World Englishes

Chapter 6
The Becoming of a World Language

Agency in language spread
The traditional view of English spread, often framed through the lens of linguistic imperialism, depicts
English as a language imposed by powerful Western nations onto the rest of the world, particularly former
colonies. However, this perspective overlooks the active role of Africans, Asians, and other non-Western
peoples in shaping the development of World English. Instead of portraying English as solely imposed by
the West, a more nuanced understanding recognizes the agency of non-Western individuals and
communities in the historical process of English language evolution. This perspective emphasizes the co-
determination of the social and linguistic environment and highlights the significant contributions of non-
Western actors to the creation of World English. The concept of "postcolonial in the colonial" challenges
the binary opposition between the "traditional" and the "modern," asserting that non-Western nations have
played a vital role in shaping the world's linguistic and cultural landscape, including the development of
English as a global language.
A theoretical perspective
This theoretical perspective on World English aims to offer a nuanced understanding of the global spread
of English and its impact on local languages and cultures. Rather than viewing English as a monolithic
force threatening linguistic diversity, this perspective acknowledges the complexities of language
dynamics in diverse contexts. It seeks to explain how bilingualism and the preservation of cultural
identity can coexist within English-speaking communities, particularly in postcolonial settings. By
proposing a unified theoretical framework, this perspective addresses the limitations of existing theories
and aims to encompass the various aspects of World English under one comprehensive model. It
distinguishes between the spread of English within national or regional contexts and its emergence as a
global language, tracing the historical evolution of English through distinct phases: from a national
language in England to an international lingua franca shaped by sociohistorical circumstances and the
development of a global economy and culture.
Three premises
These premises form the foundation of the explanatory framework for World English:
1. Unified Concept of Language Spread and Change: Language spread is viewed within the
broader context of language evolution and change. This premise emphasizes the
interconnectedness of language spread and linguistic transformations over time.
2. World Scope in Theoretical Approach: Understanding the development of World English
requires a theoretical perspective that transcends national boundaries. This premise advocates for
a global perspective in analyzing language dynamics and the evolution of English as an
international language.
3. Paradigm Shift to Bilingualism: There is a need for a paradigm shift from monolingualism to
bilingualism in the study of language. This premise reflects a recent trend in linguistic theory that
emphasizes the importance of multilingual and multicultural contexts, recognizing bilingualism
as a central aspect of language .
The explanatory framework for World English delineates four key features that characterize the
development of a global language:
Econocultural Functions: The language serves not only as a means of communication but also plays
significant roles in economic and cultural domains, reflecting its importance beyond mere linguistic
utility.
Transcendence of Elite Status: Unlike traditional elite lingua francas, the global language extends its
influence across diverse social strata, becoming accessible and relevant to a broader population.
Stabilized Bilingualism: It coexists alongside other languages within bilingual or multilingual settings,
fostering a stable linguistic environment where multiple languages are used simultaneously.
Language Evolution: The global language undergoes both convergence, where linguistic features become
more similar, and divergence, where linguistic differences emerge, contributing to its dynamic evolution
over time.
Econoculture
The concept of a world language is characterized by its econocultural functions, representing a fusion of
economic centrality and cultural significance on a global scale. This phenomenon is intricately tied to the
evolution of the world econocultural system, which encompasses not only economic aspects but also
technological advancements, scientific pursuits, and cultural exchanges across borders. While imperialism
played a role in fostering conditions conducive to the emergence of a global language, it simultaneously
hindered its development by restricting access to language among certain social classes and subjugating
linguistic expansion to political and economic agendas. However, the spread of English, particularly
during the era of British imperialism, was also propelled by resistance movements, such as those
witnessed in colonial territories like Africa and Asia, where English served as a tool for liberation from
colonial oppression. Additionally, the rise of non-Western powers and the decline of Western hegemony
have contributed to the diversification and reshaping of the global linguistic landscape, challenging
traditional notions of linguistic imperialism and cultural hegemony.
The spread of English in the British Isles
The spread of English within the British Isles marked the earliest phase of its expansion, dating
back to as early as the eighth century and continuing over the subsequent millennium. This
period of linguistic development, often overlooked in discussions of World English, played a
crucial role in establishing English as the dominant language within the region, gradually
displacing Celtic languages such as Welsh. While efforts to revive Celtic languages have
emerged in recent times, the overwhelming majority of the population in the British Isles now
speaks English as their mother tongue, underscoring the significance of this linguistic transition.
Unlike the later spread of English across the British Empire, this initial phase remained confined
to the geographical boundaries of the British Isles and did not contribute to the emergence of
English as a global language. Nonetheless, it serves as a historical example of regional language
spread, demonstrating that patterns of linguistic expansion can vary widely even within the
framework of imperial language dissemination.
The spread of English to North America and Australasia
The second phase of English spread began in the early seventeenth century with the
establishment of British colonies in North America and continued until the late eighteenth
century with the colonization of Australasia. This marked the first significant expansion of
English beyond the British Isles, facilitated by the migration of English-speaking peoples.
Termed the "demographic" model by Quirk, this phase saw English, along with other European
languages like Spanish, French, and Portuguese, establish itself in new territories through
speaker migrations. However, this expansion did not result in the emergence of World English
but rather led to the establishment of English as the national language in regions such as the
United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. While political control by England played a
role, the adoption of English in these nations was primarily driven by the large numbers of
English colonists who brought their language with them.
However, the spread of English through speaker migration alone does not fully explain its
transformation into a global language. This phase did not elucidate why English, as opposed to
other languages with significant global presence like Arabic or Chinese, achieved its position of
prominence. Despite its expansion during this period, English's ascent to a world language
required additional factors beyond mere demographic diffusion, a phenomenon also observed
with languages like Spanish, French, and Portuguese.
The Sociohistorical Basis of Stable Bilingualism in Asia and Africa
The spread of English across different regions, such as within the British Isles, to North America
and Australasia, and later to Asia and Africa, can be attributed to distinct processes. In the British
Isles, English replaced indigenous languages primarily through migrations of English-speaking
peoples, establishing English-speaking communities and economic hubs. Similarly, in the
colonization of America and Australasia, English became dominant through the displacement of
indigenous populations and the immediate establishment of English-speaking communities.
However, in regions like Asia and Africa, English spread through political and economic means
rather than demographic migrations, resulting in its adoption primarily within colonial
administrations rather than as a widely spoken language among the populace.
The distinction between internal and external economic functions is crucial in understanding why
English replaced indigenous languages in some contexts but coexisted with them in others. To
become a dominant language, English needed to permeate not only external commerce but also
the domestic economy. In regions where English spread through migrations, it became the
language of industry and commerce, leading to its widespread adoption. Conversely, in areas
where English spread through colonial administrations, it remained primarily a language of
governance without significantly impacting the domestic economy.
The framework distinguishes between English as a National Language (ENL), English as a
Second Language (ESL), and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, explaining the
diverse linguistic outcomes based on sociohistorical contexts. Understanding the sociohistorical
context of language spread is essential in comprehending the differences in linguistic outcomes
across various regions.
The Transcendence of the Role of an Elite Lingua Franca

The role of a world language transcends that of a mere elite lingua franca, as it encompasses both
economic and cultural/intellectual functions. Unlike historical examples like Latin or French,
which were predominantly used by socioeconomic and intellectual elites, a world language like
English has become pervasive across diverse demographic groups globally. With nearly 2 billion
English speakers worldwide, it is evident that English is no longer confined to elite circles but
has permeated various societal strata.
This widespread adoption of English cannot solely be attributed to imperial legacies but also to
its cooptation as a tool of resistance against exclusion. Examples like the demand for access to
English during the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa demonstrate how non-elites have
asserted their right to acquire the language as a means of empowerment. While some may view
postcolonial governments' policies regarding English acquisition as perpetuating colonial
legacies, it is essential to recognize the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon, reflecting both
historical contexts and contemporary societal aspirations for inclusivity and access to
opportunities.
Language Change via the Processes of World Language Convergence and World Language
Divergence
1. The explanation of World English is rooted in macroacquisition rather than speaker
migration, connecting language spread to sociopolitical processes and linguistic change.
2. Two historical processes of politico-linguistic development are identified: national
language and world language.
3. National language development pertains to the development of a single language for a
nation-state, often leading to monolingualism or the displacement of other languages.
4. World language development involves the coexistence of a language alongside national
languages, fostering bilingualism, and is linked to the expansion of the world economy
and the dominance of certain nations within it.
5. Understanding World English as a world historical process enables insight into how it has
evolved and how language change can be influenced by factors both within and outside
the traditional English-speaking nations.
6. Within the framework of world language development, two fundamental processes of
language change are identified: world language divergence and world language
convergence, reflecting the dynamic nature of World English as it adapts to diverse
sociopolitical and economic contexts worldwide.

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Chapter 6

The Becoming of a World Language

The spread of English in the British Isles

The Transcendence of the Role of an Elite Lingua Franca

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