Total Export Potential (Sum of total untapped and addition AfCFTA)Total export potential (in millions $)
44434.15 44.43
283.70 0.28
467.85 0.47
1259.67 1.26
429.60 0.43
3552.45 3.55
18104.74 18.10
37760.24 37.76
1.37 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
103.92 0.10
1026.86 1.03
334331.34 334.33
1.50 0.00
714800.37 714.80
18.79 0.02
294.64 0.29
196980.00 196.98
3526.00 3.53
129.33 0.13
29.77 0.03
237971.69 237.97
364.23 0.36
0.00 0.00
154664.61 154.66
138.80 0.14
662.42 0.66
157.16 0.16
19391.24 19.39
68632.84 68.63
2408.85 2.41
544.10 0.54
173106.95 173.11
404231.68 404.23
164597.85 164.60
98072.16 98.07
388.01 0.39
53570.39 53.57
 6714.07 6.71
488.60 0.49
185913.26 185.91
40432.23 40.43
354.13 0.35
0.00 0.00
1826631.69 1826.63
92.48 0.09
0.00 0.00
13722.02 13.72
12925.97 12.93
117063.83 117.06
116494.63 116.49
56307.42 56.31
53188.67 53.19

5166768.28910838 5166.76828910838
de Area (Millions of dollars)
Figure 20: Untapped and additional export potential of manufactures of food products under the African (Millions of do

This chart isn't available in your version of Excel.

Editing this shape or saving this workbook into a different file format will permanently break
the chart.

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on International Trade Centre and UNCTAD, 2021.
Note: Manufactures of food products refers to the sum of the classification codes 16 to 22 under the Harmonized
System.
African (Millions of dollars)
Figure 21: Average product coverage ratio of non-tariff measures in countries in Africa
Product coverage ratio of NTMs, average over African countries and by HS Section, 20

ntmcode
A
B
P

The figure shows the product coverage of the three types of measures with
the most regulations, as follows:

Technical
Measures

Non-technical
measures

Export
ure 21: Average product coverage ratio of non-tariff measures in countries in Africa, by sector, 2015 (Percentage of product lines)
duct coverage ratio of NTMs, average over African countries and by HS Section, 2015

Animals Chemicals Food Products

93.8260009765625 12.6839999045 71.44400056203
68.5081825256348 43.8600004991 45.95600029627
83.7757146017892 19.5233333074 48.46499984818

figure shows the product coverage of the three types of measures with
most regulations, as follows:

Sanitary and Phytosanitary [SPS] [A]

Technical Barriers to Trade [TBT] [B]

Pre-shipment inspection [INSP] [C]

Contingent trade protective measures [CTPM] [D]

Quantity control measures [QC] [E]

Price control measures [PC] [F]

Other measures [OTH]: Finance measures (G), Measures affecting competition
(H), Trade-related investment measures (I), Distribution restrictions (J),
Restrictions on post-sales services (K), Subsidies and other forms of support
(L), Government procurement restrictions (M), Intellectual property (N), Rules
of Origin (O).

Export-related measures [EXP] [P]

centage of product lines)

Machinery
and
Hides and electrical Plastic or Stone and
Footwear Fuels skins equipment Metals Minerals Miscellaneous rubber glass
0.01 16.5199999 16.2985715 42.6699982 0.01 5.41181809 23.4899997711 0.04 0.93499997
38.7233343 81.016363 25.3871432 31.8836359 15.3642861 41.2699997 20.0766666929 11.651111 13.7709089
19.3750002 98.528333 70.0760006 46.6757147 16.5262502 19.7587504 9.6554546893 23.6414289 59.8066665
 Figure 21: Average product coverage rat
120
Textiles
and 100
clothing Transportation Vegetables Wood
80
2.95888886 5.42999982834 89.1266663 21.4533333
44.3050003 36.9333325297 61.5949997 9.72100001 60
23.7142854 38.3466669718 77.7691664 46.9363629
40

20

0
s s s r s
al al ct ea el
m ic u w Fu
ni em od ot
A
Ch Pr Fo
d
F oo i
H

r
i ne
a ch
M
Sanitary and phytosan
 Average product coverage ratio of non-tariff measures in countries in Africa, by sector, 2015 (Percentage of product lines)

ls s s r s ns t s ls s r s g n es d
al ct ea el i en al ra ou be as in ti o bl oo
ic u w Fu sk m et e e b gl h
em od ot d ip M in an ru d ot r ta et
a W
Pr Fo an qu M el
l
or an cl o eg
Ch d sp
oo
d
de
s
al
e isc t ic on
e n
ra
n V
F i
r ic M as St sa T
H
ct Pl ile
e xt
el Te
d
an
y
n er
hi
ac
M
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures Technical barriers to trade Export-related measures
f product lines)

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the UNCTAD Trade Analysis and Information System.
Note: The countries considered were Algeria, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cameroon,
Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, the Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,
the Gambia, Togo, Tunisia and Zimbabwe. Product groups are based on the World Customs Organization sector
classification for the Harmonized System product nomenclature (see https://wits.worldbank.org/tariff/non-tariff-
measures/metadata/en/product/).
eria, Senegal,
Figure 22: Transport costs in Africa, by region and transport mode, 2016 (Percentage)
Transport mode Air Sea Road
Intra-African 38.15 18.70 29.41
Extra-African 8.35 6.81 7.37
IGAD 150.40 54.20 98.84
EAC 141.50 52.46 84.14
SADC 49.07 19.53 34.02
ECOWAS 98.48 54.04 43.26
ECCAS 111.57 54.44 39.19
COMESA 62.70 23.97 76.75
AMU 65.61 66.29 65.15
sport mode, 2016 (Percentage) Figure 22: Transport costs in Africa, by region and transport mod

160.00

140.00

120.00

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
n n C C S
ca ca D
EA D A
fri fri IG
A
SA W C
-A -A O EC
n tra x tra EC
I E

Air Sea Road

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the UNCTADstat

Note: Transport costs are measured as the share of trade value per 10,
gion and transport mode, 2016 (Percentage)

C S S A U
D A
SA W CA ES A
M
O EC M
EC CO

Sea Road

a from the UNCTADstat database.

re of trade value per 10,000 km.Abbreviations: AMU, Arab Maghreb Union; COMESA, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa;
ern and Southern Africa; EAC, East African Community; ECCAS, Economic Community of Central African States; ECOWAS, Economic
; ECOWAS, Economic Community of West African States; IGAD, Intergovernmental Authority on Development; SADC, Southern Africa
SADC, Southern African Development Community.
Figure 23: Export entrants among intra-African exporters, 1998–2013

(a) Tariff costs (b) Non-tariff costs

ln average ln average
tariff ln number non-tariff ln number
costs, of entrants costs, of entrants
bilateral in year t bilateral in year t
0.0395258 4.75359 4.87993 4.75359
0.1138829 5.062595 4.606271 5.062595
0.1232612 3.218876 5.199008 3.218876
0.1138829 4.488636 4.616498 4.488636
0.0395258 4.762174 4.976233 4.762174
0.1134736 5.288267 4.627431 5.288267
0.0900785 5.717028 3.921517 5.717028
0.0869329 6.124683 3.80802 6.124683
0.1001202 6.006353 4.940763 6.006353
0.1127233 9.031333 3.522356 9.031333
0.0747893 8.959954 4.245056 8.959954
0.1344056 7.225482 4.90711 7.225482
0.0524333 8.383662 4.96566 8.383662
0.1203891 7.944847 4.818627 7.944847
0.07033 7.32975 4.745164 7.32975
0.089677 8.420241 4.464294 8.420241
0.1099448 5.826 4.876134 5.826
0.130771 5.981414 5.06663 5.981414
0.1211138 7.40062 4.697648 7.40062
0.080804 8.901911 3.934638 8.901911
0.0976725 8.054523 4.784797 8.054523
0.1348211 8.189799 4.356621 8.189799
0.177039 6.498282 4.536967 6.498282
0.1870061 6.190315 4.3565 6.190315
0.1632419 7.128496 3.837659 7.128496
0.2629552 6.75227 4.341413 6.75227
0.1121155 5.159055 4.49021 5.159055
0.0839122 9.039907 4.088398 9.039907
0.1302451 7.237059 4.90999 7.237059
0.0511608 8.461892 4.879048 8.461892
0.0889788 8.15651 4.721274 8.15651
0.1693842 7.74327 5.063449 7.74327
0.1349656 7.963112 4.693477 7.963112
0.1088122 9.264639 3.877643 9.264639
0.1344002 8.039803 4.423167 8.039803
0.0961445 8.588956 4.431433 8.588956
0.0704606 9.047115 4.229451 9.047115
0.085186 6.777647 4.830074 6.777647
0.110262 7.431892 4.887278 7.431892
0.0726981 7.410347 4.838407 7.410347
0.0233941 7.795235 5.19448 5.710427
0.2001891 5.710427 4.709878 5.703783
0.2224735 5.703783 5.011847 8.421783
0.0480897 8.421783 4.907286 7.03966
0.1270896 7.03966 4.654297 8.006368
0.1399017 8.006368 5.122761 5.525453
0.2020956 5.525453 4.540423 7.443664
0.1201323 7.443664 5.081305 6.274762
0.1402595 6.274762 4.995214 7.654443
0.069383 7.654443 5.345822 5.147494
0.1093372 5.147494 4.268052 9.129456
0.0663663 9.129456 5.660157 5.627621
0.1275397 5.627621 4.482658 8.531688
0.0875453 8.531688 4.5714 8.161375
0.083484 8.161375 3.942978 9.11482
0.082063 9.11482 5.154433 6.498282
0.0770119 6.498282 3.748013 9.198977
0.0933574 9.198977 4.456439 8.020927
0.1228929 8.020927 4.919658 7.670429
0.179926 7.670429 3.942978 6.100319
0.082063 6.100319 4.821562 7.062191
0 7.956827 4.705501 6.126869
0.0585124 7.062191 4.579198 6.838405
0.0255859 6.126869 4.41699 6.122493
0 6.838405 5.053004 6.751101
0.0111253 6.122493 4.807817 7.07327
0.1276792 6.751101 4.502122 8.062118
0.0658608 7.07327 3.876162 9.124128
0.0454477 8.062118 4.705501 7.989222
0.0804408 9.124128 4.298777 9.035987
0.0255859 7.989222 4.466483 8.408939
0.0576927 9.035987 4.058512 7.678789
0.0740428 8.408939 4.776484 7.776535
0.1154672 7.678789 5.296478 6.100319
0.1789969 7.776535 4.612612 8.034631
0.159125 6.100319 5.044064 8.385945
0.1252622 8.034631 4.443547 8.55526
0.0428893 8.385945 5.040979 8.334472
0 8.016318 4.276119 9.063231
0.0594911 8.55526 4.53569 8.185907
0.0408939 8.334472 4.054325 9.399141
0.0474769 9.063231 4.908435 7.406104
0.033752 8.185907 3.844577 9.359364
0.0723867 9.399141 4.620274 8.043021
0.1088167 7.406104 4.992118 6.754604
0.0765598 9.359364 4.583113 7.881938
0.1231021 8.043021 4.427438 7.225482
0.1283908 6.754604 5.210982 8.577912
0.0099523 7.881938 4.264554 7.54009
0 7.97074 4.549104 6.675823
0.0079859 7.225482 4.611063 6.089045
0 8.577912 4.198824 7.711997
0.0021454 7.54009 4.649543 8.013343
0 6.675823 4.605591 8.035603
0.0101022 6.089045 4.920502 7.469084
0.1107579 7.711997 4.774957 8.195609
0.0260315 8.013343 4.945251 7.000334
0.119647 8.035603 4.453909 8.447414
0.1029898 7.469084 3.888744 9.23474
0.0380428 8.195609 4.984318 7.818832
0.0888219 7.000334 4.611063 7.906547
0.0591914 8.447414 3.800108 9.452816
0.0724866 9.23474 4.252359 8.992806
0.1171123 7.818832 3.888744 6.726233
0.0101022 7.906547 4.748575 6.946014
0.07626 9.452816 4.422143 6.821107
0.0472727 8.992806 4.35254 7.027315
0.0724866 6.726233 4.249628 7.488294
0 6.946014 4.361207 7.205635
0 6.821107 4.508287 8.210668
0 7.027315 4.588817 8.113426
0.0016972 7.488294 4.563311 8.02617
0.004232 7.205635 3.882513 9.649434
0.0653192 8.210668 4.585098 8.296047
0.0013487 8.113426 4.921238 6.137727
0.112381 8.02617 4.50373 8.780634
0.0825257 9.649434 4.158137 9.365462
0.0377429 8.296047 4.91293 7.682943
0.0930348 6.137727 4.911356 7.993958
0.0427839 8.780634 5.101322 7.144407
0.0128863 9.365462 4.307065 9.283219
0.0980239 7.682943 4.558619 5.808143
0.1177293 7.993958 4.411921 7.013016
0.0434099 7.144407 4.403384 7.282073
0.0469729 9.283219 5.703093 8.237479
0 8.307953 4.307065 7.720462
0.0136191 5.808143 4.952611 7.058758
0 7.013016 4.031529 7.627544
0 7.282073 4.582829 8.196988
0 8.237479 4.289196 9.307104
0 7.720462 4.473676 8.635332
0.077794 7.058758 4.985627 7.25347
0.1187804 7.627544 3.854313 9.731394
0.0652396 8.196988 5.013987 7.51915
0.0470228 9.307104 4.967664 8.176392
0.0431577 8.635332 4.213197 9.255505
0.0434099 7.25347 4.347482 7.138073
0.0830752 9.731394 4.870046 7.918629
0.0973827 7.51915 3.732143 7.90802
0.0376001 8.176392 4.891078 6.811244
0.01149 9.255505 4.947492 6.390241
0.1184154 7.138073 4.52047 7.005789
0.1131683 7.918629 4.854774 7.13966
0 7.90802 3.707643 9.626877
0 6.811244 4.618297 8.012018
0.0004997 6.754604 4.859273 7.124478
0.1253011 6.390241 4.311509 9.30082
0.0498321 7.005789 4.697856 7.837949
0.0434099 7.13966 4.44846 8.153062
0.0722868 9.626877 4.404619 6.985642
0.1228783 8.012018 5.322886 6.113682
0.0983956 7.124478 5.552011 8.212839
0.0469729 9.30082 4.648652 7.986165
0.1204007 7.837949 3.980887 9.368711
0.0658211 8.153062 4.61524 8.625151
0.1206292 6.985642 4.052474 7.758334
0.1053857 6.113682 3.665398 7.985144
0.0384343 8.212839 4.293173 7.65302
0.0059166 7.986165 4.732238 6.608001
0.0032407 9.368711 4.547348 8.530109
0.0399137 8.625151 4.619493 7.876259
0.1151573 7.758334 4.343452 8.296047
0 7.985144 4.884655 7.192182
0 7.65302 4.578584 8.148446
0.0011486 6.608001 4.199109 9.468619
0.0406978 8.530109 3.64636 9.393495
0.1161576 7.876259 4.987234 7.417581
0.0647241 8.296047 4.636477 8.144389
0.07893 7.192182 3.790699 9.536546
0.0057172 8.148446 3.771098 7.967627
0.0469729 9.468619 4.445287 7.281386
0.0021952 9.393495 4.538894 7.125283
0.0958153 7.417581 5.007716 7.437206
0.1173968 8.144389 4.543821 7.173192
0.0002999 9.536546 4.523685 8.510773
0 7.967627 4.465268 7.804251
0 7.281386 4.26766 9.790543
0 7.125283 4.332252 8.299535
0.0999872 7.437206 4.650849 8.091627
0.1084509 7.173192 3.598818 9.518045
0.0406978 8.510773 4.835927 7.12206
0.1159531 7.804251 3.365106 9.466686
0.002991 9.790543 3.75652 7.809541
0.0647241 8.299535 4.310505 7.529943
0.1137686 8.091627
0.0739082 9.518045
0.0839961 7.12206
0.0010987 9.466686
0.121818 6.562444
0 7.809541
0 7.529943
Figure 23: Export entrants among intra-African exporters, 1998–
(a) Tariff costs

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

ln average tariff costs, bilateral

ln number of entrants in year t Linear (ln number

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the trade cost data
Note: In (a): adjusted R-squared 0.28; and in (b): adjusted R-squared 0
rican exporters, 1998–2013
(b) Non-tariff costs

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

f costs, bilateral ln average non-tariff costs bilateral

Linear (ln number of entrants in year t) ln number of entrants in year t Linear (ln number of entrants in year t)

a from the trade cost database of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and the World Bank and the exporter dynam
(b): adjusted R-squared 0.46. Trade costs are measured based on microtheory using macroeconomic data.
 5.5 6

umber of entrants in year t)

k and the exporter dynamics database of the World Bank.

Figure 24: Obstacles faced by exporting African enterprises (Percentage)
Obstacles
Transport
Tax rates
Tax administration
Practices of competitors in the informal sector
Political Instability
Labor Regulations
Inadequate Education
Electricity
Customs and trade regulations
Crime, theft and disorder
Courts
Corruption
Business Licensing
Access to land
Access to finance
s (Percentage) Figure 24: Obstacles faced by exporting Af
Inclusive Growth Non-inclusive growth
8.58 1.95 Access to finance
8.58 11.40 Access to land
3.89 3.39
Business Licensing
6.96 7.91
Corruption
7.99 23.31
Courts
2.59 1.95
3.51 4.00 Crime, theft and disorder

14.79 14.78 Customs and trade regulations

4.75 7.49 Electricity
2.32 1.54 Inadequate Education
0.76 0.51
Labor Regulations
11.76 7.90
Political Instability
2.54 3.90
Practices of competitors in the informal sector
3.13 1.23
17.86 8.73 Tax administration
Tax rates
Transport
0.00

Inclusive Growth

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data

Note: The latest survey year available for indi
 Obstacles faced by exporting African enterprises (Percentage)

Access to finance
Access to land
Business Licensing
Corruption
Courts
Crime, theft and disorder
Customs and trade regulations
Electricity
Inadequate Education
Labor Regulations
Political Instability
f competitors in the informal sector
Tax administration
Tax rates
Transport
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00

Inclusive Growth Non-inclusive growth

NCTAD calculations, based on data from the World Bank enterprise surveys (various years).
atest survey year available for individual countries was used, ranging from 2006 to 2020. Classification into inclusive and non-inclusive co
ive and non-inclusive countries is based on the lists in tables 1 and 2 (see chapter 1). Countries in the group of absolute inclusive growth are
lute inclusive growth are not considered here for comparative purposes.
Figure 25: Average implementation rates of trade facilitation measures, 2019 (Percenta

Cross-Border Paperless
Country Trade
Botswana 11.11
Cameroon 50.00
Comoros 0.00
Cote d'Ivoire 5.56
Republic of Congo 38.89
Egypt 16.67
Ethiopia 0.00
Gabon 11.11
Guinea 22.22
Guinea-Bissau 11.11
Madagascar 0.00
Malawi 50.00
Mauritania 11.11
Mauritius 44.44
Morocco 77.78
Mozambique 16.67
Namibia 5.56
Senegal 55.56
Sierra Leone 22.22
Somalia 0.00
South Sudan 0.00
Sudan 44.44
Tanzania 22.22
Togo 44.44
Tunisia 50.00
Zambia 38.89
Zimbabwe 11.11
World 36.24
on measures, 2019 (Percentage)

Paperless Trade Institutional Arrangement and Cooperation Formalities Transparency

40.74 88.89 83.33 80.00
48.15 77.78 70.83 46.67
29.63 22.22 54.17 53.33
74.07 44.44 75.00 53.33
44.44 77.78 70.83 66.67
37.04 55.56 66.67 46.67
18.52 55.56 75.00 73.33
11.11 33.33 29.17 6.67
33.33 66.67 66.67 40.00
29.63 44.44 54.17 53.33
37.04 44.44 45.83 33.33
59.26 88.89 66.67 80.00
40.74 44.44 37.50 20.00
77.78 66.67 91.67 100.00
88.89 66.67 95.83 93.33
70.37 33.33 58.33 53.33
66.67 88.89 75.00 73.33
51.85 55.56 75.00 66.67
48.15 44.44 66.67 73.33
11.11 66.67 33.33 53.33
0.00 55.56 41.67 33.33
66.67 100.00 79.17 66.67
48.15 66.67 50.00 66.67
55.56 55.56 66.67 73.33
74.07 100.00 79.17 66.67
55.56 88.89 62.50 73.33
48.15 77.78 58.33 40.00
61.11 68.49 73.44 77.14
Figure 25: Average implementation rates of trade facil

World 36.24 61.11 68.4

Zimbabwe11.11 48.15 77.78

Zambia 38.89 55.56 8

Tunisia 50.00 74.07

Togo 44.44 55.56 55.56

Tanzania 22.22 48.15 66.67

Sudan 44.44 66.67

0.00
South Sudan 55.56 41.67 33.33

0.00
Somalia11.11 66.67 33.33 53

Sierra Leone 22.22 48.15 44.44

Senegal 55.56 51.85 55

Namibia5.56 66.67 88.89

Mozambique 16.67 70.37 33.33

Morocco 77.78 88.89

Mauritius 44.44 77.78

Mauritania11.11 40.74 44.44 37.50

Malawi 50.00 59.26

0.00 37.04
Madagascar 44.44 45.83

Guinea-Bissau11.11 29.63 44.44 54.17

Guinea 22.22 33.33 66.67

Gabon11.11
11.11 33.33 29.17 6.67

0.00
Ethiopia 18.52 55.56 75.00

Egypt 16.67 37.04 55.56

Republic of Congo 38.89 44.44 77.78

Cote d'Ivoire5.56 74.07 44.44

0.00 29.63
Comoros 22.22 54.17 53.3

Cameroon 50.00 48.15 77

Botswana11.11 40.74 88.89

Cross-Border Paperless
Formalities
 Cameroon 50.00 48.15 77

Botswana11.11 40.74 88.89

Cross-Border Paperless
Formalities

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on United Nations,

tion rates of trade facilitation measures, 2019 (Percentage)

61.11 68.49 73.44 77.14

77.78 58.33 40.00

55.56 88.89 62.50 73.33

74.07 100.00 79.17 66.67

55.56 55.56 66.67 73.33

5 66.67 50.00 66.67

66.67 100.00 79.17 66.67

41.67 33.33

33.33 53.33

5 44.44 66.67 73.33

51.85 55.56 75.00 66.67

88.89 75.00 73.33

37 33.33 58.33 53.33

88.89 66.67 95.83 93.33

77.78 66.67 91.67 100.00

44.44 37.50 20.00

59.26 88.89 66.67 80.00

44.44 45.83 33.33

44.44 54.17 53.33

66.67 66.67 40.00

29.17 6.67

6 75.00 73.33

55.56 66.67 46.67

44.44 77.78 70.83 66.67

44.44 75.00 53.33

54.17 53.33

48.15 77.78 70.83 46.67

88.89 83.33 80.00

Cross-Border Paperless Trade Paperless Trade Institutional Arrangement and Cooperation

Formalities Transparency
 48.15 77.78 70.83 46.67

88.89 83.33 80.00

Cross-Border Paperless Trade Paperless Trade Institutional Arrangement and Cooperation

Formalities Transparency

ased on United Nations, 2019.

Figure 26: Tripartite free trade area online platform on non-tariff barriers, January 2

NTB Type
Issues related to the rules of origin
Lengthy and costly customs clearance
procedures
Costly road user charges /fees
Export subsidies
Issues related to transit
Additional taxes and other charges
Technical barriers to trade and
phytosanitary measures
Government policies and regulations
Inadequate trade-related infrastructure
Inadequate or unreasonable customs
procedures and charges
Import bans
Corruption
Import licensing
International taxes and charges levied on
imports and other tariff measures
Lack of coordination between
government institutions
Costly procedures
Vehicle standards
Quantitative restrictions
Export restraint arrangements
Other
de area online platform on non-tariff barriers, January 2009–January 2021

Non-tariff barriers reported Non-tariff barriers resolved

88 78

68 67

48 43
39 39
37 33
32 25

20 15

20 20
23 22

19 19

15 13
8 7
14 13

18 17

16 15

12 10
15 10
16 16
13 13
153 143
Figure 26: Tripartite free trade area online plat

Iss

Lengthy and costl

Ad

Technical barriers to tra

Gove

Inadeq

Inadequate or unreasonable c

International taxes and charges levied on im

Lack of coordination b
Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from
Note: “Other” refers to all other types of non-tariff
free trade area online platform on non-tariff barriers, January 2009–January 2021

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Issues related to the rules of origin

Lengthy and costly customs clearance procedures

Costly road user charges /fees

Export subsidies

Issues related to transit

Additional taxes and other charges

Technical barriers to trade and phytosanitary measures

Government policies and regulations

Inadequate trade-related infrastructure

dequate or unreasonable customs procedures and charges

Import bans

Corruption

Import licensing

es and charges levied on imports and other tariff measures

Lack of coordination between government institutions

Costly procedures

Vehicle standards

Quantitative restrictions

Export restraint arrangements

Other

Non-tariff barriers resolved Non-tariff barriers reported

 Other

Non-tariff barriers resolved Non-tariff barriers reported

culations, based on data from the online platform.

o all other types of non-tariff barriers reported on the platform but not separately indicated in the figure.
0 80 100 120 140 160 180

reported
reported
Figure 27: Tripartite free trade area: Most-reported non-tariff barriers and resolution
Most rep

Code
2.3
2.8
8.7
1.1
8.8
2.6

3 and 4
8.1
7.9
2.10
Most-reported non-tariff barriers and resolution times, January 2009–January 2021
Most reported NTBs within the Tripartite FTA and their resolution times
Time to solve issues related to NTBs
Minimum
Non-tariff barrier type Average duration duration
Issues related to rules of origin 535.96 46
Lengthy and costly customs clearance procedures 591.34 3
Costly Road user charges and/or fees 796 4
Export subsidies 700 19
Issues related to transit 647 3
Additional taxes and other charges 316 24
Technical barriers to trade and sanitary and phytosanitary
standards 479 0
Government policies and regulations 660 4
Inadequate trade-related infrastructure 741 185
Inadequate or unreasonable customs procedures and charges 580 19
ion times
TBs
Maximum Median Numbers of resolved non-
duration duration tariff barriers (right axis)
2082 376.5 78
3531 483 67
2629 580 43
2487 487 39
3425 484 33
685 249 25

1714 416 15
1877 507 20
2431 533 22
3773 449 19
Figure 27: Tripartite free trade area: Most-reported non-tariff barriers and resolution

4000

3500

Resolution duration (number of days) 3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Average duration Minimum duration

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the tripartite free trade area online platf
n-tariff barriers and resolution times, January 2009–January 2021

Minimum duration Maximum duration Median duration Numbers of resolved

artite free trade area online platform on non-tariff barriers.

 90

80

70

Number of resolved non-tariff barriers

60

50

40

30

20

10

Numbers of resolved non-tariff barriers (right axis)

Figure 29: Africa: Aid for Trade initiative disbursements by sector (Millions of constan

Aid for Trade Disbursement by Sector 2010 2011

Economic Infrastructure and services 5719.284 6219.656
Building productive capacities 4828.125 5415.221
Trade policy and regulations 360.8556 311.7028
Trade-related adjustments 51.25638 2.874607
Aid for Trade Initiative: Total disbursements (right a 10959.52 11949.45
tor (Millions of constant 2018 dollars)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

7129.319 8041.329 8015.884 8391.077 8852.936 8501.206 8637.546 9167.445
5387.595 6500.988 6445.323 6331.326 6453.097 7309.455 7779.429 8989.091
345.0827 433.9724 401.1183 388.1383 421.4685 327.0625 587.9415 299.1784
0.467837 0.848173 2.509123 0.309814 0.113009 0.617405 0.5378 0.55056
12862.46 14977.14 14864.83 15110.85 15727.61 16138.34 17005.45 18456.27
Figure 29: Africa: Aid for Trade initiative disbursements by sector (Millions of constant 2018 dollars)

10000
9500
9000
8500
8000
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Economic Infrastructure and services Building productive capacities

Trade policy and regulations Trade-related adjustments
Aid for Trade Initiative: Total disbursements (right axis)

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from OECD.

nt 2018 dollars)

20000

18000

16000

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
2017 2018 2019

productive capacities
ated adjustments
Table 1 Africa: inclusive growth patterns

Variation in Variation in Gini

Growth Pattern Country Year 1 Year 2
poverty headcount Index

Lesotho 2003 2017

Niger 2005 2014

Gambia 2003 2015

Liberia 2007 2016

Guinea 2002 2012

Tunisia 2000 2015

Cabo Verde 2002 2015

Algeria 1995 2011

Relatively Sierra Leone 2003 2018

Decrease Decrease
inclusive
Morocco 2001 2014

Burkina Faso 2003 2014

Mauritania 2000 2014

Rwanda 2000 2017

Uganda 2000 2017

Mali 2001 2010

Nigeria 2004 2019

Kenya 2005 2016

Growth in average Dem. Rep. of the

2005 2012
per capita income Congo

Namibia 2004 2015

Decrease Decrease
Gabon 2005 2017

Senegal 2001 2011

Chad 2003 2011

Congo 2005 2011

United Rep. of Tanz 2000 2018

Mozambique 2003 2014

Absolutely South Africa 2001 2015

inclusive
Ghana 2006 2017

Decrease Increase Eswatini 2001 2016

Ethiopia 2000 2016

Mauritius 2007 2017

Malawi 2004 2016

Burundi 2006 2014

Djibouti 2002 2017

Togo 2006 2015

Seychelles 2000 2013

Increase Increase
Botswana 2003 2016
Decline in average Yet growth for the
Decrease Decrease
per capita income poor
Sudan 2009 2014

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Povcal Net database of the World Bank.
Notes: The poverty headcount is calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power par
 Pro-poor growth Average Growth
rate rate

(Percentage)

7.00 5.16

6.83 4.53

6.75 3.68

5.16 4.81

5.13 2.96

4.62 2.83

4.48 1.95

3.85 1.64

3.77 3.07

3.61 3.40

3.54 1.42

3.14 1.68

2.88 2.26

2.69 2.68

2.61 0.70

2.54 1.58

1.75 0.21

10.57 10.59

4.04 4.49

2.77 2.89

1.05 1.30

4.65 6.12

4.50 5.77

4.48 4.77

2.92 4.52

2.86 4.54

2.68 3.73

2.23 3.17

2.13 2.83

1.67 2.28

0.41 1.12

0.40 1.65

0.13 0.95

0.05 0.80

0.54 1.39

3.54 -0.62

2.66 -0.48

atabase of the World Bank.

9 per day (purchasing power parity). The assessment of inclusive growth is based on the pro-poor and average growth rates (see box 2).
verage growth rates (see box 2). Periods of conflict are not accounted for due to data limitations. Data are not available for Equatorial G
re not available for Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Libya, Somalia and South Sudan.
Table 2 Africa: non-inclusive growth patterns

Variation in Variation in Gini

Growth Pattern Country Year 1 Year 2
poverty headcount Index

Decrease Increase Cameroon 2001 2014

Sao Tome and Princi 2001 2017

Central African Rep. 2003 2008

Growth is not inclusive
Increase Increase Benin 2003 2015

Zambia 2003 2015

Decline in average Guinea-Bissau 2002 2010

per capita income
of the poor Madagascar 2001 2012

Increase Decrease Angola 2000 2018

Relatively small decline in growth
among the poor
Comoros 2004 2014

Zimbabwe 2011 2017

Increase Increase
Increase Decrease Egypt 2000 2018
Sharp decline in growth is higher
among the poor than the non-poor
Côte d’Ivoire 2002 2015
Increase Increase

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Povcal Net database of the World Bank.
Notes: The poverty headcount is calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power parity)
 Pro-poor growth Average Growth
rate rate

(Percentage)

-0.69 1.60

-1.64 2.44

-2.41 4.18

-2.87 0.41

-3.95 0.82

-4.58 0.01

-0.89 -2.06

-1.29 -1.86

-2.21 -2.97

-3.16 -3.50

-0.41 -0.31

-0.90 -0.44

f the World Bank.

(purchasing power parity). Variations in poverty headcount and the Gini index are not taken into account in the assessment of inclusive gro
essment of inclusive growth. Periods of conflict are not accounted for due to data limitations. Data are not available for Equatorial Guinea,
e for Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Libya, Somalia and South Sudan.
Table 3 Gambia: Growth, poverty and inequality

Consumption
Square of
Poverty Watts
Mean Median Headcount poverty
gap index
gap

(Dollars per month) (Percentage)

2015 148.74 115.27 10.30 2.26 0.77 2.83

2010 128.95 90.75 25.35 7.59 3.27 10.32
2003 96.40 61.96 46.14 17.94 9.26 26.79

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Povcal Net database of the World Bank.
Note: Poverty measurements are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power parity)
 Mean log
Gini index deviation Population
index

(Millions)
35.92 21.37 2.09
43.57 32.51 1.79
47.33 38.99 1.45

of the World Bank.

y (purchasing power parity).
Table 4 Gambia: Human Development Index, Index of Economic Freedom and Corruption Percep

2003

Human Development Index (1 = the most developed, 0 = the least

0.42
developed)
Index of Economic Freedom (100 = maximum freedom, 0 = minimum
50.3
freedom)
Corruption Perceptions Index (100 = highly clean, 0 = highly corrupt) 25

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the World Data Atlas.
dom and Corruption Perceptions Index

Annual Increase
2015
(Percentage)

0.47 0.94%

57.5 1.12%

28 0.95%
Table 5 South Africa: Growth, poverty and inequality

Consumption
Headcount Poverty Gap

Mean Median
(Dollars per month) (Percentage)
2015 340.15 135.38 18.70 6.11
2010 361.11 141.55 16.17 4.81
2009 342.50 135.36 16.74 4.73
2005 271.59 100.90 25.68 8.23
2001 182.72 88.78 34.77 13.02

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Povcal Net database of the World Ba
Note: Poverty measurements are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing po
 Mean log
Square of deviation Population
Watts index Gini index index
poverty gap

(Millions)
2.86 8.58 63.03 75.03 55.39
2.05 6.55 63.38 75.29 51.22
1.95 6.30 63.01 73.51 50.48
3.69 11.37 64.76 77.83 47.88
6.13 18.73 57.77 60.47 45.57

Povcal Net database of the World Bank.

y line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power parity).
Table 6 South Africa: Human Development Index, Index of Economic Freedom and Corruption P

2001

Human Development Index (1 = the most developed, 0 = the least

0.61
developed)
Index of Economic Freedom (100 = maximum freedom, 0 =
63.80
minimum freedom)
Corruption Perceptions Index (100 = highly clean, 0 = highly
48.00
corrupt)

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the World Data Atlas.
mic Freedom and Corruption Perceptions Index

Annual Increase
(2001-2015)
2010 2015
(Percentage)

0.66 0.70 0.99%

62.80 62.60 -0.14%

45.00 44.00 -0.62%

Table 7 Zambia: Growth, poverty and inequality

Headcount Poverty gap

Consumption
Mean Median

(Dollars per month) (Percentage)

2015 87.16 45.46 58.75 30.68

2010 75.44 39.15 65.82 32.95
2007 77.54 42.40 62.14 31.36
2005 84.22 46.56 58.37 28.49
2003 79.07 55.87 52.05 18.81

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Povcal Net database of the World Bank.
Notes: The mean and median are of consumption for growth. Poverty measurements are calculated at the
 Mean log
Square of
Watts index Gini index deviation Population
poverty gap
Index

(Millions)

19.61 53.14 57.14 60.47 15.88

19.87 53.43 55.62 53.91 13.61
19.30 52.03 54.62 52.89 12.17
17.14 46.48 54.29 52.44 11.86
9.06 26.75 42.06 29.87 11.26

et database of the World Bank.

erty measurements are calculated at the poverty line of $1.9 per day (purchasing power parity). The indices are measures of inequality.
measures of inequality.
Table 8 Selected informal cross-border trade initiatives, by country

Agency Value of informal

Borders
conducting survey trade
(Millions of dollars)

Exports 2010,
US$ 211

Imports 2010,
National Institute US$ 833
Burkina Faso; Niger;
Benin of Statistics and
Nigeria; Togo
Economic Analysis

Re-exports 2010,
US$ 596

Transit trade 2020,

US$ 172
Exports 2011, US$
Kenya National Ethiopia; Somalia; 16,6
Kenya Bureau of Uganda; United Republic
Statistics of Tanzania Imports 2011, US$
14.5

Exports 2019, US$

Namibia Statistics Angola; South Africa; 1,1
Namibia
Agency Zambia
Imports 2019, US$
0,2

Total trade June

Central Bank of
Nigeria 2013 – May 2014,
Nigeria
across the selected
Benin; Cameroon; Niger borders, $6,913

Exports 2019, US$

National Bank of 110
Rwanda, National Burundi, Congo DRC,
Rwanda
Institute of Tanzania, and Uganda
Statistics
Imports 2019, US$
12
 Democratic Republic of Exports 2019, US$
Uganda Bureau of the Congo; Kenya; 531.9
Uganda Statistics, Bank of Rwanda; South Sudan;
Uganda United Republic of
Tanzania
Imports 2019, US$
57.8

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the official national sources and the ComStat databa
Note: If reported in national currency, conversion to dollars uses the annual average exchange rate.
sources and the ComStat database.
ual average exchange rate.
Table 9 Announced greenfield foreign direct investment projects by sector and industry, 2016–2020 (Percentage)

Africa as destination Africa as in

Industry 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2016
Manufacturing 19.57 24.32 42.87 42.88 29.20 53.33
Food, beverages and tobacco 0.88 2.18 6.04 3.18 4.76 1.54
Chemicals and chemical products 5.04 7.71 14.47 8.03 3.53 41.97
Coke and refined petroleum products 5.18 1.70 8.41 10.03 7.98 0.00
Pharmaceuticals and medicinal chemical products 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.72 0.33 1.55
Motor vehicles and other transport equipment 2.89 1.65 3.32 5.21 3.83 0.77
Primary 4.23 12.36 22.09 3.67 4.76 0.00
Agriculture, forestry and fishing 0.13 0.13 0.32 0.25 0.98 0.00
Mining and quarrying 4.11 12.24 21.77 3.43 3.78 0.00
Services 76.20 63.32 35.04 53.45 66.04 46.67
Construction 16.77 6.34 6.20 12.43 1.42 19.54
Education 0.11 0.04 0.07 0.34 0.49 0.70
Electricity, gas and steam 15.97 43.00 7.41 13.27 18.32 0.23
Financial and insurance activities 0.77 0.88 0.98 2.73 2.37 5.39
Human health and social work activities 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.58 0.00
Information and communication 2.19 2.56 5.09 6.02 30.90 8.15
Transportation and storage 15.09 7.13 6.75 7.01 4.41 7.28
Total (millions of dollars) 93841 86516 77104 77061 28997 10935

Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Financial Times (see https://www.fdimarkets.com/).
6–2020 (Percentage)

Africa as investor
2017 2018 2019 2020
52.33 33.42 57.84 13.50
2.32 0.28 2.33 1.59
20.36 13.80 30.78 0.32
0.16 0.00 11.72 0.00
2.01 0.73 0.60 1.30
0.78 0.48 0.00 1.14
0.00 0.48 0.94 0.00
0.00 0.45 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.03 0.94 0.00
47.67 66.11 41.22 86.50
3.44 15.68 0.71 1.86
0.06 0.07 0.25 1.12
0.45 7.47 8.43 12.50
13.52 10.04 8.26 6.33
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
12.49 14.82 15.07 57.42
9.76 5.52 1.76 1.71
5507.2 8885.2 12056 6131.03