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Nutritionv
Introduction
Anatomy and function of digestive tractsv
Anatomy of digestive tracts
Digestion in the ruminant stomachs
Digestion in the intestines
Nutrients requirements of ruminants>
Nutritional value of feeds>
Making silage and hay>
Conclusion

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Digestion in the ruminant stomachs

The rumen and the reticulum

The rumen and the reticulum form a functional physiological unit.
The rumen is a continuous fermentation system, very favorable to proliferation of highly dense and
active microbial populations. The food reaches the rumen at regular intervals, between 5-9 hours a
day. It is diluted in a large amount of liquid, particularly drinking water. Saliva is secreted in a
continuous flow by parotid glands represents a genuine buffer (with a pH of 8.2) of bicarbonates
and phosphates of Na and K. Remastication during rumination reduces the particle size and
increases the attack surface microorganisms.
In the temperature of the rumen is constant (39-40°C) and the oxygen content is weak. The
periodic rumen muscle contractions ensure regular ongoing homogenisation. The pH is
maintained between relatively small limits. The rumen walls are irrigated by an important blood
flow that drains the terminal products of microbial degradation.
Complex phenomena occurring in the rumen and reticulum are due to the presence of a microflora
formed of bacteria, protozoa and fungi.
The protozoa, almost exclusively ciliates, belong to about 30 species of varying sizes. Two types are
the most important:
1. Holotriches;
2. Oligotriches or Entodiniomorphes.

Definition
 Holotriches causes rapid fermentation of saccharose and fructose, storing free hexoses or
forming a reserve polysaccharide, which it then metabolizes slowly.
Oligotriches ingest and digest starch, as well as chloroplasts, particles of cellulose tissues.
By their effect, the two types of protozoa reduce, first, the amount of easily fermentable glucides
available for the bacterial population. They temperate, in this way the fermentation speed.

Protozoa are highly sensitive to environmental rumen conditions and rations characteristics.
Rations that provide a pH between 6 and 7, comprising soluble glucides (from young grass, beet)
create the most favorable conditions of a maximum density of protozoa. The number of protozoa
decreases in the case of low rations in soluble constituents. They disappear in the case of rations
that create low pHs (<5.5), as in the case of using ad libitum concentrates or those that stay for a
too short a time in the rumen, respectively the milled forages. Also, the distribution of the ration
once a day reduces the density of protozoa.

The bacteria
The bacterial population is responsible for most of the damages suffered by forage in the rumen.
The rumen bacterial species are: Fibrobacter succinogenes, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens,
Ruminococcus albus, Ruminococcus flavefaciens (cellulosolytic), Streptococcus bovis,
Selenomonas ruminantium, Lactobacillus (role in the fermentation of sugars and starches),
Bacillus licheniformis (proteolytic), Propionibacter, Veillonella gazogenes (lactose fermentation)
etc.
The rumen bacterial species are more or less specialized and can be classified according to the
nature of the substances which they attack (membranous poliholoside, saccharose, acids, proteins,
lipids) or after the formed products (methane).
The rumen fungi produce enzymes involved in simple carbohydrate digestion and of plant walls.

Decline of ration components

Glucides
The glucides (glucose, fructose, sucrose) diffuses rapidly in the rumen fluids. They are used quickly
and completely by the rumen microorganisms. Practically, there are no simple saccharoses in the
rumen than for a very short period, during ingestion. Starch, the main constituent of the cereal
grains (40-75%), is degraded by the amylolytic bacteria. Small amounts may be ingested also by
some protozoa.

Lipids
The microbial populations hydrolyze triglycerides and hydrogenate the double bonds of the
unsaturated acids, acids with chains of 18 carbon atoms being largely converted into stearic acid.
They convert glycerol and galactose into volatile fatty acids (VFA). Fatty acids with long carbon
chains are not absorbed in the rumen, they are largely fixed on food particles and pass into the
omasum.
The VFA mixture concentration in the rumen fluid increases within the first 3-4 hours after the
beginning of ingestion, proportional to the content of rations in easily fermentable glucides.
The acetic acid is mainly in the VFA mixture from the rumen under normal feeding. It represents
60-70% to 15-20% propionic acid, 10-15% butyric acid and 2-5% isobutyric, methylbutyric, valeric
and isovaleric acids. In the case in which the volume feed distributed at discretion (alone) it is
found that the proportion of acetic acid in the mixture of VFA varies proportionally with the
proportion of crude cellulose and therefore in inverse ratio with the organic matter digestibility.
 Rations rich in concentrates, distributed in large quantities, are ingested in a short time. They
bring in the rumen, in a short period of time, considerable amounts of starch that enter
immediately into fermentation. This fermentation leads to a rapid increase in the concentration of
VFA and causes a significant decrease of the pH. At this contributes also the reduction of the
salivary secretion as a consequence of the reduced rumination time. The ratio between the acetic
acid / propionic acid which, usually, is larger than 3.5 in the case of the ration with volume feed,
where it drops to 2.5 in the case of the rations with more concentrates.
With rations rich in soluble glucides, such as those based on sugar beet, the proportion of acetic
acid decreases much in the favor of the butyric and valeric acids. The butyric fermentations keep
possible the maintenance of a high percentage of fat in milk, as opposed to the propionic ones
(rations rich in starch) which produce a decrease in milk fat.
Nitrogenous substances
Nitrogenous substances suffer degradation in the rumen more or less intense, and fast, with
production of ammonia, which is absorbed through the rumen wall, or are considered precursors
for the synthesis of bacterial proteins. This degradation is very fast for non-protein nitrogen
substances.
The degradation of the proteins from feed is dependent on their solubility. Highly soluble proteins
are degraded rapidly, while small soluble proteins will leave the rumen relatively intact. Many food
proteins are metabolized by microorganisms and are incorporated into the microbial proteins. The
amino acid composition of proteins in bacteria and protozoa is nearly constant and independent of
the nature of rations. These proteins are relatively well balanced in amino acids, especially those
from protozoa. They are rich in lysine, and the limiting amino acids are cystine and histidine.

Crude cellulose
Generally, one can say that cellulosic tissues are degradable in the rumen, while lignified tissues
are not degradable except for the case of very young plants. The digestibility of crude cellulose in
the rumen is reduced in the case of plants harvested in an advanced stage of vegetation, meaning
that this is when the proportion of lignified stalks and tissues is high. Lignin constitutes a physical
obstacle to the action of enzymes, and with certain poliholoside, like to xylans, gives very strong
chemical bonds. Treating straw with alkali (which break these links) leads to the increase of xylan
degradation. The total delignification can make poliholosides be almost entirely digestible.

Mineral substances
The concentration of various electrolytes within the fluids of the rumen depend upon the brought
quantities of feed, saliva, drinking water, as well as on the amounts absorbed at the level of rumen
mucosa. Potassium, sodium, chlorine can pass through the rumen mucosa in both directions, while
calcium and phosphorus pass from the rumen into the bloodstream.

Vitamin K
Vitamin K and B-complex vitamins are synthesized by rumen microsimbionts, without being
necessary the ration supplementation with these vitamins.
Throughout the process of fermentation, in the rumen are produced large amounts of gas. The
carbon dioxide represents 60-70% of the gas mixture and it is derived from the saliva bicarbonates
and from fermentation processes. A part of it is reduced under the form of methane by the
hydrogen released in excess, during the fermentation of saccharoses. The carbon dioxide and
methane are removed from the outside through belching, as well as through the lungs after the
passing into the blood.
The omasum is the next digestion compartment, taking part in triturating feed and water
absorption. The nutrients and liquids pass as real jets, at intervals of a few seconds. The frequency
of these openings and the flow of the substances which pass increase at the same time with the
reticulum contractions, during the period of food ingestion. Some of these substances (1/3) go
directly into the abomasum, but most are trapped between the slats of the omasum.
Abomasums represents the stomach itself of the ruminants, being the only compartment that
contains digestive glands. The digestive content reached in the abomasums remains 0.5-1 hour.
Here it is diluted and acidified (the pH decreases to 2-3) by the abundant and continuous secretion
of hydrochloric acid and gastric juice rich in pepsins, but lacking completely of lipase.