POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS OF ECO-TOURISM IN IMPROVING

NATURE CONSERVATION AND LIVELIHOODS: THE CASE OF AMANI

NATURE RESERVE, TANZANIA

BY

REHEMA ABELI SHOO

A DESSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE.

MOROGORO, TANZANIA.

2009
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ABSTRACT

Amani Nature Reserve (ANR), which is within the Eastern Arc Mountains, is well known

for its biological and ecological values. Eco-tourism is being practiced in the reserve.

However, despite the fact that eco-tourism has been proposed as a viable economic activity

that can minimize negative human impacts on wildlife habitat and provide an incentive to

preserve natural areas, little has been reported on the potentials and constraints of the

practice in the area. This study was conducted in the villages adjacent to ANR, to

determine the potentials and constraints of eco-tourism in nature conservation and

livelihoods improvement in and around ANR. Questionnaire survey, Participatory Rural

Appraisal (PRA) and key informant interviews were the methods used in data collection.

The results reveal that there are enormous natural (flora, fauna and sceneries) and cultural

resources for development of productive eco-tourism in ANR. However, the existing

potential is not fully exploited. Despite an increase in tourists and hence revenues in ANR,

little is accrued by the local communities. Results further show that eco-tourism

contributed only 9.6% to total household income annually and only 22.7% of the surveyed

households were engaged in eco-tourism-relatcd activities. The study concludes that the

existing level and type of involvement in eco-tourism is not effective enough to bring

about significant impact, which comes into view that the potentials for eco-tourism in

improving livelihoods is yet to be realized in the area. Increased local community

involvements in tourism in order to improve people’s livelihoods and to enable them

understand the inter-relationships between humans and the environment are recommended.
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DECLARATION

I, REHEMA ABEL! SHOO, do hereby declare to the senate of Sokoine University of

Agriculture that this dissertation is my original work and has not been submitted for a

degree award in any other University.

Rehema Abeli Shoo Date

(MSc. Candidate)

The above declaration is confirmed

7
Prof. A.N Songorwa Date

(Supervisor)
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COPYRIGHT

No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise without prior written permission of the author or Sokoine University of

Agriculture, in that behalf.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I humbly thank my almighty GOD for granting me life, strength and the entire blessing.

The preparation for this dissertation would not have been possible without the help and

cooperation of many people. The second appreciation goes to my supervisor Prof. A.N.

Songorwa for his valuable guidance, encouragement and sound constructive criticisms

rendered to me throughout the study. Furthermore I thank Dr. J.M. Abdallah for his

assistance during proposal development.

1 wish to acknowledge the financial support received from PANTIL program and Critical

Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). Their support enabled me to undertake this study.

Lastly but not least I would like to extend my sincere acknowledgement to Mr. C. Sawe,

the Conservator of Amani Nature Reserve for allowing me to conduct my study in the

reserve and for the cooperation and support extended to me during data collection. I greatly

acknowledge the support offered by ANR staff and people in the study villages for sparing

their valuable time to discuss with me important issues regarding eco-tourism,

conservation and livelihoods.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my beloved father W.S. Abeli and mother T. Kataya who laid a

good foundation of my education and gave moral and financial support, and to my beloved

step mother J. Abeli for her love and patience during the entire period of my study.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ii

DECLARATION iii

COPYRIGHT iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

DEDICATION, vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF PLATES, xv

LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xvii

CHAPTER ONE 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background Information 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Justification 4

1.4 Research Objectives 4

1.4.1 Overall objective 4

1.4.2 Specific objectives 4

1.5 Research Questions 5

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CHAPTER TWO 6

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 The Concept of Eco-tourism 6

2.1.1 Natural and cultural attractions 7

2.1.2 Educational and learning experiences 7

2.1.3 Environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability 8

2.2 Constraints of Eco-tourism 10

2.2.1 Environmental constraints 10

2.2.2 Socio-cultural constraints 11

2.2.3 Economic constraints 12

2.3 Factors Affecting Eco-tourism 12

2.4 Tanzania’s Efforts to Boost Eco-tourism 15

2.5 Eco-tourism Aspect in Amani Nature Reserve 17

2.5.1 Visitor infrastructures 17

2.5.1.1 Zigi information center 17

2.5.1.2 Rest houses and camping sites 18

2.5.2 Endemic and rare species 18

CHAPTER THREE 20

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS 20

3.1 Description of the Study Area 20

3.1.1 Location 20

3.1.2 Topography, geology and soils 22

3.1.3 Climate 22

3.1.4 Vegetation, 22
 ix

3.1.5 Wildlife 23

3.1.6 Population, land use and local economy 24

3.2 The Study Population and Sampling Procedures 25

3.2.1 Study population 25

3.2.3 Sampling procedures 25

3.3 Data Collection 27

3.3.1 Primary data 27

3.3.1.1 Participatory rural appraisal 27

3.3.1.2 Questionnaire survey 29

3.3.1.3 Key informant interviews 29

3.3.2 Secondary data 30

3.4 Data Analysis 30

3.4.1 Qualitative data analysis 30

3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis 31

CHAPTER FOUR 32

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. 32

4.1 General Information 32

4.1.1 Origins 32

4.1.1.1 Origins of the surveyed households 32

4.1.1.2 Origins of tourists 34

4.1.2 Sex and age 35

4.1.2.1 Sex and age of respondents of surveyed households 35

4.1.2.2 Sex and age of tourists 36

4.1.3 Education level of respondents in the households 37

 X

4.1.4 Household sizes 38

4.1.5 Household income 39

4.1.6 Visitors’ sources of information 41

4.1.7 Duration of stay and frequency of visits to Amani Nature Reserve 42

4.1.8 Tourists’ trend in Amani Nature Reserve, 42

4.1.8.1 Annual tourist arrivals, 42

4.1.8.2 Tourist arrivals by season 44

4.2 Eco-tourism Potentials in Amani Nature Reserve, 44

4.2.1 Attractive features in and around Amani Nature Reserve, 44

4.2.2 Tourist activities in and around Amani Nature Reserve 54

4.2.3 Visitor services and facilities provided by Amani Nature Reserve 56

4.2.4 Community attitudes towards eco-tourism 57

4.2.5 Eco-tourism and local culture 59

4.3 Contribution of Eco-tourism to Improvement of Livelihoods 60

4.3.1 Main occupations and average incomes 60

4.3.2 Eco-tourism-related activities done by local people 64

4.3.3 Tourism income and its proportion in the household income 66

4.4 Factors Hindering Growth of Eco-tourism in the Area 68

4.4.1 Hindrances as perceived by local people 68

4.4.2 Hindrances identified by tourists 69

4.4.3 Hindrances by the ANR management 70

4.4.4 Communities’ problems in relation to eco-tourism growth 70

4.5 Modalities for Sharing Costs and Benefits 74

4.5.1 Eco-tourism revenues collected by Amani Nature Reserve 74

4.5.2 Involvement of people in eco-tourism 75

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4.6 Policy Implications on Establishment and Conduct of Eco-tourism 82

CHAPTER FIVE. 84

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 84

5.1 Conclusion 84

5.2 Recommendations 84

REFERENCES 87

APPENDICES 100
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Distribution of selected households in the surveyed villages, 26

Table 2: Number of interviews conducted per category 30

Table 3: Origins of surveyed households per village 33

Table 4: Population trends (1978 / 02) 33

Table 5: Human population growth in the surveyed villages 34

Table 6: Sex and age of respondents from the surveyed villages 36

Table 7: Sex and age of tourists 37

Table 8: Education of respondents in the surveyed villages 37

Table 9: Household size 38

Table 10: Household income in 2006 40

Table 11: Average length of stay and frequency of visits to ANR 42

Table 12: Tourists attractions in and around ANR. 46

Table 13: Nationalities of respondents and specific attractions 48

Table 14: Nationalities of respondents and travel motives 50

Table 15: Exceptional attractive features in the surveyed villages 52

Table 16: Eco-tourism activities undertaken in ANR 54

Table 17: Rating by tourists of visitor services and facilities provided by ANR 56

Table 18: Community attitudes toward eco-tourism 58

Table 19: Main sources of livelihoods and annual average income. 63

Table 20: Eco-tourism-related activities conducted by people in the selected

villages 65

Table 21: Average tourism income and its proportion in the total household income... 67

Table 22: Factors hindering growth of eco-tourism in the area 69

 xiii

Table 23: Problem analysis in villages around ANR 73

Table 24: Involvement of people in tourism by ANR 76

Table 25: Means of participating and benefiting from tourism in ANR 78

Table 26: Ways used by ANR to involve people in conserving Saintpaulia. 79

Table 27: Institutions and their importance 81

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Location of Amani Nature Reserve. 21

Figure 2: Visitors’ countries of residence 35

Figure 3: Visitors’ sources of information 41

Figure 4: Trend of tourists in ANR (1997 / 07) 43

Figure 5: Average number of tourists in ANR per month (1997 / 07). 44

Figure 6: Crops cultivated in the surveyed villages, 61

Figure 7: Revenues (in TAS) generated by ANR from eco-tourism and

amounts given to village community (2001/2-2005/6) 74

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Zigi information centre. 18

Plate 2: African violet (Santpaulia confusa). 19

Plate 3: Village resource mapping at Mlesa village. 28

Plate 4: Tourist attractions in Amani Nature Reserve. 51

Plate 5: Exceptional attractive features in the villages around ANR. 53

Plate 6: Tourists’ activities in Amani Nature Reserve 55

Plate 7: Economic activities done by people in the surveyed villages. 64

 xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Household Questionnaire 100

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Tourists 107

Appendix 3: Checklists 110

Appendix 4: List of Flora species in Amani Nature Reserve . 114

Appendix 5: List of Fauna species in Amani Nature Reserve 118

Appendix 6: Lists of PRA participants 123

Appendix 7: PRA resource maps 125

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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ABG Amani Botanical Garden

ANR Amani Nature Reserve

asl above sea level

df degree of freedom

EUCAMP East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GMP General Management Plan

IUCN International Union Conservation for Nature

MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

Max. Maximum

Min. Minimum

NBS National Bureau of Statistics

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

SE Standard Error

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

TAS Tanzanian Shillings

TBA Tropical Biology Association

TIES The International Eco-tourism Society

URT United Republic of Tanzania

WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council

WTO World Tourism Organization

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Tourism, within which eco-tourism is a niche market, generates over 10% of global Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) and employs around 200 million people worldwide per year

(WTTC, 2005). It is one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world (WTO,

2003). However, Wearing and Neil (2000) report that local communities are significantly

vulnerable to the deleterious impacts of tourism development particularly on indigenous

cultures as they directly experience negative socio-cultural impacts.

The Eco-tourism Society defines eco-tourism as “a responsible travel to natural areas

which conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people” (Grams,

1995). Eco-tourism has evolved into a type of specialty travel incorporating a diverse array

of activities from bird watching, scientific study, photography, diving, bush walking to

regeneration of damaged ecosystems (Wearing and Neil, 2000). It is being explored not as

a replacement to traditional mass-based tourism but as a complement to it - an attempt to

take advantage of a growing niche in the wider global industry or, in more technical terms,

to diversify the port-folio of tourism activities (Brandon, 1996).

According to Boo (1993), communities near protected areas are getting new employment

opportunities through eco-tourism. However, these same protected areas, which are looked

at as opportunities, are under-funded, understaffed and are experiencing a multitude of

unsustainable development activities in and around their borders. All these factors are

threatening conservation and thus eco-tourism. Some of these threats could be reduced if
 2

the potential benefits of eco-tourism could be harnessed. Fortunately, the majority of eco-

tourists are eager to contribute more than is currently being requested to conserving the

areas that they visit. However, opportunities must exist to allow them to contribute. In

order to provide these opportunities a system must be in place, and this requires planning

(Boo, 1990).

In Tanzania, tourism sector is among the sectors with great economic growth and high

employment creation potential (MNRT, 1999). The National Tourism Policy of Tanzania

was reviewed in 1999 to cope with the dynamism of the tourism industry. It seeks to assist

efforts to promote the economy and livelihoods of the people, essentially poverty reduction

through encouraging development of quality tourism that is culturally and socially

acceptable, ecologically friendly, environmentally sustainable and economically viable.

Designing environmentally friendly tourism programmes and putting into place

mechanisms that will ensure that tourist activities respect use of biodiversity, wildlife

conservation and other naturally occurring phenomena of aesthetic value, are among the

■ policy strategies in developing eco-tourism (MNRT, 1999).

Amani Nature Reserve (ANR) in northeastern Tanzania is worldwide famous due to its

potentials especially in conservation and tourism. It has substantial endemic, rare and

threatened flora and fauna compared to the rest of the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests

(ANR, 2000). However, Kessy (1997) reports that the people of East Usambara,

particularly around ANR, depend on the diverse products from the forests for their

subsistence, a practice which is common in most parts of the country. This causes a great

challenge to conservationists who are charged with the responsibility to manage the

reserve.
 3

1.2 Problem Statement

Although there are strong arguments in support of eco-tourism playing a central role in

improving local livelihoods in rich biodiversity areas such as ANR (Nelson, 2004), specific

information on how various existing eco-tourism opportunities can be utilized and

maximized in order to increase benefits to the community in question and to conservation

is lacking. Mashauri (2001) writes on the relationship between eco-tourism development in

the area and community perception towards those developments. However, he says little

about eco-tourism as a means for diversification and, therefore, livelihood improvement.

Earlier studies in ANR have concentrated mostly on quantitative studies and have taken the

form of technical reports covering issues such as vegetation, species diversity and

management of forest biodiversity (Johhasson, 1996; Fowler and Nyambo, 1996; Ellman et

al., 1995). They hardly touched on issues such as potentials and constraints related to eco-

tourism in the area for livelihood improvement or report on the existing eco-tourism

opportunities and constraints for nature conservation.

The most recent research work in ANR was by Kingwere (2005) who examined the role

played by the whole concept of conserving nature in efforts to reduce poverty and

guarantee improvement of rural livelihoods. But it had limited analysis of eco-tourism as a

means for livelihood improvement and sustainable conservation in the area. Alongside

review of compensation agenda on lost properties as a result of forest demarcation process,

Kingwere (2005) suggests the need for private sector and local community participation in

eco-tourism activities.
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1.3 Justification

ANR is one of the areas where eco-tourism can play a significant role in nature

conservation and local livelihood improvement. However, little was known about the

potentials and constraints of the practice in the area. This study, therefore, determined the

potentials and constraints of eco-tourism with particular focus on nature conservation and

livelihood improvement in and around ANR. The information obtained provides some

insights of opportunities and constraints of eco-tourism and enables policy- and decision

makers to design appropriate policies, develop strategies and suggest short- and long-term

solutions to improve eco-tourism. Moreover, the identified opportunities and constraints

are envisaged to trigger a discussion on the management of ANR for the purpose of

improving eco-tourism activities.

1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.1 Overall objective

The overall objective of this study was to assess the potentials and constraints of eco-

tourism in improving nature conservation and livelihoods around Amani Nature Reserve.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

Specific objectives included to:

(i) identify and examine potential attractive features for eco-tourists inside and around

ANR;

(ii) examine the current contributions of eco-tourism in nature conservation and local

livelihood improvement in and around ANR;

(iii) identify problems hindering the planning, better management and development of

eco-tourism in and around ANR;

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(iv) identify and assess the modalities of ANR for sharing costs and benefits from eco-

tourism with local communities, and

(v) assess policy implication in relation to eco-tourism establishment and development

in and around ANR.

1.5 Research Questions

In order to achieve the above-listed specific objectives, the following questions are

answered in this thesis:

(i) What are the potential features/attractions for eco-tourism in and around ANR?

(ii) How much revenue is generated by ANR annually from eco-tourism activities?

(iii) What are the factors hindering eco-tourism in and around ANR in terms of policies,

planning and management?

(iv) How is revenue from eco-tourism distributed?

(v) How do the local communities benefit from eco-tourism?

(vi) What is the impact of eco-tourism revenue on the local communities adjacent to

ANR?

(vii) How do the communities participate in eco-tourism?

(viii) How would the communities like to participate and benefit?

(ix) How policies influence the development and management of eco-tourism in ANR?
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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Concept of Eco-tourism

The definition of eco-tourism as a concept or as a development strategy is far from

established. The term was first mentioned in the literature by Kenton Miller in 1978

(Rahcmtulla and Wcllstead, 2001). Much attention has been paid to the question of what

constitutes eco-tourism, and numerous concepts and definitions exist (Buckley, 1994).

According to Ccballos-Lascurain (1987), eco-tourism is defined as “traveling to relatively

undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with specific objective of studying, admiring,

and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as the existing cultural

manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas”. Furthermore, Honey (1999)

believes that the term eco-tourism implies “a travel to fragile, pristine, and usually

protected areas that strive to be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the

traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and

political empowerment of local communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and

for human rights.” Although the first definition is effective in capturing the essence of

what eco-tourism is, Shores (1992) argues that it focuses almost exclusively on the motives

of the traveller, and not on the impacts that such travel has on the cultural and ecological

environments of the setting. For tourism to be defined as eco-tourism it should adhere to

numerous principles. The principles that are frequently cited include: traveling to natural

destinations, impact minimization, direct benefits to conservation, financial benefits and

empowerment for local people, respect to local culture and education among all parties

(Fennel, 2001). However, there is a growing consensus that eco-tourism consists of three

basic characteristics (Blarney, 1997; Weaver, 2001), as addressed below.

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2.1.1 Natural and cultural attractions

As a segment of tourism industry, eco-tourism has emerged as a result of increasing global

concern for disappearing ecosystems and cultures (Kutay, 1990). According to Weaver

(2002), eco-tourism attractions are primarily based on the natural environment. Most

definitions of eco-tourism also recognize the importance of associated cultural resources as

complementary but secondary attractions. The inclusion of cultural attractions means that

eco-tourism does not have to be restricted to relatively undisturbed natural environments,

as some definitions insist, but can also occur in the culturally modified landscapes that are

found, for example, in many alpine valleys. Silva and McDill (2004) report that, since eco-

tourism entails understanding the natural history of the environment and culture, it can also

be a means for conserving the area’s natural and cultural resources.

2.1.2 Educational and learning experiences

The second distinctive characteristic of eco-tourism is its emphasis on providing learning

and educational experiences for the eco-tourist, about the natural environment or

associated ‘cultural manifestations’. The eco-tourists generally express the desire to learn

about nature on their trips (Eagles et al., 1992). Therefore, in eco-tourism, great emphasis

is placed on education and interpretation through the explanation of the concepts, meaning

and inter-relationship of natural phenomena (McNeely and Thorsell, 1989). This

component is mostly provided by tour guides, whose knowledge and communication skills

become critical to the role of eco-tourism in environmental education (Buckley, 2003).

Wearing and Neil (2000) point out that, this element differentiates eco-tourism from other

forms of tourism, where the natural environment simply provides a convenient setting for

fulfilling a variety of self-centered motivations. The most desirable type of learning

experience is one that allows the eco-tourist to appreciate the local ecosystem as a whole
 8

and the ways in which this ecosystem interacts, both positively and negatively, with the

local human population. Such an experience should also provide the eco-tourist with an

advanced appreciation for environmental and social issues in general. Weaver (2002)

suggests that, one effective way of achieving this is to encourage eco-tourist participation

in such activities as tree planting and trail maintenance, which is a very attractive option

for visitors who wish to have a meaningful travel experience.

2.1.3 Environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability

The third and most important distinguishing characteristic of eco-tourism is its imperative

of operating in an environmentally, economically and socio-culturally sustainable manner.

Weaver (2002) reports that, it is understandable that all tourism should operate in such a

way, but eco-tourism is the only tourism sector in which sustainability is inherent in the

definition. In other words; it is the mandate and responsibility of eco-tourism to support the

holistic development of destinations. Moreover, in genuine eco-tourism, the positive

impacts are mostly deliberate, whereas the negative impacts are mostly unintentional.

Studies on the relationships between the environment and tourism have shown that, the

desire to derive economic benefits from tourism in protected areas often results in

environmental degradation, which not only curtails the potential for tourism development,

but also development, which such environments offered for the future (Butler, 1991;

Shennan and Dixon, 1991; Whelan, 1991). Eco-tourism is often cited as a type of tourism

that attempts to minimize the negative effects of mass tourism (Doan, 2000). Furthermore,

Buckley (2003) notes that tourism is a large scale activity in major components of global

human society with its own detrimental impacts on the natural environment and eco-

tourism may be able to provide models to reduce these impacts.

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Lindberg and Hawkins (2003) found that conservation will only be achieved if and when it

is linked to socio-economic development and livelihood security of local populations. Eco-

tourism-related benefits are an important basis for positive resident attitudes towards

adjacent natural areas. Conversely, if residents bear the costs without receiving benefits,

they may tum against eco-tourism and conservation and may intentionally or

unintentionally damage the site (Lindberg, 1991). One of the principles behind this is that

local people will protect, for example, a forest if they realize the forest is worth more to

them as a forest than as felled trees. However, it is also important to realize that forests

have all types of values for local people, not just economic ones. Lindberg and Hawkins

(2003) point out that, apart from eco-tourism potential to provide economic benefits to

local people, it also provides social and cultural benefits as well. An eco-tourism approach

embraces local people as partners in the activity. An optimistic view in the literature, held

by a majority of researchers is that, eco-tourism presents an opportunity to stimulate local

economies as an alternative to extractive industry and environmental degradation. In

theory, increased tourism in developing countries could increase local incomes. Higher

local incomes, in tum, would create incentives for conservation (Taylor et al., 2003).

According to Lindberg and Hawkins (2003), there are opportunities for expanding eco-

tourism’s local economic benefits and we should be able to determine which are most

effective in achieving economic development goals. Moreover, for eco-tourism to act as a

process, which facilitates local livelihood improvement, a set of conservation, development

and tourism management strategies and policies enabling the development or facilitation of

these characteristics is needed. These policies should not see eco-tourism as the province

of tourism departments only, but as a complex activity requiring policy and regulatory

inputs from all stakeholders (Singh and Furze, 2003).

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In spite of the above-mentioned potentials of eco-tourism in providing employment

opportunities to communities near protected areas and that conservationists use eco-

tourism as a tool for preserving biological diversity and promoting sustainable

development, the feasibility and compatibility of these two goals are controversial. Boo

(1993) and Lindberg (1991) note that benefits in eco-tourism have not always been as great

as desired while costs have sometimes been greater than expected. Moreover, while some

scholars believe that eco-tourism can potentially focus the benefits of tourism on the

environment and local population while minimizing negative impacts, other observers

remain sceptical, warning that eco-tourism has not yet been proven to be either beneficial

or a panacea for sustainable use of resources. They also voice the concern that eco-tourism

has not reached its potential as a tool for conservation or economic development, in part

because host countries have yet to receive the full revenue potential inherent in eco-

tourism, and in part because relatively little of the revenues, which have been generated,

have directly supported conservation and economic development (Lindberg and Huber,

1993). The constraints of eco-tourism are divided into environmental, socio-cultural and

economic ones as highlighted below:

2.2 Constraints of Eco-tourism

2.2.1 Environmental constraints

Despite the centrality of the environment to eco-tourism, there is relatively little

accumulated knowledge regarding eco-tourism's impacts on the environment and the effect

of these impacts on the eco-tourist’s experience. It is often argued that eco-tourists are

motivated to preserve the environment, so one would expect them to generate little or no

negative environmental impact. Furthermore, eco-tourists are claimed to be educationally

sophisticated and environmentally concerned. However, as Wall (1994) points out, eco-
 11

tourists often go to environmentally fragile areas such as alpine and arid areas; and rarely

understand the ecological consequences of their visits and how their day-to-day activities

append physical impacts on the environment. Kamauro (2006) reports that, while the term

eco-tourism may sound relatively benign, one of its most serious impacts is its

consumption of virgin territories. The impacts of eco-tourism often are categorized as

"direct" (effect of the visitors themselves) like soil erosion and compaction, disturbance to

wildlife, trampling of vegetation, accidental introduction of exotic species and removal of

vegetation such as plants collection. The other category is "indirect" impact (effect of the

infrastructure or activities necessary to provide the visitor experience) such as reclamation

of land for infrastnicture (e.g., clearing of forests for hotel construction).

2.2.2 Socio-cultural constraints

It is a general rule that eco-tourists are more concerned with environmental impacts and as

such eco-tourism promotes a greater understanding and respect of cultures - and usually

people protect what they respect as heritage (Richardson, 1991). However, as with the

natural environment, the socio-cultural environment serves both as an eco-tourism

attraction and a recipient of eco-tourism's impacts. If these impacts become, on the whole,

too negative, the local sustainability of eco-tourism can be jeopardized. In some areas local

residents have been sufficiently unhappy with eco-tourism development that they

sabotaged the natural resource on which this development was based. Many eco-tourism

activities involve relatively intense interaction between greatly differing cultures, and these

differences may exacerbate the negative socio-cultural impacts of eco-tourism, especially

when communities are not given the opportunity to decide if they want to become involved

with tourism, and how (Wight, 1993). The impacts of tourism on host communities, and

resulting resident attitudes toward tourism, have been popular research topics in the past
 12

several years (e.g., Lankford and Howard, 1994; Lindberg and Johnson, 1997).

Commodification of culture, in which cultural symbols are treated as commodities to be

bought and sold, is among the cultural impacts of eco-tourism (Brandon, 1996). This

happens when religious rituals, traditional ethnic rites and festivals are reduced and

sanitized to conform to tourist expectations.

2.2.3 Economic constraints

Eco-tourism has been embraced by many as an opportunity to generate income and

employment in areas relatively untouched by traditional development efforts. Such goals

have often been achieved in part, but there is realization that little of the money spent by

tourists remains at or near the destination itself. The amount of money, which actually

reaches the destination region, less the amount leaked out to pay for outside goods and

services has not been adequately quantified. Moreover, a common estimate is that less than

10% of tourists’ spending remains in communities near eco-tourism destinations

(Lindberg, 1991; Boo, 1990). Dr. Kreg Lindberg, who is a leading eco-tourism economist,

estimates that around 90% of tourism revenue is lost through leakages such as imports and

profit repatriation in most eco-tourism destinations (Lindberg, 1998). These leakages are

probably even higher in mountain regions, which tend to produce only a small portion of

the goods and services consumed by cco-tourists (Weaver, 2002).

2.3 Factors Affecting Eco-tourism

Although eco-tourism has some advantages for rural development and conservation of

natural and cultural heritages, there are also some problems. One of the more fundamental

issues surrounding eco-tourism is lack of experience in eco-tourism planning. Moralyova

and Ledovskikh (1999) report that mechanisms are not in place to determine carrying
 13

capacities for parks and thoroughly monitor tourism impacts. This makes them vulnerable

against possible ecological problems of tourism organized without proper planning and

control. Moreover, eco-tourism planners and managers have little accurate information

concerning eco-tourists on various facilities and services, which is important if they are to

be successful. According to Saleh and Karwacki (1996), the factors, which motivate the

eco-tourist to visit a destination are of primary concern to all eco-tourism planners,

developers and managers. Effective marketing can be undertaken only if such variables

have been identified.

Several other problems related to eco-tourism are the byproducts of inadequate funding.

For example, while significant investment has been made in creating a national park

system geared towards eco-tourism, overall funding falls severely short of the amount

necessary to support adequate park management, infrastructure, and programming. As a

result, problems such as trail deterioration, habitat disruption, littering and increased soil

erosion and compaction, which reduce vegetation cover are becoming more commonplace

(Narayan, 1998; Songorwa et al., 2006).

Inadequate eco-tourism marketing and information dissemination have also been reported

to hinder eco-tourism development. The main reason why many community-based eco-

tourism projects have failed is that they have not attracted a sufficient number of visitors.

Often, assumptions that are made about the marketability of a particular location or

experience have been unrealistic and not based on research. As a result, promotional

activities have been misdirected. The problem has been lack of tourism knowledge not

only among local communities themselves but also among advisors and supporting

agencies (Denman, 2001). A study done in Russia by Moralyova and Ledovskikh (1999)
 14

revealed that lack of marketing information and skills is one of the most serious factors

hampering eco-tourism development. The world community has little knowledge of

Russia's protected areas and their significance.

The underdevelopment of culture as a resource to attract tourists due to the prevailing low

cultural gratitude that pervades the local communities is also among the problems facing

eco-tourism. A survey of eco-tourism potential in Pakistan's Biodiversity Project Area

revealed that, uncooperative attitudes and negative interaction between tourists and host

communities was one of the problems hindering eco-tourism development (Mock and

O'Neil, 1996). There is also inadequacy of awareness and appreciation, especially on the

part of local communities, of tourism and the importance of setting aside and preserving

tourist attractions. Local people's involvement and participation in eco-tourism planning

and management is limited in some eco-tourist destinations. Brandon (1996) reports that,

most eco-tourism projects emphasize a beneficiary approach and people are viewed as

beneficiaries and have no involvement in the project design, planning and management.

Hands-on and on-the-job/field work increase local communities’ level of awareness and

understanding and strengthen their capability to manage their resources sustainably.

Inadequacy of tourist services and facilities is another factor hampering eco-tourism

development. Most eco-tourism projects have not invested sufficiently in staff and guides’

training. Consequently, infrastructures such as living facilities, transport and a set of

equipped ecological trails and routes, which are needed to support tourism, are not well

developed (Moralyova and Ledovskikh, 1999). According to Wells (1997), this exposes

sensitive sites to degradation. Visitor satisfaction surveys are becoming a more important

part of eco-tourism. The provision of educational information is paramount to the eco-

 15

tourist. Destination information must be of high quality and on-site personnel must be very

knowledgeable. Consequently, there must be an ongoing process of training personnel and

updating visitor information. Since satisfaction with facilities and services plays a large

part in the eco-tourist’s intention to return, it is critical that planners and managers pay

attention to eco-tourists’ needs in these areas (Saleh and Karwacki, 1996).

2.4 Tanzania’s Efforts to Boost Eco-tourism

The United Republic of Tanzania as cited by Gyasiwa (2007) has defined eco-tourism as

“a purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural history of the

environment taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing

economic opportunities that make the conservation of natural resources beneficial to the

local people”.

Although there is much potential for tourism to have positive impacts on the national

economy, there are also numerous negative effects. The impacts include environmental

degradation, cultural degradation, and the fact that, the local communities located in areas

that support tourist attractions are not always included in the planning or implementation

of projects, nor do they benefit from traditional tourism activities (Olang et al., 2004).

According to Gyasiwa (2007), Tanzanian government has been concerned about the

potential impacts of tourism on the environment, culture, and economy of the communities

involved in tourism, and has deliberately decided to put eco-tourism in the national tourism

policy. The policy puts emphasis on promoting eco-tourism in order to ensure proper

conservation and sustainable management of the environment. Some of the policy

strategies in eco-tourism include enhancing the conservation of nature, creating sustainable

environmental awareness among tourists and local population and sensitizing them on the
 16

need to respect nature and conserve the environment. Moreover, the policy emphasizes on

putting in place mechanisms that will ensure that tourist activities respect the use of

biodiversity, wildlife conservation and other naturally occurring phenomena of aesthetic

value (MNRT, 1999).

In Tanzania, other sectors of the economy like forestry also realize that, development of

eco-tourism is a potential source of income for forest owners and communities in the rural

areas. The existing wildlife-based tourism as well as related marketing services form a

sound basis for the development of forest-based eco-tourism activities. The policy

statement on eco-tourism states that: “The private sectors and community involvement in

the development of forests-based eco-tourism will be encouraged. This will be linked with

the overall tourism development and an appropriate legal framework established” (MNRT,

1998, p.28).

Furthermore, the government of Tanzania, in collaboration with various stakeholders, has

put emphasis on promoting, strengthening and sensitizing communities’ and individuals’

participation as a strategy to invigorate environmental conservation and management.

Regarding this, the National Environmental Policy of Tanzania puts forward a number of

objectives. These include: “to prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation,

and air which constitute our life support systems; to conserve and enhance our natural and

man-made heritage, including the biological diversity of unique ecosystems of Tanzania;

and to raise awareness and understanding of the essential linkages between environment

and livelihoods, and promote individual and community participation in environmental

action” (URT, 1997, p.9).

 17

The National Tourism Master Plan of Tanzania emphasizes on the importance of ensuring

that the natural environment, on which most of Tanzania’s tourism is dependent, is

protected from overuse or inappropriate development. Furthermore, the master plan

realizes that, Tanzania has a varied and interesting culture that can form a central element

in its appeal as a tourist destination. The main actions proposed in order to develop the

cultural component of the tourism product are identification of restoration/conservation

needs of historic and cultural sites in priority development zones and the implementation

of restoration/conservation measures for selected sites. The establishment of

interpretative/exhibition centers for a number of themes -early man, rock art, slave trade,

village life, etc. is also among the proposed actions (MNRT, 2002).

2.5 Eco-tourisni Aspect in Amani Nature Reserve

2.5.1 Visitor infrastructures

In order to facilitate visitors’ full access to the eco-tourism features of Amani Nature

Reserve (ANR) the reserve has developed various facilities so as to offer maximum

satisfaction. These include the Zigi Information Center, rest houses and campsites.

2.5.1.1 Zigi information center

This is located within the reserve near the main entiy gate at Zigi (Plate 1). Information on

nature trails, camping sites, and tour guides is provided here. Cultural values of the

community and their relationship with the environment features are also in display as well

as biological values of the ANR.

 18

Plate 1: Zigi information centre.

2.5.1.2 Rest houses and camping sites

ANR operates two rest houses (Zigi and Amani), which offer full accommodation and

meal services to visitors at relatively cheap prices. Single to double self contained rooms

are found in both rest houses. Also, ANR has two camping sites, one with fixed water

closet located at ANR Headquarters while the other is located at Kiganga area (which has

mobile a sanitary system).

2.5.2 Endemic and rare species

ANR is rich in endemic vertebrates, which are forest-dependent and include all the strict

endemic birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Furthermore ANR has plenty of

endemic plants such as wild relatives of coffee and African violet species (Saintpaulia).

Plate 2 shows one of African violet species, Santpaulia confusa as captured in ANR.
 19

Plale 2: African violet (Santpaidia confusa).

The African violet (Saintpaulia ssp), which was the target species of this study, has been

promoted as a botanical 'Panda' symbolizing the decline of the Eastern Arc Mountains'

forests (Eastwood et al., 1998). The genus is also being promoted as a tourist attraction in

an effort to develop eco-tourism in the hotspot (Kolehmainen et al., 2004). The presence of

African violet flowers in ANR (8 species out of 21 species known worldwide) increases

the importance of the reserve for both conservation and tourism. The African violet species

found in ANR include Saintpaulia grolei, Saintpaulia diplotricha, SaintpanIia pendula and

Saintpaulia magungensis. Others are Saintpaulia confiisa, Saintpaulia grandifolia.

Saintpaulia tonguensis and Saintpaulia difficilis.

 20

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the Study Area

3.1.1 Location

The study was conducted in and around ANR, which has an area of 8380ha. The reserve

(Fig. 1) is located in the north-eastern comer of Tanzania within Muheza and Korogwe

districts, in Tanga region between latitudes 5°05’S and 5°14’S and longitudes 38°40’E and

38°32’E. It forms the southern and largest forested mountain block of the East Usambara

Mountains, which are part of the Eastern Arc Mountains chain. The western side is

bordering Lwengera valley, which separates East Usambara from West Usambara.
 21

Figure 1: Location of Amani Nature Reserve. (Source: modified from Frontier Tanzania,
2001).
 22

3.1.2 Topography, geology and soils

In ANR, altitude ranges approximately between 300m and 1130m asl. The highest point is

in the southern part, at Kimbo peak. The mountain block forming the ANR rises to form a

plateau whose average altitude is 930m asl in its central part. Like other parts of East

Usambara mountain range, ANR is composed of ancient crystalline rocks, which are

believed to be very old. The rocks are fairly uniform and belong to the Precambrian

Usagaran system predominated by gneiss and to some extent granulites and amphibolites.

The high degree of endemism and floristic diversity support the theory of a long time since

the uplifting. Soils are largely clay and clay-loams usually with 1-5 m in depth. They arc

generally red and well drained. Soils at higher altitudes are acidic and highly leached

although undisturbed natural forest cover prevents leaching because of more effective

nutrient circulation (Hamilton, 1989).

3.1.3 Climate

ANR receives an annual average rainfall, which ranges between 1200mm and 1400 mm. In

fact, the Amani block is the wettest of all the East Usambara forest blocks. The rain falls

almost throughout the year with peaks between March and May and between October and

December. The mean annual humidity at Amani is 87% in the morning and 77% at

midday. Mean annual temperature at Amani (at about 900m altitude) is 20.6°C with a mean

daily maximum temperature of 24.9 °C and mean daily minimum of 16.3 °C. The hottest

season is in January-February and the coolest in July-September (ANR, 2000).

3.1.4 Vegetation

Two main types of forests are present in ANR: semi-deciduous forests in the lowlands with

low rainfall and submontane evergreen forests in the mountains with high rainfall. In the
 23

deciduous to semi-dcciduous woodlands, species of the genera Acacia and Combretian are

common. These dryer types of forest are dominating on the western and south-western

slopes of ANR where rainfall is low. The submontane forests can be exceptionally tall and

luxuriant, with the tallest trees reaching 65m in height in favourable sites. There is notable

variation in floristic composition. The common tree species include Cephalosphaera

usantbarensis, Allanblackia stuhlmannii, Albizia gummifera, Beilschmiedia kweo,

Diospyros abyssmica, Englerodendron usambarense and Drypetes gerrardii (EUCAMP,

2001).

Flora of the East Usambara mountains consists of 2083 vascular plant taxa, 64 (3.1 %) of

which are strictly endemic. In the southernmost parts, including the ANR, forests are

considerably richer in species than in the northern parts. Of the endemic vascular plants,

over 90% occur in forest habitats and predominantly (78%) in submontane forests. Sixteen

of the strictly endemic species are trees reaching more than 5m in height. Eighteen of the

endemic species are shrubs and thirty are herbs. The most famous of the endemic plants is

the genus Saintpaulia (African violet - a herb), of which eight species have been recorded

in the East Usambara Mountains particularly in ANR (Iversen, 1991). The plant taxa in

ANR are presented in Appendix IV.

3.1.5 Wildlife

ANR and the East Usambara mountains in general are well known for their diverse

avifauna with a high degree of endemism. Greater part of the birds are strictly forest­

dependent and the most threatened species only live in the understoreys of the least

disturbed forests. Thirteen globally threatened species, including Long-billed Apalis

{Apalis moreaui nioreaui), Usambara Eagle Owl {Bubo vosseleri), Amani Sunbird
 24

{Anthreptes pallidigaster), Usambara Mountain Weaver {Ploceus nicolli) and

Swynnerton’s Robin {Swynnertonia swynnertoni) are known to live in ANR (Stuart, 1989).

The East Usambara Mountains of which Amani is part are also rich in endemic

invertebrate fauna. For example, 41 species of millipedes (the major macro-decomposers)

are found here, 85% of which are endemic. Within the non-marine mollusca {Gastropoda),

endemic species represent 45% of the total fauna. Of the 37 species and subspecies of

butterflies restricted to montane forests known in the East Usambara, 15 (40%) are

endemic. There are 15 forest-dependent amphibian and 13 reptile species in the East

Usambara that are endemic to Tanzania (EUCAMP, 2001; TBA, 2007).

In contrast to other animal groups, mammals show very low levels of endemism with only

one subspecies, the Tree Hyrax {Dendrohyrax validus vosseleri), as a possible endemic.

However, some mammal species such as Collarded Fruit Bat {Myonycteris relicta) and

Bushy-tailed Mongoose {Bdeogale crassicauda) are classified as globally threatened. The

most visible species are the primates: Gentle Monkeys {Cercopithecus mitis), Colobus

Monkeys {Colobus guereza) and Yellow Baboons {Papio cynocephalus) (EUCAMP, 2001;

TBA, 2007). Appendix V shows a list of fauna species in ANR.

3.1.6 Population, land use and local economy

According to the Tanzanian population and housing census of 2002, Muheza district,

which covers a landmass of about 4922 sq km, has an estimated total population of 279

423 (URT, 2003). Land area of the Amani plateau is 126 sq. km (or 12 600 hectares) of

which approximately 25% is taken up by five tea estates, 34% is the agricultural land

belonging to the villages, 18% is public forest land of which part has been already cleared
 25

for agriculture, and 23% is ANR controlled by the Forest and Beekeeping Division

(Johanson, 1996).

Farming, for both food and cash crops, is the main livelihood strategy of most local people

in the surroundings of the ANR. The average farm size is 2.7ha, ranging from 1.1 ha to over

20ha. The main food crops are maize, cassava, bananas and beans. The main cash crops are

maize, sugarcane, tea, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves and black pepper. In general, the

farming methods are poor, which lead to soil impoverishment and reduced productivity.

Several daily household products such as fuelwood, building poles, wild vegetables and

fruits are collected from the forests (Mashauri, 2001).

3.2 The Study Population and Sampling Procedures

3.2.1 Study population

This study comprised of varied stakeholders in tourism. These were local people living

around ANR, tourists, ANR officials, tour operators and local tour guides.

3.2.3 Sampling procedures

Purposive sampling was employed for village selection. In the light of the above technique,

five villages were purposely selected to represent the entire population of 18 villages

surrounding ANR. Criteria included closeness to the reserve, presence of eco-tourism

attractive features, extent of dependence on forest products and utilization, and experiences

with certain specific forest resource management issues in relation to eco-tourism. The

underlying assumption was that, villagers have direct interaction with both forest and other

eco-tourism resources hence they would provide the most and required information. A total

of 172 (9%) out of 1915 households were selected for questionnaire survey as indicated in
 26

Table I. This is according to Boyd et al. (1981) who suggest that a sampling fraction (n/N)

should at least be equal to or greater than five percent, where N represents population size.

The households were picked from the village register books in which all the households

were listed. Thereafter, the first household was randomly selected followed by systematic

sampling in selecting the succeeding households. According to Sounders et al. (2007) the

interval (1) between households was obtained systematically using the formula I=N/n

Where:

N= total number of the households (as per village register).

n =Sample size

I=Interval between households.

The proportions of the sampled populations are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of selected households in the surveyed villages

Villages Kisiwani IBC- Mlesa Shebomeza Mbomole Total

Msasa

Households 282 397 498 342 395 1915

Sampled

households (9%) 25 36 45 31 35 172

Tourist respondents were obtained through random encounter.

Purposive sampling procedures were also used to select key informants. ANR staff were

chosen based on the specific responsibility, which one had regarding tourism. These
 n

included the ANR conservator, tourism officer, cooks and forest attendants. Local tour

guides were selected based on the experience one had regarding tourism in Amani. Those

guides who had worked with ANR for more than 9 months were included in the sample.

Furthermore, village representatives were selected based on their positions in the villages

and finally the tour operators were obtained through cross-checking the tour companies’

data in ANR office. Those operators who had frequent visitors to ANR were included in

the sample.

3.3 Data Collection

The data used in this study are from both primary and secondary sources.

3.3.1 Primary data

Several methods were used for primary data collection. These included participatory rural

appraisal (PRA), questionnaire survey and interviews with key informants. The aim was to

crosscheck and verify information obtained through these different methods regarding the

topics in question.

3.3.1.1 Participatory rural appraisal

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach is essentially a process of learning about

rural conditions in an intensive and interactive manner (Meams, 1994). Selection of

participants in this exercise was done adhering to equal representation of sexes, age groups

and range of responsibilities in conservation activities within a village. With the help of a

village government leader in each of the surveyed villages, 12 people (six males and six

females) were selected to form a PRA group (Appendix 6) according to the criteria

mentioned above. During the PRA exercise participants were divided into three age
 28

groups; the youth, middle age and old. The youth were participants less than 30 years. This

was important because of the diversity of knowledge, perception and understanding of

livclihoods-related issues and perspectives of different groups of the society for the

assessment of potentials of eco-tourism as an alternative livelihood opportunity in the area.

The methods used included village resource mapping (Appendix 7), pair-wise ranking and

Venn diagram. The information collected included local community attitudes toward ANR,

eco-tourism opporlunities/attractions available in the area, available resources and

utilization, problems and their consequences, stakcholdcrs/institutional analysis, their

interactions and impacts on the community. Plate 3 illustrates village resource mapping at

Mlcsa village.

Plate 3: Village resource mapping at Mlesa village.

 29

3.3.1.2 Questionnaire survey

Questionnaire survey was conducted using structured questionnaires, which were

administered to heads of households although other household members were allowed to

add some information. A total of 172 copies of the household questionnaire (Appendix 1)

were administered. In order to elicit information, open- and close-ended questions were

used. Information collected included cultural and socio-economic (income, occupation and

education), demographic data on household size, tourist attractive features and

bcnefits/costs obtained from eco-tourism.

Questionnaire survey was also used to collect data from tourists. In total 33 copies of the

tourist questionnaire were administered (Appendix 2). Information collected included

country of origin, main reason for trip, the means they got to know ANR and their general

opinions on the strategies to take in order to ensure eco-tourism growth in and around

ANR.

3.3.1.3 Key informant interviews

These were carried out using well designed checklists (Appendix 3), which guided the

discussions. Key informants considered in this study were ANR officials, local tour guides,

village representatives (village government leaders, village natural resource committee

leaders and influential people or elders) and tour operators. They provided useful

information regarding revenues obtained from eco-tourism, cost and benefit sharing

modalities, policy issues in relation to eco-tourism, economic activities and local

community perception of eco-tourism. Table 2 shows numbers of interviews and sexes of

interviewees in each category of key informants.

 30

Table 2: Number of interviews conducted per category

Key informant ANR Local tour Tour Village Total

officials guides operators representatives

Males 6 7 7 3 23

Females 2 0 8 0 10

Total 8 7 15 3 33

3.3.2 Secondary- data

A range of secondary data on conservation activities and resource utilization in the area

was collected from ANR offices, villages and non-governmental offices such as Tanzania

Birding Safari, Shidolya Tours and Nature Beauties Safari. Other documents and

publications were obtained through literature search using Internet and libraries. This

information was important in broadening perspectives and also provided in-depth

understanding of the research topic.

3.4 Data Analysis

3.4.1 Qualitative data analysis

Henderson (1991) states that, content analysis is any technique which allows researchers to

systematically analyze some dimension that appears in written form. Components of verbal

discussions held with key informants were analyzed in detail with the help of content

analysis method. In this way the recorded dialogue with a respondent was broken down

into smallest meaningful units of information or themes to ascertain values and attitudes of

respondents. Moreover, data collected through PRA techniques such as identified problems

and their ranking were compiled and analyzed with the help of local communities and the

results were communicated back to them for verification as an immediate action.

 31

3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative data obtained from the questionnaires were coded by assigning a numerical

value to each answer to a question. Answers to open questions were grouped into

categories, and each category given a numerical value. Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS) version 11 was used to clean the data, and establish the database

necessary for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were run on all questions covering

both nominal and ordinal data whereby the percentages, means and standard error of the

means were obtained. For questions resulting in “range” responses the mode, median,

minimum and maximum values were shown. Chi-square test was used to assess whether

the answers were significantly different among different respondents. Cross-tabulations

were also applied to find relationships between variables and to provide idea whether the

patterns described in the samples were likely to apply in the population from which the

samples were drawn. Excel computer software was also employed to develop a summary

of data and the results in form of figures.

 32

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the research findings and discussion. It is divided into six sections:

general information; eco-tourism potentials for ANR; current contribution of eco-tourism

in nature conservation and livelihoods; factors (constraints) hindering the planning, better

management and development of eco-tourism; modalities for sharing costs and benefits

with local communities; and finally policy implications in relation to eco-tourism

establishment and development in and around ANR.

4.1 General Information

General characteristics of respondents in this study were households’ and visitors’ origins,

sex, age, household size, education level, income and human population. Others were

visitors’ sources of information, duration of stay and trend. These characteristics were used

to portray the general status of respondents and how the status influenced perception of and

participation in eco-tourism practices in the study area.

4.1.1 Origins

4.1.1.1 Origins of the surveyed households

Results in Table 3 show that 73% of the surveyed households (mainly Sambaa and Bondei)

were natives to the area and the remaining (Chagga, Pare, Ha, Nyakyusa and Hehe)

originated from outside and came in order to engage themselves in various income­

generating activities such as agriculture, tea-picking and gold mining.

 33

Table 3: Origins of surveyed households per village

Origin Kisiwani IBC- Mbomole Mlesa Shebomeza N= 172 Percentage

Msasa

Native 22 25 29 27 23 126 73.3

(12.8%) (14.5%) (16.9%) (15.7%) (13.4%)

Immigrant 3 11 6 18 8 46 26.7

(1.7%) (6.4%) (3.5%) (10.4%) (4.7%)

However, the proportion of migrants varied considerably among the villages. For example,

Mlesa had the highest proportion of immigrants (10.4%) compared to other villages. This

could be due to the fact that Mlesa is nearer to a tea factory hence more people are

attracted to the area due to employment opportunities. Furthermore, Amani Division, just

like the rest of the East Usambara Mountains, is experiencing an ever-increasing human

population (Table 4) due to both natural increase and immigration. Immigration into this

area is attributed to the fact that the area is endowed with exceptional environmental

services (Jambiya and Sosovele, 2004) such as good climatic condition.

Table 4: Population trends (1978 / 02)

Year 1978 1988 2002

Amani Division 19 980 23 988 29 065

Percentage change +20.1 +21.2

Source: Muheza District office

It was further noted that, the surveyed villages were facing rapid population growth as the

percentage change of population was positive (Table 5).

 34

Table 5: Human population growth in the surveyed villages

Village 1988 2002 2007 Percentage change based

on 1988population:

2002 2007

Kisiwani 1536 1599 1700 4.1 10.7

IBC-Msasa 1939 1993 2439 2.78 25.8

Mbomole 1241 2100 2157 69.2 73.8

Mlesa 2233 3302 4410 47.9 97.5

Shebomcza 1240 1534 1872 23.7 60.0

Source: Muheza District office and village government offices

4.1.1.2 Origins of tourists

The tourists’ survey data (Fig. 2) revealed that United Kingdom (UK) was the biggest

source of arrivals, having the largest proportion (31%). Arrivals from the United States of

America (USA) and Denmark were the next largest contributing 15% each. These data try

to relate with those of Eagles and Higgins (1998) estimated from anecdotal sources where

USA and UK were mentioned to be the most prominent countries in supplying eco-tourists

in order of market size. Arrivals from other countries such as Finland, Germany and The

Netherlands were 12%, 9% and 6% respectively. Ireland, Australia, Portugal and Norway

had relatively few arrivals with 3% each. The interviews with tour operators also revealed

that most clients came from the United Kingdom.

 35

The German Norway

Netherlands -x 9% 3%
6% z 31%

Dermark
15%
// \ Finland
Ireland //
12%
3% USA
Australia
Portugal 15o/o
3%
3%

Figure 2: Visitors’ countries of residence

4.1.2 Sex and age

4.1.2.1 Sex and age of respondents of surveyed households

Results in Table 6 indicate that the majority (64%) of the respondents were males and only

36% were females. This is because the study was targeting heads of households who, in

most cases, are males. A larger proportion (42.4%), of respondents was in the age group of

above 45, 34.9% were in the 31-45 age group whereas 22.7% were between 18 and 30.

This implies that the majority of respondents were in age groups with enough knowledge

of the area and hence eco-tourism. Most of them had been there for more than 30 years, a

period which enabled them to experience and/or witness various conservation and eco-

tourism practices in the area.

 36

Table 6: Sex and age of respondents from the surveyed villages

Variable Characteristics Respondents Percentage

Sex Male 110 64.0

Female 62 36.0

Age category 18-30 39 22.7

31 -45 60 34.9

>45 73 42.4

4.1.2.2 Sex and age of tourists

During the survey of tourists it was revealed that the majority (57.6%) were females and

only 42.4% were males. Moreover, it was found that there were relatively more visitors in

the age group above 45 (39.4%), followed by 31-45 age group (Table 7). These findings

are more or less similar to those presented by TIES (2001) that, majority of eco-tourists

belong to the age group of 35-54. The results further show that the 18-30 age group had

relatively small proportion (24.2%) while there were no tourists below the age of 18. These

findings are supported by Diamantis (1998) who found that, in Australia, mature travelers

strongly believe that learning about nature enriches life (80.1% for >45), while this is a less

important attitude for those under 45 (65.3%).

 37

Table 7: Sex and age of tourists

Variable Characteristics Respondents Percentage

Sex Male 14 42.4

Female 19 57.6

Age 18-30 8 24.2

31-45 12 36.4

Above 45 13 39.4

4.1.3 Education level of respondents in the households

Table 8 shows that the majority (83%) of the respondents had primary education. Only

8.4% had secondary education, and the rest were illiterate or semi-illiterate. This implies

that local people will always do low pay jobs which in turn have serious impacts on the

environment and hence eco-tourism in particular.

Table 8: Education of respondents in the surveyed villages

Variable Characteristics Respondents Percentage

Level of education Never went to school 8 4.8

Adult education 6 3.5

Primary education 143 83.3

Secondary education 15 8.4

College/University 0 0.0
 38

On the other hand it can be said that since the majority had primary education eco-tourism

practices are likely to be achieved because it will be easy for them to be sensitized on

natural resource conservation and understand its importance as they can be trained and can

read books, newsletters and other sources of information. According to Wearing and Neil

(2000), education plays a powerful role in increasing local involvement and contribution in

eco-tourism.

4.1.4 Household sizes

The study area had a relatively big household size with an average of 6 people (Table 9) as

compared to reported average household size of mainland Tanzania. According to the 2000

/01 household budget survey in Tanzania, the average household size on mainland

Tanzania was four people (NBS, 2003). The smallest household had two people while the

largest had 16. Moreover data (Table 5) indicate that population in all the surveyed villages

is still growing. This implies that there is high demand for natural resources in order to

fulfill daily basic needs as well as surplus per person, which influences people to clear

forests and over-exploit the resources.

Table 9: Household size

Family size Respondents Average Mode Median Min. Max.

(N=172)

1-5 People 61 6(0.1875) 4 5 2 16

6-10 People 104

11-15 People 6

>15 people 1
 39

4.1.5 Household income

It was observed that 26% of the surveyed households earned less than TAS 300 000

annually (Table 10), with an average of 915 227 (80698.9 SE). The lowest income noted

was TAS 109 000 and the highest was TAS 9 425 000 annually.
 40

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 41

4.1.6 Visitors’ sources of information

Tourists were asked how they got to know Amani. Fig. 3 gives key sources of information.

Data reveal the importance of oral communication as a source of information, with 37% of

all visitors obtaining information from this source. Travel guides (21.4%) were the next

most important source, travel companies (15.3%) and tourist leaflets (15.3%) also provided

information. Relatively less important sources identified by the survey included University

studies and Media with 9% and 3% respectively. These results agree with those of Prakash

el al. (2005) concerning visitor information about lake Bosumtwi basin before their visit.

The main sources were from other people (68.75%), travel guide (22.92%) and through

textbooks (22.92%). Use of electronic media like Internet, Television and Radio was found

to be very low in terms of marketing and publicizing the lake. In the current study,

interviews with tour operators reveled that most of them used the electronic sources

especially the Internet to promote their businesses.

Media
University
3%
studies/research
9% Word of mouth
37%
Travel company /
15% 1

Travel guide
Tourist leaflet book
15% 21%

Figure 3: Visitors’ sources of information.

 42

4.1.7 Duration of stay and frequency of visits to Amani Nature Reserve

Results found that 36.3% of the tourists stayed in ANR for an average of two days (three

nights), 27.3% three days (four nights), 12.1% one day (two nights) and 9.1% four days

(five nights) while 3% stayed for five days and another 3% six days. Those who stayed

more than a week accounted for 9.2% and data show that they were mainly researchers. In

general, most of the tourists who visit Amani stay on an average of 5 days as shown in

Table 11. However, these results are in contrary to a report by Gurusinghe (2001) that

about 70% of cco-tourists prefer trips lasting 8-14 days. Also, the tourists were asked if

that was their first time to ANR; 37.5% were first time visitors whereas 50% had been

there between one and three times. 12.5% had been there more than four times. The

average frequency of visits for those who had been to ANR before was 3 times as indicated

in Table 11.

Table 11: Average length of stay and frequency of visits to ANR

Duration ofstay Number of times

Average Mode Median Min. Max. Average Mode Median Min. Max.

4.8 2 1 37 2.75 1 2 1 6

(1.46 SE) (0.75 SE)

4.1.8 Tourists’ trend in Amani Nature Reserve

4.1.8.1 Annual tourist arrivals

Just like other forms of tourism in Tanzania (Gyasiwa, 2007), eco-tourism has been

growing in ANR. This growth is portrayed by increase in the number of tourists (Fig. 4)

and earnings (Fig. 7). The growth of eco-tourism indicates that an increasing number of

tourists now prefer to visit attractive natural environments instead of going on traditional
 43

city or beach-based holidays. Without careful planning, guidance and management.

therefore, eco-tourism will not stop tourism's current negative environmental and socio­

economic impacts (Gurusinghe, 2001). The results further show that, between 2000 and

2001 there was a sharp increase in the number of tourists. Interviews with ANR officials

revealed that this was the period within which a General Management Plan (GMP) for

ANR was prepared and its strategies started to be implemented. It was further noted that

before the year 2000 ANR had no GMP hence it could not effectively implement various

strategies such as development of visitors’ facilities, improved marketing of the area, and

the proper organisation of tourism activities, including empowering the local tour guides,

all of which attracted visitors to the reserve.

1800
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Figure 4: Trend of tourists in ANR (1997 / 07) (Source: Data from ANR office).
 44

4.1.8.2 Tourist arrivals by season

The findings of this study reveal that January is the peak season with an average of 105

visitors (Fig. 5). February, May and August also have many tourists (with over 80 each).

The less preferred months are October and November (with less than 65 each), together

with March and April where the number of visitors were less than 70 per month. The low

season coincides with the rainy season of the area which makes the area, inaccessible for

most visitors.

Figure 5: Average number of tourists in ANR per month (1997 / 07).

4.2 Eco-tourism Potentials in Amani Nature Reserve

4.2.1 Attractive features in and around Amani Nature Reserve

Table 12 shows tourist attractions as per household survey. Chi-square test on villages

across awareness of eco-tourism attractions was statistically insignificant (p=0.542)

 45

implying that there was no significant difference in awareness of eco-tourism attractions

among villages. Forest was mentioned by a large proportion of respondents (28.9%) as it

provides good climatic condition for the area. About 17.8% of the respondents mentioned

animals like monkeys and bush babies. Waterfalls, butterflies birds, and viewpoints were

also mentioned to be important, accounting for 14.3%, 11%, 9.4%, and 7.7% respectively.

Other attractions like flowers such as Saintpaulia, tea and spice plots, fish ponds, endemic

species of chameleons and lizards and local culture were identified by very few

respondents as tourist attractions. The attractions, which were mentioned by few

respondents were not perceived by majority to be tourist attractions. For example, despite

the importance of Saintpaulia in eco-tourism, results from the household survey indicates

that, majority (73%) of residents were not aware of Saintpaulia at ail. Only 27%

recognized the existence of the flower in their area. This implies that people have got little

knowledge of resources in and around ANR. According to Kolehmainen et al. (2004),

Saintpaulia has been largely unknown in Tanzania. Recently, however, the importance of

the flower has been identified because it is seen as a tourist attraction of growing

importance in the Eastern Arc Mountains especially East Usambara. It is thought that

through community-based eco-tourism, with Saintpaulia as one of the key attractions,

some additional income could be generated for adjacent local communities, which are poor

and lack alternative sources of income now that the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests have

been conserved due to their biodiversity values. It was further learnt during the survey that,

among the respondents who were aware of Saintpaulia 49% did not know the local value

of the flower whereas 38% reported that the flower has got no local use and only a few

(13%) stated that the flower is used for decoration. However, Kolehmainen et al. (2004)

state that, although Saintpaulia has been almost unknown nationally, it may have a long

history at local level. The plant was said to be associated with local traditions since many
 46

of Saintpaulia localities are known to be sacred to local communities and there are some

reports that Saintpaulia was or is still used in herbal medicine.

Table 12: Tourists attractions in and around ANR

Attraction Frequency Percentage

Endemic species of chameleons and frogs 2 0.5

Fish ponds 6 1.4

Tea plantations 6 1.4

Spice gardens 7 1.6

Local culture 10 2.3

Flowers like Saintpaulia 16 3.7

Viewpoints 33 7.7

Birds 39 9.4

Butterflies 47 11

Waterfalls 61 14.3

Animals like monkeys, bush babies 76 17.8

Forest 123 28.9

Total 426 100.0

Note-. The total frequency (426) is greater than 172 due to multiple responses where some

respondents gave more than one answer.

Table 13 shows responses by tourists regarding specific attractions they came for. Contrary

to local perceptions, endemic species of birds and butterflies were found to be major

attractions (44.7%). Rainforest by itself was also found to be a main attraction accounting
 47

for 31.6% of all the surveyed tourists. Good landscape/scenery and quiet environments

were also mentioned as important attractions. Others such as waterfalls and local culture

were found to be less important as they were reported by few tourists.

 48

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 49

Tourists were asked also to state their travel motives for their trips to Amani. Table 14

shows that about 30% of the visitors indicated interest of nature to be an important reason

for their visit to Amani. Other motives given were recommendation by friends or relatives

(27.2%), Amani being part of the tour package (18.3%), researching (12.1%) and just for

curiosity (12.1%). Prakash et al. (2005) report that, it is vital to remember that tourists are

not a homogenous group as different tourists have different motives to visit an area.

When asked whether they would recommend the trip to others or not, most of the tourists

(73%) were willing to do so. Moreover majority of them (85%) would like to come back to

Amani because of richness in biodiversity (45%), natural environment together with its

beautiful scenery and landscape (19%) and to show friends (13.6%). Others would like to

learn more about Amani through researching and to observe the attractions such as birds,

which they were not able to see during their trips. Plate 4 shows some of the tourist

attractions found in Amani Nature Reserve.

Furthermore, interviews with tour operators revealed that birds and plants are the mostly

preferred attractions, which usually bring their clients to Amani. According to the

interviews made with local tour guides and ANR staff, together with personal observation,

several other attractions are known to be present in and around Amani. These include

Amani Botanical Garden (ABG), which is one of the oldest botanical gardens in Africa

covering about 340ha and having more than 1 000 species of plants from all over the

world. Several ornamental trees are found in the garden, and their arrangement and beauty

offer incredible satisfaction to visitors. The garden is valuable for conservation, education,

research and cultural reasons.

 50

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 51

Plate 4: Tourist attractions in Amani Nature Reserve.

The community adjacent to ABG has developed many uses of plants in the garden in an

interesting way that attracts some tourists to see traditional oil making from palm species.

This has made ANR develop new trails that take a look at palms in garden and entire

villages’ life styles in relation to ABG plants. There are also historical sites, which include

buildings and other constructions indicating the history of the area. The Zigi railway

station master’s house built by Germans in 1904-1910, is now restored to serve as an

 52

Information Centre. All these sites offer valuable attractions and sense of utility to visitors

(Mathew, 2007).

During the PRA exercise, using village resource maps, land use and land holdings in the

surveyed villages were also assessed. In this case, locations of different resources,

including potential attractive features for tourists were known. Table 15 shows eco-tourist

attractions found in the surveyed villages.

Table 15: Exceptional attractive features in the surveyed villages

Village Attractive features

Kisiwani Spice garden, Zigi river and teak plantations

IBC-Msasa View points, Dercma waterfall, Derema forest

and clove plantations

Mbomole Sunrise and sunset at Mbomole hill, cardamom plantations

Mlesa Tea plantations and factory

Shebomeza Live butterfly exhibition, handcrafts and fish ponds

Plate 5 below shows some of the exceptional tourist attractive features found in the villages

around ANR.
 53

Plate 5: Exceptional attractive features in the villages around ANR.

 54

4.2.2 Tourist activities in and around Amani Nature Reserve

Data obtained from the survey of tourists identified main eco-tourist activities in the study

area as shown in Table 16. Nature walking/ hiking (33.9%) and nature photography (22%)

were clearly the most popular activities. Bird watching (15.3%) and observing plants

(10.2%) were also popular activities. Other activities like researching, observing butterflies

and animals (monkeys, reptiles and amphibians) together with swimming were found to be

carried out by few tourists. These findings somehow agree with those of Finucane (1993)

who found that the main activities identified by the 'eco-tourism' operators in Western

Australian were bushwalking, nature photography and observing animals.

Table 16: Eco-tourism activities undertaken in ANR

Activity Frequency Percentage Location

Observing animals 2 3.4 Derema trail

Swimming 2 3.4 Derema

Butterfly watching 5.0 Shebomeza

Scientific study (Research) 4 6.8 Sangarawe

Observing wildflowers and other

plants 6 10.2 Derema trail

Bird watching 9 15.3 Kwamkoro

Nature photography 13 22.0 Zigi

Nature walking/hiking 20 33.9 Ngua, Mbomole hill

Total 59 100.0

Note-. The total frequency (59) is greater than 33 due to multiple responses where some

respondents gave more than one answer.

 55

Moreover the interviews done with the local tour guides revealed other eco-tourism

activities such as watching and sometimes participating in traditional dances, observing

fish ponds, and spice and lea plantations. Plate 6 shows eco-tourist activities done by

tourists in ANR.

Plate 6: Tourists’ activities in Amani Nature Reserve

 56

4.2.3 Visitor services and facilities provided by Amani Nature Reserve

As it can be seen in Table 17, visitors’ perceptions of the services and facilities at Amani

varied. Services such as catering, cleanness and staff attitudes to visitors were considered

by a large proportion of tourists as excellent, accounting for 42.4%, 24.2%, and 66.7%

respectively. Information on site was rated as poor (42.5%). Such a high proportion

indicates that ANR attracts educationally-minded tourists with focus on educational aspect

of their trips. Access to the site was rated by 48.5% of the tourists as average. This also

indicates that these eco-tourists recognize that some basic infrastructure, such as hiking

trails and access roads, are required although environmental damage is to be minimized.

Such facilities enable the eco-tourist to observe nature while disturbing it as little as

possible, thereby contributing to the safety of both entities. Tour guiding services and

accommodation were generally ranked as good.

Table 17: Rating by tourists of visitor services and facilities provided by ANR

Service/Facility Excellent Good Fair Poor

Catering 14(42.4%) 16 (48.6%) 3(9%) 0

Cleanness 8 (24.2%) 19 (57.6%) 5 (15.2%) 1 (3%)

Information on site 0 8 (24.2%) 10(33.3%) 14 (42.5%)

Access 0 11 (33.3%) 16(48.5) 6(18.2%)

Tour guiding 5 (15.2%) 14 (42.4%) 8 (24.2%) 6(18.2%)

Accommodation 7 (21.2%) 15 (45.5%) 10 (30.3%) 1 (3%)

Staff attitude to

visitors 22 (66.7%) 9 (27.3%) 2 (6%) 0

 57

In general except for few, visitors were satisfied with the services and facilities provided

by ANR. Saleh and Karwacki (1996) point out that, understanding of the motives for

visiting a destination and of the expected facilities and services are both crucial for initially

attracting the cco-tourist to a particular destination. Ensuring a return visit further requires

that the eco-tourist has a high level of satisfaction with on-site facilities and services. Basic

infrastructure, together with abundant information services are the primary destination

facilities and services required to ensure a high level of satisfaction among

environmentally-sensitive, learning-oriented eco-tourists.

4.2.4 Community attitudes towards eco-tourism

In general most households had positive attitude towards eco-tourism. Despite the concept

being new, most respondents to the household survey (67.44%) acknowledged the

importance of eco-tourism while the rest (32.56%) said that eco-tourism was not important.

Chi-square test on villages regarding eco-tourism importance was significant (x2=16.36, df

=4, p=0.003). More people from Shebomeza village 27 (15.7%) acknowledged that eco-

tourism was important to their households probably because they are closer to ANR

boundary hence they could easily grasp the benefits. Those who said it was important

stated various reasons as shown in Table 18. More respondents (25.9%) stated that eco-

tourism creates conservation awareness as more people in the area have become more

environmentally aware.
 58

Table 18: Community attitudes toward eco-tourism

Reason Frequency Percentage

Research leads to discovery of plants which have

economic value 2 0.5

Brought employment to some people 39 10.5

Tourists support income-generating activities 64 17.0

Protected forest brings rainfall 86 22.9

Villages get some share from tourism money 87 23.2

Creates awareness in conservation 97 25.9

Total 375 100.0

Note-. The total frequency (375) is greater than 172 due to multiple responses whereby

each respondent gave more than one answer.

Others (23.2%) acknowledged that some of the money from tourism, which is given to

their villages, is contributing to village development activities such as building

dispensaries and schools, which, in turn, lessen the payment they could have contributed as

households. Another considerable proportion of respondents (22.9%) was aware of the

contribution of eco-tourism in protecting the forest, which brings rainfall hence they get

more harvests. This study also found that 17% of respondents appreciate the way in which

eco-tourism supports income-generating activities such as butterfly farming and 10.4%

noted that some people got employment because of eco-tourism. Few respondents (0.5%)

reported on the importance of research done mostly by eco-tourists leading to discovery of

plants with economic value such as Msambu (Allanblackia stulmanii).

 59

Moreover, during interviews with some key informants especially local tour guides and

village representatives (Village environmental committee leaders, village government

leaders and influential people), several other items, which were thought to be benefits

brought by eco-tourism, were revealed. These include the fact that the villagers are being

allowed by ANR to use the forest in conducting income-generating activities such as

beekeeping, an activity which helps to conserve the forest and at the same time improves

their wellbeing. Others said that, because of eco-tourism, ANR provides the villagers with

tree seedlings for transplanting in their farms, e.g. clove seedlings. Also, they mentioned

that eco-tourism made the area more active both socially and culturally.

On the other hand, the survey of tourists found that the majority (72.7%) of them used

local tour guides for interpretation, 21.2% did not while a few (6.2%) came with their own

guides. Moreover, tour operators were asked how they make use of the local knowledge

and expertise together with their facilities. The results from the interviews showed that

most of them use local tour guides.

4.2.5 Eco-tourism and local culture

Respondents in the household survey were asked to state their opinions on whether eco-

tourism has led to change of local culture. A large majority (87.2%) believed that eco-

tourism has not led to change of local culture. The following information was obtained

from them: Around 47.7% said that, there is usually no interaction between local people

and tourists as the latter spend much time in the forest and usually don’t stay long. Some

18.6% associated culture and eco-tourism by saying that tourists are attracted by and

interested in the local culture as one of the attractions. Others (16.3%) reported that most

tourists do not visit the villages; they just pass through on their way to the forest. Few
 60

(4.6%) thought that the culture they used to have is still the same and that the people are

still practicing it. These results give us an insight that people have maintained and feel

proud of their culture; since most of the respondents claimed that there was no significant

difference between before and after the introduction of eco-tourism. However, the

remaining proportion of respondents (12.8%) had a perception that eco-tourism has

brought cultural change in their villages. For example, they claimed that some youth are

already behaving like Western people especially in terms of how they dress. They also

noted that they are no longer allowed to go into the forest and de-bark trees or take their

roots for medicinal purposes. Other people said that eco-tourism has led to eviction of

people in some areas in order to put more land under conservation. These people said that,

the establishment of ANR included taking away their lands but in return they just got

inadequate compensation and hence making their lives more difficult. Increased living cost

and theft were also among the things people claimed to be caused by eco-tourism.

4.3 Contribution of Eco-tourism to Improvement of Livelihoods

4.3.1 Main occupations and average incomes

The household survey reveled that the main source of livelihood in the study area was crop

farming whereby 93% of the surveyed households were crop farmers. Total annual income

from agriculture was TAS 56 480 480, which contributed 35.6% of the total annual

household income (TAS 158 529 030) as shown in Table 19. Wobst and Mhamba (2006)

report that, the agricultural sector has been the mainstay of the Tanzanian economy where

over 80% of the population depends on agriculture for their living. Crops grown in the area

are shown in. Fig. 6. Interviews with village representatives revealed that both cash and

food crops were cultivated by the people in the study area. Furthermore, during the
 61

household questionnaire survey it was found that bananas are grown by 17% of

respondents followed by cardamom and cassava, which accounted for 14% each.

Beans Tea
\ Yams
Vegetables 2% \2% 3 1 % Sweet potatoes
Maize 3% j r i%
\ //
6% Banana
17%
Black paper
9% Cassava
14%
Sugarcane
10%
Cinnamon I
10% Cloves
11% \ Cardamom
14%

Figure 6: Crops cultivated in the surveyed villages.

Cardamom is the major high-income earning crop. Other cash crops are cloves, cinnamon

sugarcane and black pepper, all of which form a critical source of household income.

Important food crops include banana, cassava, maize and beans to mention just a few.

It was further noted that people in the study area practice livestock keeping as one of the

secondary sources of income and is mainly done on zero-grazing basis. Data show that

annual income from livestock was TAS 19 805 550 hence it contributed 12.5% to the total

household economy. However, it was revealed that though there were more livestock

keepers than businessmen, annual income from business activities was higher
 62

(TAS 28 329 500), which was about 17.9% of the total household income, compared to

livestock keeping. Businesses were mainly small scale such as selling local brew, food,

vegetables, spices, and owning small shops. Other businesses conducted were selling of

forest products such firewood, allanblackia seeds, which are used to make oil and natural

medicine. People who conducted eco-tourism-related activities were 22.7% of all the

survey respondents. Results indicate also that the total annual household income from eco-

tourism was TAS 15 162 000, which accounted for 9.6% of the total annual household

income. Other respondents (18%) were employed and they included school teachers, health

workers and those working at the tea factory. It was further noted that though relatively

few people were under salary employment, the activity contributed a slightly higher

proportion (15.4%) to the total household income compared to tourism and livestock

keeping.

The remaining income earning activities were casual labor, which contributed 4.3% of the

total annual household income, butterfly farming (2%), tailoring (0.7%) poultry and

carpentry 0.6% each, fish farming (0.3%), and lumbering ( 0.2%). There was a notable lack

of involvement in natural resource-based activities such as beekeeping.

This could be probably because the study area receives relatively high rainfall, a condition

which is not conducive for the activity. Household survey results show that only 1.2% of

the surveyed households were beekeepers and the activity contributed only 0.2% of the

total household income. Plate 7 shows some of the income generating activities done by

people in the surveyed villages.

 63

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 64

Butterfly farming at Mlesa village Fish farming at Shcbomeza village

Plate 7: Economic activities done by people in the surveyed villages.

4.3.2 E co-tourism-related activities done by local people

One method of assessing the role of eco-tourism in livelihood improvement is by looking

at the position it occupies as a source of income in the household. Results in Table 19 show

that, among the economic activities practiced in the study area, tourism ranks fourth and

that only 39 (22.6%) of the surveyed households are engaged in eco-tourism-related

activities. These results suggest that a small proportion of residents make their living from

tourism. This could be because they are not informed or there are limited opportunities in

tourism. Table 20 shows eco-tourism-related activities done by people in the five surveyed

villages.
 65

Table 20: Eco-tourism-related activities conducted by people in the selected villages

Activity G3
V) _o 3Q Total Percentage
C3
§ C/3 o
E
s S
o
JL) o
n=39
I
(J
0Q s s -O
Q
-C
CZ)
Forest attendant 0 ~0 0 —0 1 2.5

Traditional dancer 0 0 0 1 0 1 2.5

Making and selling 0 0 0 0 1 1 2.5

crafts

Making furniture 0 0 0 1 0 1 2.5

Selling traditional 0 0 0 0 1 1 2.5

dresses

Selling eggs to ANR 0 0 0 0 1 1 2.5

Fish farmer 0 0 1 0 1 2 5.2

Tour guiding 0 1 0 2 0 3 7.8

Cooking for tourists 1 0 0 0 2 3 7.8

Field /research 0 1 1 0 1 3 7.8

assistant

Field visits by tourists 1 0 1 0 1 3 7.8

Selling fruits to 2 0 0 0 1 3 7.8

tourists

Clearing trails 1 2 0 1 0 4 10.2

Watchman 1 1 2 0 0 4 10.2

Butterfly cages 2 1 0 0 1 4 10.2

Selling vegetables 1 0 2 0 1 4 10.2

 66

4.3.3 Tourism income and its proportion in the household income

On average a person who conducted eco-tourism-related jobs earned TAS 370 308

annually whereas 5000/= and 960 000/= were the lowest and highest incomes respectively

(Table 21). The findings show that the proportion of eco-tourism income to the total

household income was 9.6%.

 67

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 68

4.4 Factors Hindering Growth of Eco-tourism in the Area

4.4.1 Hindrances as perceived by local people

Various aspects were perceived by respondents during the household survey as obstacles to

growth of eco-tourism in and around ANR (Table 22). Poor infrastructures especially roads

were reported by most respondents (40.1%). For example, the road from Muheza to Amani

is almost impassable during the rain season. Moreover, transport is also difficult for some

tourists who don’t have their private cars hence they are forced to use public transport,

which is not reliable. Poor involvement of local people by ANR was another main factor

accounting for 22%. Gutierrez (2006) reports that, local people living in and around an

eco-tourism destination have to be involved in the planning, implementation and

maintenance of the cco-tourist park for effective implementation, hence through eco-

tourism, the local people living in poverty are able to have a say in how they would like to

develop the park that is going to protect the land they live in. Some (15.9%) respondents

reported poverty in terms of both income and non-income (low education among local

people) as another factor, which hinders growth of eco-tourism. This suggests that, in order

to have meaningful participation in tourism, education at all levels must be developed so

that people can understand the link between them and the environment. Moreover, research

has shown that majority of rural people depend entirely on agriculture, which does not pay

much and that most of them live at the bottom of the poverty line with a daily income of

less than TAS 1000 (IFAD, 2002). Considering the needs of these people, it is unlikely that

they can fully participate in environmental conservation. Inadequate attractions were

mentioned by 12.8% of respondents. This suggests the need for diversification of eco-

tourism activities in order to enhance tourists’ experience. Furthermore, despite the fact

that there are some marketing strategies done by ANR in promoting eco-tourism, some

respondents (7.9%) reported poor marketing strategies as a factor hindering tourism. Very
 69

few respondents (0.9% and 0.4%) reported lack of qualified tour guides and mining

activities respectively as factors that hindered growth of eco-tourism.

Table 22: Factors hindering growth of eco-tourism in the area

Factors Frequency Percentage

Mining activities within the reserve 1 0.4

Lack of qualified tour guides 2 0.9

Poor marketing strategies 18 7.9

Few attractions 29 12.8

Poverty by local people 36 15.9

Poor involvement of local people by ANR 50 22.0

Poor infrastructures 91 40.1

Total 227 100.0

Note-. The total frequency (227) is greater than 172 due to multiple responses where some

respondents gave more than one answer.

4.4.2 Hindrances identified by tourists

The tourist survey found that most of the tourists (71%) are not visiting the villages. Only a

few (29%) do so. This implies that tourist attractions in the villages are not well developed

and/or maintained. Moreover, concerning accommodation, a large number of tourists

(83%) used rest houses in ANR, 11% used NIMRI rest house and only a few (6%) camped

at Emau hill, which is owned by a private investor. No tourist used locally owned

accommodation. This could probably be due to insufficient infrastructures in the villages

such as buildings which can meet tourist standards. All these prevent the local people from
 70

fully benefiting from eco-tourism especially economically. Wallace and Pierce (1996)

suggest that eco-tourism should direct economic benefits to local people. The tourist

survey data also showed that 9% of the tourists won’t revisit Amani and another 6% were

not sure. Some of the reasons given include inadequacy of well trained local tour guides

and little or no information on site. This suggests the need for employing

expericnced/trained guides who originate from the area and have an in-depth knowledge of

indigenous wildlife, landforms that exist there and local cultures. Other tourists gave

reasons of high fees (both entry and tour guiding), the area not being accessible especially

during the rainy season and their expectations not being met.

4.4.3 Hindrances by the ANR management

The interview with the ANR conservator revealed several other factors that also hinder

growth of eco-tourism in the area. They include fire in the western part of the reserve,

illegal mining within the reserve and on river beds and inadequacy of human resource.

Inadequate funding to run the reserve was also identified as a constraint to eco-tourism

development due to the fact that the amount of revenues from tourism is still low to suffice

both conservation and community developments (Sawe, C. personal communication,

2007).

4.4.4 Communities’ problems in relation to eco-tourism growth

During the PRA pair-wise ranking exercise, this study further identified some problems

experienced by local community which had link to involvement of people in tourism and

eco-tourism growth in particular. The mentioned problems (Table 23) were paired and

compared against each other through discussion, voting and by consensus among the

villagers so as to find out the most prominent problem. Inadequate timber and poles
 71

especially for building was the most identified problem in all the surveyed villages. In this

case people complained about the bureaucracy exercised by ANR officials in issuing

permits to cut trees from public land in order to get timber. They said one had to go

through very long and tedious procedures something which is really discouraging. Demand

for timber and building poles leads to serious destruction of forests, and if it continues

unabated, the forest resources (on which eco-tourism mostly depend) would be depleted.

Scarcity of employment opportunities and hence difficult living conditions force the

villagers to demolish the forests as their sole income source becomes the forests. This also

hinders eco-tourism growth in the area as the forest resources could not be sustainably

managed under economic and social pressure of local people. However, eco-tourism could

have positive impacts by changing the structure of the forest use from active to passive

forms, by increasing income level and by decreasing illegal exploitation. Other people

reported on the tough restrictions put in place by the ANR authorities regarding access to

various forest products, including firewood, medicines, fruits, ropes and poles. They

complained that they are no longer allowed to enter into the forest reserve except on

Saturdays and Wednesdays where they are just allowed to collect dead wood for firewood.

Along with this, problem animals (vermin) from the reserve, which destroy crops, was also

noted as a problem which hinders full participation in eco-tourism and hence its growth.

This is due to the fact that people find no reason as to why they should conserve these

animals and the forest in particular. It was further observed that inadequate land for

agriculture is among the problems which hinder growth of eco-tourism due to

encroachments to reserved land. The limited land resources and the fact that the rural

population depends on land resources for its livelihood make them apply intensive
 72

pressures on the forests by clearing them for agricultural production in order to gain new

arable lands.
 73

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 74

4.5 Modalities for Sharing Costs and Benefits

4.5.1 Eco-tourism revenues collected by Amani Nature Reserve

Figure 7 shows revenues that ANR generated from eco-tourism in a period of five years

and the proportion (20%) sent to the surrounding community for development projects.

This proportion is distributed equally among all 18 villages. Records show that in 2001/02,

2002/03. 2003/04, 2004/05 and 2005/06 each village got TAS 77 800, 81 000, 106 000,

133 000 and 186 500 respectively.

18

16

14

12

IE
10 □ Revenues in millions
□ Sent to connunity

1 6
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2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
Year

Figure 7: Revenues (in TAS) generated by ANR from eco-tourism and amounts given to

village community (2001/2-2005/6) Source: Data from ANR office.

However, according to household survey results, the amount that villages get is still small

and does little to enhance livelihoods. The results show also that, the population around the

reserve is growing rapidly hence a growing demand for more revenues from ANR. This

will accelerate invasion of the reserve for agriculture, building poles and illegal taking of
 75

wild fauna, which will then lead to serious impacts on the protected species. Lindberg and

Enriquez (1994) report that, if positive attitudes to eco-tourism are to be fostered, residents

living in or adjacent to a protected area should be receiving economic and social benefits

or compensations, which will support or complement their livelihoods.

4.5.2 Involvement of people in eco-tourism

This study tried to find out the extent at which ANR involves the local community in eco-

tourism activities. About 30.2% of the household survey respondents revealed that they are

involved in eco-tourism. However, the majority (69.8%) said that they are not. Results of

chi-square test on villages against involvement of people in eco-tourism were statistically

insignificant (p=0.170) implying that there were no significant difference in peoples’

involvement among villages. Those who said they were involved mentioned the different

approaches undertaken (Table 24). These include attending village meetings on

environmental management issues, participating in various activities such as maintaining

trails and working as forest guards, participating in tree planting, and fighting bush fires.

Other respondents said that they were involved because the villagers were getting some

shares from eco-tourism revenues.

However, what is evident here is that the means of involvement are inadequate in that they

do not entail planning and decision making, which are the critical components of

successful participatory management of natural resources and hence not compatible with

various national environmental sector policies. According to Gutierrez (2006) and

Shackleton (2007), the more power and involvement the local people have in the parks and

tourist ventures in their areas, the more likely they will benefit economically. Moreover, it
 76

is essential that in eco-tourism the local people are involved in the planning and

management of the park.

Table 24: Involvement of people in tourism by ANR

Means of involvement ca Freq. Percentage

M
C3
_o So
§ cz> o ca
M E
s E
o o
5 o
m
I
x>
s s -D
u
<z>
Taking part in fighting

bush fires 1 2 2 1 1 7 6.5

Villages provided with 2 1 1 2 4 10 9.1

revenues from tourism

Participating in tree 3 7 1 1 2 16 16.0

planting

Provided with 5 6 3 9 12 35 33.0

environmental education

Provided with jobs 7 6 8 5 11 39 36.4

Total 107 100.0

Note-. The total frequency (107) is greater than 52 due to multiple responses where some

respondents gave more than one answer

The results further show that the type of involvement varies with villages. For example, a

greater number of respondents at Shebomeza responded that they are being involved by

being provided with environmental education and jobs compared with other villages. The

reason could probably be due to the fact that Shebomeza is where ANR headquarters is

situated. And these people, being so close to ANR staff, know more concerning
 77

environmental education. Moreover, more people at IBC-Msasa seem to participate in tree

planting compared to other villages.

Inadequate involvement of the communities in conservation is also highlighted by Jambiya

and Sosovele (2004) when they indicate the trends in conservation, which shows that the

management of ANR has made considerable efforts towards both conservation and

involvement of local communities, and has begun looking into sharing of benefits and

costs of conservation. However, they also note that, the type of community participation

remains far from the ideal; it is still strongly passive.

Findings of this study further reveal that, 73% of surveyed households which claimed to be

involved in eco-tourism were not satisfied with the ANR mode of conduct. Table 25 shows

their different views on how they would like to either participate or benefit from tourism.

Some of the respondents (47.8%) would like to be given employment like local tour guides

and forest guards, 32% said that they lack knowledge on different aspects of eco-tourism

hence they would like to be more educated. Others (15.7%) would like ANR to support

local development projects and 3.4% wish that ANR could involve them directly in

planning. A few (1.1%) would like to participate and benefit from eco-tourism by selling

traditional foods to tourists. According to the interviews conducted with ANR staff, the

more common means of involving people is through representative seminars, which are

mostly about the benefits and the potential hazards of forests.

 78

Table 25: Means of participating and benefiting from tourism in ANR

Means Frequency Percentage

Cooking and selling traditional food to tourists 2 1.1

Directly involved in planning 6 3.4
Support local development projects 28 15.7

Provided with education on different aspects of eco-tourism 57 32.0

Given employment in tourism unit 85 47.8

Total 178 100.0

Note\ The total frequency (178) is greater than 38 due to multiple responses where some

respondents gave more than one answer.

Through the household survey this study tried to find out how ANR involves people in

conserving Saintpaulia. Results (Table 26) show that majority of the respondents (60.7%)

are not involved in any way when it comes to conserving the plant. However, the level of

involvement varies from one village to another. For example, majority of respondents at

Mlesa reported that they are not involved at all, very few at Mbomole while at Kisiwani no

respondent reported that they are not involved. This could be due to the fact that at

Kisiwani there are many Saintpaulia locations compared to other surveyed villages hence

more emphasis by ANR. The other 28% reported that ANR raises awareness through

meetings on the value of the plant. Few respondents (10.7%) noted that they are being

involved by being stopped to cultivate near Saintpaulia sensitive habitats.

According to Johansson (1978), habitat loss and degradation threaten the survival of many

Saintpaulia species. Reduction in forest cover is the principle cause of their threatened
 79

status both in the lowlands and in the mountains, hence an increase in light means a more

severe exposure to drought during the dry season. Locally, uncontrolled fires that escape

into the natural forest are also reported to be a threat to Saintpaulia. Moreover according to

Pearcy et al. (1991), a much more immediate threat is that of disturbance from reduction in

forest canopy cover which destroys the essential shaded habitat. This entails that as forest

cover disappears, majority of Saintpaulia species also disappear.

Table 26: Ways used by ANR to involve people in conserving Saintpaulia

Means of involvement C3
& O
«
N
Total Percentage
1 CO
V)

s
d
O
E
o
-O
Rj
c/)

s
Q
Eo
us
o
cn s u=
c/J

Stopping people from

cultivating near its habitat 0 2 0 0 1 3 10.7

Sensitizes on the importance of

the plant through meetings 1 3 2 1 1 8 28.6

Sensitizes on the importance of

the plant through meetings 1 3 2 1 1 8 28.6

They don’t involve us 0 3 2 7 5 17 60.7

Therefore, for conservation efforts to be successful, a multidisciplinary approach with both

ecological (e.g. restoration of the habitats) and socio-economic measures is needed. As

threats to Saintpaulia conservation are growing, there is a need to start tackling them at the

community level, to prevent encroachments to its habitats and clearing of forest. Also,

promotion of education and livelihoods of the communities will be needed to reduce

pressure on Saintpaulia habitats. Hughes & Flintan (2001) report that biological research

alone can only solve a small fraction of the problems of plant conservation as conservation
 80

of the Saintpaulia habitats conflicts with the needs of the adjacent human communities.

Success of conservation efforts essentially depends on the availability of, and the will to

use, the limited conservation resources for combating illegal tree felling, for the training of

communities in forest conservation and for the generation of livelihoods that utilize forest

in a sustainable way. The current trend in conservation that seeks integration of

conservation and social-economic development is hence a desired approach also in the

conservation of Saintpaulia.

During the PRA exercise using institutional analysis, various institutions/groups which are

in place and involving people in eco-tourism were identified. In this case, the degree of

contribution of institutions/groups, which ensure successful local participation in

conservation and in improving people’s livelihoods was mentioned and ranked in terms of

the institutions’ effectiveness and the way they are considered important or less important

among the local people (Table 27). This study, like the previous one by Kajembe and

Kessy (1999), confinns that local people are the best assessors of the relevance of local

institutions on the basis of their functions.

After comparing different institutions against each other through discussion, voting and by

consensus among the villagers, it was found that, Village Environmental Committees

(VECs) were relatively higher with a mean rank of 1.8. It was observed that local people

involve themselves in conservation activities mainly though their VECs. UWAMA, which

is a short form of Urnoja wa Wafugaji Maziwa, is also an important institution with a mean

rank of 2. The latter is responsible for providing reliable milk market hence most villagers

improve their livelihoods through the presence of this institution. ANR was acknowledged

in having encouraged people to establish various income generating activities, which are
 81

environmentally friendly such as butterfly farming and beekeeping. Moreover, ANR was

said to prohibit haphazard timber harvesting hence conserve water sources. Other

institutions like the village governments and schools were considered important though to

a lesser extent.

Table 27: Institutions and their importance

Institution/group Rank* by villages Average

CO a
c/j N
CO CJ
c5 C/2 o C3
6) E
s E
o o
To
2 u
I

CD s s -O
Q
GO

Butterfly project 4 3 8 n/m 1

Tea Factory n/m 11 n/m 1 9

Village government 3 5 6 6 5 5.0

ANR 5 7 4 4 4 4.8

Village environmental

committees 2 1 1 3 2 1.8

School 6 4 5 5 6 5.2

Beekeepers group 8 9 7 8 8 8.0

Fish farmers group 7 8 3 7 7 6.4

Efficient cooking stoves group 9 6 11 n/m 10

UWAMA 1 2 2 2 3 2.0

Allanblackia project 10 10 9 9 11 9.8

Key: The rank* of 1 indicates the greatest role played by the institution or group in
conservation or in improving livelihoods in collaboration with local people,
n/m = not mentioned.
 82

The importance of the village government in initiating various committees relating to

conservation and development in the village was recognized in all surveyed villages.

School was considered to be one of the effective institutions in creating environmental

awareness. Notably, fish farmers’ group and allanblackia group are not generally seen as

influential institutions despite their potential in improving livelihoods. This is because of

the fact that few people are making livelihoods through those activities. The role of

butterfly farming in conservation and increasing people’s income was acknowledged by all

but one village. Tea factory was ranked the least in IBC-Msasa while in the other villages

like Kisiwani and Mbomole was not mentioned at all. Efficient cooking stoves group

though not mentioned at Mlesa was acknowledged in protecting the environment as the

stoves use less fuel woods.

4.6 Policy Implications on Establishment and Conduct of Eco-tourism

A recent change in Tanzanian tourism policy has been an increased focus on sustainability

in order to maximize the benefits received from tourism. Based on the results from this

study, it is clear that much is still to be done to ensure sustainable tourism practices in the

area. According to Buckley (2001), it is important to consider development of eco-tourism

product in the context of the policy. It is also essential to identify major issues that are

likely to affect the development and management of eco-tourism, as well as to develop

policies and programs to assist in making the industry more viable and sustainable.

Moreover, when developing sustainable nature-based tourism it is important to initiate a

participatory approach in planning and implementation. The development of positive

relationships between people, resources and tourism is very unlikely to occur without

implementation of effective policies. Furthermore, if planning and decision-making do not

involve local populations eco-tourism will not succeed, and may even be detrimental to
 83

local communities (Ziffer, 1989). The local communities need to have access to capital and

appropriate management and marketing skills to invest in and benefit from the tourism

sector. In this case there is a need to seek and provide training to local people to enable

them to develop skills and expertise to participate more in the tourism business (e.g.

guiding skills and small enterprise development courses). A procedure should be laid down

on how profits from tourism could be reinvested or used in the area.

Boo (1993) notes that in rural areas, well-managed tourism, even at low volumes, can

make a significant impact on livelihoods. However, local communities must have legal

rights over land and other resources if they are to invest their own efforts in tourism and

attract partners for development. Providing opportunities for cross-cultural exchange that

reach beyond simple observation and encourage complex interactions among visitors and

hosts is also essential. There should also be communication programs that portray the

destination’s desired image. These include advertising, personal selling, public relations

and incentives.
 84

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

From the findings of this study it is concluded that ANR and the adjacent villages are

endowed with great eco-tourism potentials. These potentials vary from natural (endemic

flora and fauna, landscape/scenery, waterfalls) to cultural (historical sites and traditional

dances). However, while communities do participate in conservation of natural resources

and eco-tourism in particular, the existing type and level of involvement are not effective

enough to bring about significant impact. The involvement of the local community is just

limited to activities that never entail planning, supervising and decision making, and hence

not in line with the current natural resources policies.

Furthermore, although tourism in the area was observed to increase with time, there has

been little to benefit the local communities and to pay for conservation. It comes into view

that the ANR Management and the Local Governments are yet to develop better modalities

for eco-tourism to benefit the community. Given the current situation, the potentials for

eco-tourism in improving nature conservation and livelihoods is yet to be realized in the

area.

5.2 Recommendations

(>) Given the findings of this study, several suggestions regarding eco- tourism are

now put forward. To begin with Amani should increase local community’s

involvement in tourism. This is due to the fact that eco-tourism activities are

often initiated by individuals outside a community, and therefore, local

 85

communities ought to be involved in all stages of eco-tourism ventures in order

to ensure that their interests are considered by all parties. Along with this, locals

should be given opportunities at all levels of management and operation of eco-

tourism ventures.

(ii) A successful eco-tourism venture requires eco-tourism activities to provide

environmental education and awareness programs for local communities

involved. This study recommends on increased environmental education and

awareness programs at all levels to enable people understand the

interrelationships between humans and the environment. The programs will also

increase local communities’ understanding of what they should expect from

eco-tourism hence they can plan accordingly.

(iii) A clear plan to identify tourists’ attractions in the villages should be developed

in collaboration with the local people living in adjacent villages. This is crucial

as it will ascertain the tourism potential for each village. Together with this,

capacity building of local communities in cultural tourism is also important.

(iv) More efforts are still needed to integrate the conservation of rare and endemic

species such as Saintpaulia to eco-tourism development in collaboration with

the local communities. This would be beneficial for both the local people and

for the conservation of the species and their habitats.

(v) Generally, except for the few, tourist’s services and facilities were good. Access

to site, information on site and tour guiding services were not satisfactory to
 86

most of the tourists. Improvement of these services is strongly recommended

since satisfaction with facilities and services plays a large role in the eco-

tourist’s intention to return hence it is essential that planners pay attention to

eco tourists' needs in these areas.

(vi) Adequate financial benefits from eco-tourism activities are often not transferred

to local communities. It is finally recommended that, policymakers should

establish eco-tourism monitoring and accountability' programs to ensure that

local communities receive appropriate amounts of revenue.

 87

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 100

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Household Questionnaire

A: Basic household information

1. Ward: .
2. Village:
3.Sub-viIlage:

4. Origin of household? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):

1. Native [ ] 2. Immigrant [ ]

5. Gender of respondent (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):

l.Male[ ] 2. Female [ ]

6. Age of respondent (Circle the number corresponding to your answer):

1. Below 18 years 2. 18-30 years
2. 31 - 45 years 4. Above 45 years

7. Highest level of education attained by the respondent (Circle the number of your
answer)'.
1. Never went to school 2. Adult education 3. Primary education
4. Secondary education 5. Higher (Please, specify)'.
8. Household composition (In the table below, enter numbers of males and females under
each age category):
Age category (yrs) Male (number) Female (number) Total
“<18

18-35
35-55
>55
 101

B: Employment
9. Among the following, what is/are your source(s) of income and how much did you get
from each source in the calendar year 2006?
S/N Source of income Amount (TAS)
1. Lumbering
2. Carpentry
3. Employed
4. Casual labour
5. Business
6. Agriculture
7. Tourism
8. Livestock
9. Poultry
10. Others (please, specify)

10. In the table below, please, list the crops you grow and give information on household’s
crop production and prices in the calendar year 2006?
Crop Unit of measurement Production (total Price per unit
units)

11. In the table below, please, mention the businesses you conduct and how much you
earned from each, in the calendar year 2006?
Type of business Amount (TAS)
 102

C: Eco-tourism Information
12. Are tourists coming to your village? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your
answer): l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]
13. If your answer to question 12 is Yes, do you have any idea what is the interest of the
tourists in your village? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]
14. If your answer to question 13 is Yes, list them in order of importance
1 2 3

15. If your answer to question 12 is No, please explain in the space provided below why?

16. Are you aware of eco-tourism activities in this area? (Tick in the bracket corresponding
to your answer): 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ]

17. If your answer to question 16 is Yes, please list them

1 2
3. 4.

18. Has eco-tourism created a job /jobs for any member of your household? (Tick in the
bracket corresponding toj>ou£ answer): l.Yesf ] 2. No [ ]

19. If your answer to question 18 is Yes, what kind ofjob?

20. How much did the household earn from that job in the calendar year 2006?

21. What was the proportion (in %) of eco-tourism income in the total household’s
income?

22. Is the eco-tourism job: (Circle the number corresponding to your answer):

1. Year around? 2. Seasonal?

 103

23. Do you think eco-tourism is important to your household? (Tick in the bracket
corresponding to your answer): l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]

24. Briefly explain your answer to question 23

25. How much did your household get from Amani Nature Reserve as a result of eco-
tourism activities in the calendar year 2006?
26. Does Amani Nature Reserve involve you or any one in your household in eco-tourism?
(Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):}. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ]

27. If the answer to question 26 is Yes, how? (Please explain in the space provided below):

28. If the answer to question 26 is Yes, how does your household benefit by being
involved? (Please explain in the blanks below):

29. Are you or your household satisfied with the way you are or it is being involved? (Tick
in the bracket corresponding to your answer) 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ]

30. If your answer to question 29 is No, how would you like to participate in eco-tourism?
(Please explain in the space provided below):

31. If your answer to question 29 is No, how would you like to benefit from eco-tourism?
(Please explain in the space below):

32. If your answer to question 26 is No, why? (Please explain in the space below)
 104

33. In the table below, can you, please name, the eco-tourist attractions, services and
facilities in and around Amani Nature Reserve?
Attractions Services/Facilities
1.
2.
3.

34. What do you think could be the factors hindering growth of eco-tourism? (Please list
them)'.
1. 2.
3. 4.

35. Is /are there any particular village/villages you think is/are benefiting more from eco-
tourism in the area than others? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer)

1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ]

36. If your answer to question 35 is Yes, please list the villages.

1. 2. 3

37. If some villagc(s), is/are benefiting more, why do you think is the case? (Please explain
in the space provided below)'.

38. How, do you think, should the benefits from eco-tourism be distributed? (Please
explain in the space provided below)'.

39. Which of the following benefits have tourism brought to your village? (Circle the
number(s) corresponding to your answer(s)):
1. Jobs 2. Publicity of the area 3. Better education
4. Tarmac roads 5. Telephone 6. Electricity
 105

7. Made people more environmentally aware 8. Others (Please specify)

40. Do you think eco-tourism has led to change of local culture? (Tick in the bracket
corresponding to your answer): l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]

41. If your answer to question 40 is Yes, how? (Please explain in the space provided
below)-. ............................................................................................

42. If your answer to question 40 is No, why? (Please explain in the space provided
below):

43. Which of the following has been caused by tourism in your community? (Circle the
nuinber(s) corresponding to your answerfs)):
1. Increased living costs 2. Erosion of culture (e.g. clothing, customs)
3. Creation of social classes 4. Increase of theft
5. Others (Please specify) 6.

44. In what particular areas, the management of ANR should help you or your household
to get more benefits from tourism? (Please explain in the space provided below)-.

45. Please give your opinion/suggestion on how eco-tourism in and around ANR could be
improved

D: Conservation of African Violet flower (Saintpaulia)

46. Are you aware of the of African violet flower? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to
your answer): l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]

47. If your answer to question 46. is Yes, what is the local name of the Plant? .
48. Do you grow it on your farm? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]

49. If your answer to question 48. is Yes, what is the local uses of the flower? (Please
explain in the spaces below)
 106

50. Is eco-tourism one of the reasons which made your household to grow the flower?
{Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer): 1. Yes [ ] 2.No [ ]
51. If your answer to question 50 is Yes, are the tourists visiting your home to see the
flower? {Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No[ ]
52. If your answer to question 51 is No, why? (Please explain in the spaces provided
below)

53. In what ways does Amani Nature Reserve involve you in conserving the flower?
{Please explain in the spaces provided below)

Date of the interview Interviewer

Thank you for your time.

 107

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Tourists

1. Sex: l.Malef 1 2. Female [ 1

2. Age:
3. Nationality:
4. Is this your first visit to Amani? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No[ ]
5. If your answer to question 4 is No, how many times have you been here before? (Please
fill in the space provided below):
6. For how many days are you planning to stay?
7. What kind of accommodation are you using? (Circle the number corresponding to your
answer):
1. Lodge 2. Guest House 3. Camping
4. Home stay 5. Other (Please specify)
8. What is the main reason of your trip to Tanzania? (Circle the number ofyour answer):
1. Holiday 2. Educational visit /research
3. Business 4. Visiting relatives / friend
5. Other (Please specify) 5.
9. How did you know about Amani? (Circle the number(s) of your answer(s)):
1. Tourist leaflet 2. Tourist information centre
3. Media 4. Website
5. Word of mouth 6. Others (Please specify)
10. Why did you decided to come to Amani? (Circle the number ofyour answer):
1. It is part of the tour package 2. Recommended by relatives/friends
3. Others (Please specify) 4
11. What attractions have you specifically come to Amani for? (Please, fill in the space
provided below):
1. 2.
3. 4.

12. Have you been able to find what you expected? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to
your answer):
l.Yesf ] 2. No [ ■]
 108

13. If your answer to question 12 is Yes, what has attracted you most? (Please, explain in
the space provided below)'.

14. Have /did you visit any village(s)? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer)'.
l.Ycsf ] 2. No [ ]
15. If your answer to question 14 is Yes, please name them
1 2
3 4
16. What attracted you in those villages? (Please fill in the table provided below)
Village Attraction Its status
1.
2.
3.

17. Did you participate/ have you participated in nature-based activities? (Tick in the
bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]
18. If your answer to question 17 is Yes, what are those activities? (Please list them in the
table below)
Activity Location
1.
2.
3.

19. If your answer to question 18 is No, please explain why?

20. Did/have you use/used a tour guide for interpretation? (Tick in the bracket
corresponding to your answer)
l.Yesf ] 2. No[ ]
21. If the answer in question 18 is Yes, was your guide competent in the interpretation?
(Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer)
l.Yes[ ] 2. No[ ]
22. If the answer in question 21 is No, please explain briefly why?
 109

23. May you rate the following services, conditions and facilities? (In the table below,
please tick in the box corresponding to your answer):
Facilities and services Excellent Good Fair Poor
1. Catering
2. Cleanliness
3. Information on site
4. Staff attitude to visitors
5. Access
6. Accommodation
7. Tour guiding
8. Others (Please specify)

24. How much did you pay in order to see the attractions? (Please fill in the table below):
Attraction Amount paid
1.
2.

25. Are you satisfied with the set fee? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your answer):
l.Yes[ ] 2. No[ ]
26. If your answer to question 25 is No, please explain briefly why?

27. Would you like to come to Amani again? (Tick in the bracket corresponding to your
answer) 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [........ ]
28. If the answer in question 27 is Yes, please explain in the space provided below why?

29. If the answer in question 27 is No, please explain in the space provided below why?

30. Would you recommend this tour to a friend/relative? (Tick in the bracket
corresponding to your answer): l.Yes[ ] 2. No [ ]
31. Please give your opinion on what measures to take, in order to ensure growth of eco-
tourism in and around Amani Nature Reserve.

Thank you for you time

 110

Appendix 3: Checklists

A: Checklist for Amani Nature Reserve (ANR) Officials

1. What is the general background information on Amani Nature Reserve?
2. What are your responsibilities in relation to the management of Amani Nature
Reserve?
3. What are the existing eco-tourism attractions in Amani Nature Reserve?
4. What are the attractions outside the reserve?
Attraction Location

5. Which season do you receive more visitors?

6. What is your fee structure?
7. Do you have income record which shows the amount obtained from eco-tourism
every year?
8. How do you involve the local community in eco-tourism?
9. How does the local community benefit from eco-tourism?
10. Do you have any record/data which shows how much the local community gets
from eco-tourism?
11. What do you consider as problems hindering better planning and management of
the Amani Nature Reserve? Rank them if possible.
12. What are the strategies you have/ intend to have to improve management of Amani
Nature Reserve?
13. What are the efforts so far undertaken to boost eco-tourism in Amani Nature
Reserve?
14. In your opinion, are those efforts successful?
15. If the efforts are not successful, what could be the reason?
16. If they are successful, what are the future strategies for boosting eco-tourism?
17. Do you have nature-based activities such as hiking available in the area?
18. What special services and facilities are available for eco-tourism?
19. Do you give any packages to attract eco-tourists?
 in

20. If the answer to question 19 is Yes, what is included in your packages?

21. Do you have marketing strategies to promote eco-tourism?
22. If the answer to question 21 is Yes, what are they?
23. Are the marketing strategies successful?
24. If the answer to question 23 is No, why?
25. If the answer to question 23 is Yes, why?
26. Do you have visitor centre(s) which provide information to visitors?
27. If the answer to question 26 is Yes, please name the centers
28. Is there special transport for eco-tourists?
29. What mode of transport do they use?
30. What is your perception on economic conditions of surrounding communities?
31. What are the land use practices around the reserve in relation to eco-tourism?
32. Please, give your opinion regarding performance of eco-tourism
33. Basing on your profession, what do you think could be the reasons for poor/ better
eco- tourism performance
34. Are the existing natural resource policies adequately addressing the issue of eco-
tourism?
35. If the answer to question 34 is Yes, How?
36. If the answer to question 34 is No, why?
37. What do you think/suggest should be done and by whom to improve eco-tourism
and enhance benefits to local community.

Conservation of African violet flower

38. How many species of African violet flower do you have?
39. What is the current status of the species
40. What is the importance of the flower?
41. Do you have any plans for improving the flower?
42. What role does ecotourism play in conserving the flower?
43. What is the community perception towards this flower?
44. How do communities participate in conserving the species?
45. What are major threats to African violet habitats to its survival?
46. What actions have been taken to conserve the flower?
 112

47. What measure have you taken to make local communities reduce pressure on the
flower?
B: Checklist for local tour guides
1. For how long have you been working in this business?
2. Who are your customers?
3. How much did you get from this business in the following calendar years?
Year 2005 2006 2007
Amount

4. How is this business important to your family financially?

5. What positive impacts do you think your community is getting from tourism in and
around Amani Nature Reserve?
6. What negative impacts have you realized so far?
7. What needs to be done to make people benefit more from tourism?
8. What are the existing attractions and their location outside Amani Nature Reserve?

Attraction Location Current used(Yes/No

1.
2.
3.
4.
 113

C: Checklist for Village representatives (Village government leaders, Natural

resource committee leaders and influential people or elders

L What are the main income generating activities in your area - if possible group them
by gender and rank.
2. What are the crops grown in the area and specify their main use/purpose (e.g. famine
crops, household consumption and cash crop)
3. What is the importance of Amani Nature Reserve in your area?
4. What benefits are accrued from Amani Nature Reserve to the local community?
5. How is the relationship between Amani Nature Reserve management and the villages?
6. What could be done by Amani Nature Reserve to strengthen eco-tourism activities so
that they can improve people’s livelihoods?

D: Checklist for the tour operators

1. For how long have you been offering trips to Amani?
2. Which continent are mostly your customers coming from?
3. What attractions they specifically came for?
4. Do you know how much your customers spend when in Amani?
If yes, which particular area of spending among the following is commonly high
a) Food
b) Guiding
c) Camping
d) Souvenirs
6. What kind of promotion material you use to promote your business
7. What factors make your promotion difficult?

8. When you are making trip to Amani, how do you use local people expertise and
their facilities?

9. What do you suggests to be done in Amani to improve tourism and to make it better
for local people to benefit more from eco-tourism
 114

Appendix 4: List of Flora species in Amani Nature Reserve (Sowces.'Schulman et al.,

1998; and Iversen, 1991).

S/N Scientific name Common/ English name

1. Afrosersalisia ceracifer
2. Aisodeopsis schumanii
3 Alangium chinense
4 Afzelia quanzensis Lucky-bean tree
5. Allanblackia stuhlmanii
6. Alchonea hiltera
7. Anickia cumniariae
8. Aningeria adolf-friedericii
9. Annona senegalensis
10. Anysophyllea obtusifolia
11. Antiaris toxicaria False mvule
12. Antidesma ntembranaceum
13. Anthocleista grandiflora Cabbage tree
14. Aoranthe penduliflora
15. Beilschmeidia kweo
16. Bersama abyssinica Bersama
17. Blighia unijugata
18. Bombax rhodognaphalon Wild kapok
19. Breonadia salicina Adina
20 Bridelia micrantha Bridelia
21. Caloncoba welwitschii
22.. Casearia battiscombei
23. Celtis africana White stinkwood
24. Celtis Celtis mildbraedii Red fruited celtis
25. Celtis gomphophlla Forest celtis
26. Celtis wightii
27. Cephalosphaera usambaraensis
28 Cidrela Odorata Spanish cedar
29. Cleistanthus polystachyus
30. Chytranthus kilimandicharica
31. Cola greenwayi
 115

32. Cola scheffleri

35. Cola usambarensis
36. Combretum rnolle
37. Combretum schumannii Forest tree combretum
38. Commiphora qfricana
39. Cordia qfricana East African cordia
40. Cordia sinensis
41. Croton Syvaticus Forest croton
42. Cyathea nianniana
43. Cyliconiorpha parviflora Wild pawpaw
44. Cynometra engleri
45. Dialium holtzii
46. Diospyros mespiliformis African ebony
47. Dracaena usambarensis

48.. Drypetes gerrardi

49. Drypetes usambarica
50. Englerodendron usambararense
51. Entandrophragma excelsum
52. Ethricoca fisher
53. Fernandoa magnifica
54. Ficus Figs
55. Ficus exasperata
56. Ficus sur Cape fig
57. Ficus natalensis Barkcloth fig
58. Ficus vallis-choudae Haroni fig
59. Funtumia qfricana Bastard wild rubber
60. Genus Abizia Albizia
61. Genus Trichilia
62. Genus Tabernaemontana Wild magnolias

63. Greenwayodwndron Usambaraensis

64. Gycarpus americanus Propeller tree
65. Hallea rubrostipulata
66. Harungana madagascariensis
67. Hirundo abyssinicas
68. Isoberlinia scheffleri
69. Keetia spp
 116

70. Khaya Anthotheca frican Mahogany

71. Lannea welwitschii
72. Leptonychia usambarensis
73. Leptaususi holstii
74. Makaranga capensis Macaranga
75. Manilkara sp
76. Maesopsis eminii Muzizi
77. Maesa lanceolata
78. Maranthes goetzeniana Maranthes
79. Maytenus acuminate
80. Mesogyne insignis
81. Milicia excelsa Mvule (in E.Africa); Iroko (in W. Africa)
82. Morinda asteroscepa
83. Myrianthus holstii Giant yellow mulberry
84. Newtonia buchananii Forest newtonia
85. Quasia undulata
86. Rhinolea feruginea
87. Ocotea usambarensis East African camphor-wood
88. Ochna holstii Forest ochna
89. Odyendea zimmermanii
90. Parinari excelsa
91. Parkia fiicoidea
92. Phyllostachys bambusoides Bamboo
93. Polyscias fulva Parasol tree
94. Polyceratocarpus schejjleri
95. Pouteria adolfi-friederici Muna
96. Psidium cettoleum Guava
97. Rauvolfia caffra Quinine tree
98. Rawsonia lucida
99. Santipaulia spp African violet
100. Sapium ellipticum
101. Scheflerodendron usambaraensis
102. Scorodophloeus ftscheri
103. Spathodea campanulata Nandi flame
104. Spondias lutea
105. Sorondea madagascariensis
 117

106. Steculia appeciculata Tall steculia

107 Strombosia schefleridendron Strombosia
108. Synsepalum cerasiferum
109. Synsepalum msolo
110. Strombsia scheffleri
111. Syzygium cortaturn
112. Syzygium guineense Water pear
113. Tabernamontana pachysiphon
114. Tabernaemontana stapfiana
114. Tabernaemontana ventricosa
116. Tabernaemontana holstii
117. Tarerrna sp
118. Teminalia sambesiaca
119. Tarenna sp.
120. Todallia asiatia
121. Treculia africana African breadfruit
122. Trema orientalis Pigeonwood
123. Trichilia roka
124 Trilepisium Madagascarience Bastard fig
125. Uvariodendron oligocarpum
126. Vitex Amaniensis
127. Xylopia aethiopica Large red-fingers
128. Xymalos monospora Lemonwood
129. Zanha golungensis
130. Zanthodeista grandiflora
131. Ziziphus pubescens Buffao thorn
132. Zanthoxylum gilletii African satinwood
 118

Appendix 5: List of Fauna species in Amani Nature Reserve (Sources: Stuart, 1989;

EUCAMP, 2001, and TBA, 2007)

A: List of birds in ANR

S/N Scientific name Common/ English name
1. Andropadus tephrolaemus Mountain Greenbul
2. Anthreptes pallidigaster Amani sunbird
3. Anthreptes rubritorques Banded green sunbird
4. Apaloderma narina Narina Trogon
5. Apalodenna vittatum Bar -tailed Trogon
6. Arcanator orostruthus Dappled mountain robin
7. Bathmocercus winifredae Mrs Moreau’s warbler
8. Bradornis pallidu Pale Flycatcher
9. Bubo vosseleri Usambara eagle owl
10. Bycanistes brevis Silvery Cheeked Hombill
11. Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter Hombill
12. Campethera cailliauti Green-backedWoodpecker
13. Campephagaflava Black Cuckoo-Shrike
14. Centropus superciliosus White-browed Coucal
15. Cercococcyx montanus patulus Barred Long-tailed Cuckoo
16. Coracina caesia pura Grey Cuckoo-Shrike
17. Colitis striatus Speckled Mousebird
18. Cossypha natalensis Red-capped Robin-chat
19. Cuculus solitarius Red-chested Cuckoo
20. Gypohierax angolensis Palm-nut Vulture Certain
21. Halcyon albiventris Brown-hooded Kingfisher
22. Hipposideros rubber Leaf-nosed bat
23. Hirundo abyssinica Lesser Striped Swallow
24. Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested Eagle
25. Macheiramphus alcinus Bat Hawk (Bat-eating Buzzard)
26. Malaconotus nigrifrons Black-fronted Bush- Shrike
27. Megaceryle m. maxima Giant Kingfisher
 119

28. Motacilla aguirnp vidua African Pied Wagtail

29. Nectarinia venusta Variable Sunbird
30. Nectarinia olivacea Olive Sunbird
31. Nectarinia amethystine Amethyst Sunbird
32. Nycteris grandi Large Slit-faced bat
33. Otus ireneae Sokoke scops owl
34. Phyllastrephusfischeri Fischer's Greenbul
35. Phyllastrephu sstrepitans Northern BrownbuL
35. Phylloscopus ruficapillus minullus Yellow-throated Woodland Warbler
37. Ploceus nicolli Tanzanian mountain weaver
38. Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul
39. Prinia subflava Tawny-flanked Prinia
40. Rhinolophus eloquen Horseshoe bat
41. Rhinolophus landeri lobatus Lander's horseshoe bat
42. Rousettus (Stenonycterisfianosus Mountain fruit bat
kemp
43. Saxicola torquata axillaries Common Stonechat
44. Sheppardia gunningi East coast akalat
45. Smithornis capensis African Broadbill
46. Stactolaema leucoti White-eared Barbet
47. Stactolaema olivacea Green Barbet
48. Terpsiphone viridis African Paradise Flycatcher
49. Treron calva African Green Pigeon Certain
50. Trochocercus albonotatus White-tailed Crested Flycatcher
51. Strix -woodfordii African Wood-owl
52. Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove
53. Orthotomus moreaui Long-billed apalis

B: List of Reptiles in ANR

S/N Scientific name Common/ English name
1. Pelomedusa subrufa subruf Helmeted Terrapin
2. Geochelone pardalis babcocki Tropical Leopard Tortoise
3. Lygodactylus capensis grotei Grote’s Dwarf Gecko
 120

4. Cnemaspis africana Usambara Forest Gecko

5. Cnemaspis barbouri Uluguru Forest Gecko
6. Cnemaspis sp. Forest Gecko sp
7. Hemidactylus mabouia Tropical House Gecko
8. Hemidactylus platycephahts Baobab Gecko
9. Agama Montana Montane Rock Agama
10. Bradypodion (Chamaeleojfischeri Eastern Usambara Two-homed
fischeri Chameleon
11. Bradypodion spinosuni Rosette-nosed Chameleon
12. Bradypodion (Chamaeleo) tenue Usambara Soft-homed Chameleon
13. Chamaeleo dilepis dilepi Common Flap-necked Chameleon
14. Chamaeleo deremensis Usambara -Three-homed Chameleon
15. Rhampholeon brevicaudatus Bearded Pigmy Chameleon
16. Rhampholeon temporalis Pitted Pigmy Chameleon
17. Rhampholeon sp. Pigmy Chameleon
18. Mabuya varia varia Variable Skink
19. Mabyua striata striata Common Striped Skink
20. Lygosoma afrum Peter’s Writhing Skink
21. Cordylus tropidosternum East African Spiny-tailedLizard
tropidosternum
22. Typhlops lineolatus lineolatus Lineolate Blind-Snake
23. Typhlops gierrai Usambara Blind-Snake
24. Typhlops sp. Blind-Snake sp.
25. Leptotyphlops macrops Worm-snake
26. Python sebae Northern African Python
27. Atheris ceratophorus Homed Bush-Viper
28. Bids gabonica Eastern Gaboon Viper
29. Elapsoidea nigra Usambara Garter-Snake
30. Elapsoidea loveridgei Loveridge’s Garter-Snake
31. Elapsoidea sp. Garter Snake
32. Naja nigricollis nigricollis Black-necked Spitting Cobra
33. Dendroaspis angusticeps Eastern Green Mamba
34. Laniprophis capensis Common House Snake
 121

35. Lycophidion meleagr Speckled Wolf Snake

35. Lycophidion capense loveridgei Loverdige’s Wolf-Snake
37. Mehelya capensis capensis Southern Cape File Snake
38. Aparallactus werneri Usambara Centipede Eater
39. Natriciteres olivacea Olive Marsh Snake
40. Philothamnus macrops Usambara Green Snake
41. Philothamnus hoplogaster Southeastern Green Snake
42. Philothamnus punctatus Spotted Bush Snake
43. Crotaphopeltis hotambeia Herald Snake
44. Crotaphopeltis tornieri Tomier’s Cat-Snake
45. Dipsadoboa werneri Werner’s Tree Snake

C: List of Amphibians in ANR

S/N Scientific name Common/ English name
1. Bufo brauni Dead leaf toad
2. Bufo gutturalis Square-marked toad
3. Afrixalusfornasini Leaf-folding frogs
4. Leptopelis parkeri Tree frogs
5. Probreviceps macrodactylus Rain frog
6. Xenopus muelleri Tropical plantanna
7. Phrynobatrachus Puddle frogs
8. Ptychadena anchietae Grass frog
9. Rana angolensis Common river frog
10. Hyperolius punticulatus,Hyperolius Reed Frogs
mitchelli and Hyperolius mariae

D: List of Mammals in ANR

S/N Scientific name Common/ English name
1. Colobus angolensis palliates Angola Pied Colobus
2. Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon
3. Cercopithecus aethiops Vervet Monkey
 122

4. Cercopithecus niitis Blue Monkey

5. Otolemur crassicaudatus Greater Galago
6. Galagoides orinus Usambara galago
7. Rhynchocyon petersi Zanj Elephant Shrew
8. Paraxerus lucifer byatti Tanganyika Mountain Squirrel
9. Anomaluriis derbianus Lord Derby's Anomalure
10. Hystrix cristata Crested Porcupine
11. Cricetomys gambianus Giant Pouched Rat
12. Herpestes ichneumon- Egyptian Mongoose
13. Herpestes sanguined Slender Mongoose
14. Bdeogale crassicauda Bushy tailed Mongoose
15. Genetta genetta Common Genet
16. Genetta tigrina Blotched Genet
17. Civettictis civetta African Civet Certain
18. Nandinia binotata African Palm Civet
19. Dendrohyrax validus Tree Hyrax
20. Potamochoerus larvatus Bush pig
21. Cephalophus nionticola Blue Duiker
22. Cephalophus harveyi Harvey's Duiker
 123

Appendix 6: Lists of PRA participants

A: Kisiwani village B: IBC-Msasa village

1 Estha Mkuna 1 Henry Dudu
2 Cisil Petro 2 Mwanaidi Mhagama
3 Amiri Mussa 3 Ester Ruben
4 Zulefa Idirissa 4 Omary Mbarawa
5 Elizabert Omary 5 Mohamedi Mbwana
6 Hassan Halid 6 Zawadi Rajabu
7 Hamadi Thabiti 7 Mwanahamisi Kapera
8 Pili Salimu 8 Chalies Chabiko
9 Swaumu Ali 9 Michael Mgaya
10 Mary George 10 George Samweli
11 Fideli Paizoni 11 Rose Zakaria

12 Waziri Kimera 12 Sauda Rashidi

C: Mbomole village D: Shebomeza village

1. Samwcli Alleni 1. Peter Yusuph
2. Asha Nyundo 2. Fatina Zuberi
3. Mohamedi Radhani 3. Beatrice Yusuph
4. Jasmini Mongela 4. Maria Daniel
5. Habibu Dalali 5. Juma Thomasi
6. Amina Waziri 6. Elizabeth Sebastian
7. Stephen Tuya 7. Yona Matola
8. Stevene Peter 8. Fatuma Moka
9. Bakari Hiza 9. Asha Selemani
10. Zuwena Musa 10. Kasimu Sangao
11. Bahati Chambo 11. Ally Salumu
12. Felista Chogo 12. Salehe Kupe
 124

E: Mlesa village
1. Saidi Kupaza
2. Swelehe Bilunda
3. Mariam Mohamed
4. Abeid Shabani
5. Mwajuma Halfani
6. Nuhu Musa
7. Filipo Athumani
8. Asia Mohamed
9. Kahema Madafa
10. Amina Yusuph
11. Hadija Ibrahim
12. Sarah Samson
 125

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