Unit 7: Statistical Analysis of Quantitative Data

Lesson 4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Contents
Engage 1
Introduction 1
Objectives 2

Explore 2

Explain and Elaborate 3

Results Section 3
Interpreting Descriptive Statistics 4
Interpreting Inferential Statistics 6

Extend 9
Activity 1 9
Activity 2 10

Evaluate 11

Wrap Up 15

Bibliography 16
Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Engage

Introduction

Fig. 1. Raindrops during the rainy season

In your everyday living, you use numbers to measure things such as weight, height, and a lot
more. However, there are times when numbers do not make sense. For example, what does
it mean when the rainfall is greater than 7.6 mm per hour? If you are not studying science,
you may have a hard time figuring out what this means. You will only understand what this
number means once you have interpreted that the precipitation rate or the amount of
rainfall greater than 7.6 mm per hour means that there is heavy rain.

Similarly, you may find numbers reported in journal articles to be overwhelming, but it
starts to make sense once you have read the interpretation of those values. However, how
do you interpret numbers from statistical data? What counts as a good statistical report?

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
● Interpret the results of statistical data.
● Construct a statistical report based on the results of statistical analysis.

DepEd Competency
Use statistical techniques to analyze data—study of differences and relationships limited for
bivariate analysis. (CS_RS12-IId-g-3)

Explore

10 minutes
Together with your partner, try to make sense of the following statements:
● The blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg.
● The Internet speed is 17.20 Mbps.
● The nearest local bank from our house is 27 km.
● My body temperature is 37°C.
● The annual interest rate of my new bank account is at 3.5%.

Guide Questions
1. Were you able to interpret the statements given above? What does it mean?

2. Why is it important to interpret numerical values in your data?

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

3. What do you think are the things that must be taken into consideration when
interpreting statistical data?

Explain and Elaborate

Results Section
Generally, the results section of a research study is where the statistical analyses of the
gathered data are found. It is ideal to begin reporting the most significant results before the
secondary findings. A well-written report about the quantitative results will likely show the
following (Plano Clark and Creswell 2015):
● the test statistic that was calculated and the researchers’ reasons for selecting that
statistic
● the statistic’s symbol
● important parameters needed in calculating the statistic, such as the number of
variables or the degrees of freedom (df)
● the calculated test statistic from the sample’s data
● the p-value associated with the calculated statistic value
● the αlevel used to evaluate the p-value
● the result whether the hypothesis test produced a significant or nonsignificant result
● if the result was significant, a report of its practical significance in terms of effect size

Commas are used to show the results of statistical analyses like in the following sentence:

“A t-test revealed that the participants under the condition with only five
hours of sleep have less attention span (M = 7.51, SD = 0.67) than the
participants under the condition with eight hours of sleep (M = 9.71, SD =
0.57), t(39) = 4.97, p < .05, eta = 0.29.”

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

The sentence above includes the name of statistical analysis used, the means of the groups,
standard deviations, degrees of freedom (39), the obtained t-test value of t (4.97), the
p-value (p < .05), and the effect size (.29).

How can you tell if the statistical report is

objective?

Leary (2013) proposed the following questions to serve as guidelines for writing the results
section of a research study:
● Did I accurately describe how the data were analyzed?
● Did I include all the results that are considered relevant to the objectives of the
study?
● Did I include all the necessary details in reporting statistical analyses?
● Did I describe the findings without bias, with minimal interpretation and discussion?

Interpreting Descriptive Statistics

In cases where the researchers examine a single variable, they may ask descriptive
questions to look for patterns or trends in the data. Questions such as, “What is the
motivation level of freshmen college students?” or “How varied are the students’ level of
stress?” are some examples of descriptive questions.

Even though researchers may use more complicated statistical methods, descriptive
statistics are commonly found in research study reports to know basic patterns about the
data. Researchers often use symbols to report their data’s descriptive statistics. According to
Plano Clark and Creswell (2015), the following are some of the most frequently used
descriptive statistics, including their symbols, use, and an example of their application:

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Table 1. Commonly used descriptive statistics

Statistic Name Symbol Use Example Application

Mean M or 𝑋 Describes the average value The average age of

of a variable participants
was M = 12.6 years.

Median Mdn Describes the middle The median age was 13 years.
response

Mode (none) Describes the most Of five possible activities in

commonly occurring gym class, the mode was “line
response dancing.”

Range (none) Describes the distance The class test scores had a
between range of 65 points (from 35 to
the highest and lowest score 100).

Standard SD Describes how dispersed the The scores on the spelling

Deviation data points are about the test (SD = 12.3) were more
mean spread out than those on the
math
test (SD = 5.5).

Percentile Rank % Describes the percentage of The student scored 81 on the

participants with scores at test, which is at the 73rd
or percentile. He scored higher
below a particular score than 73% of the students.

z Score z Describes the relative Jennifer’s height is very tall for

standing of a score in this sample (z = +3). Mark is
relation to all the other short compared to others in
scores the sample (z = -2.1).

Note that the table above shows the different types of descriptive statistics. The mean,
median, and mode are the measures of central tendency, the range and standard
deviation are the measures of variability, and the percentile rank and z score for the
measures of relative standing.

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

The detailed descriptions and computations for the mentioned descriptive statistics are
discussed in the previous lessons. Let us now look at the following example and try to
interpret the given data.

Example:

Consider the following results from a given study about a proposed intervention for a
reading comprehension program. The reading comprehension scores of Section A (M =
88.14, SD = 8.8) is greater than Section B (M = 80.53, SD = 3.5). What descriptive statistics
did the authors use? What do these statistics tell you about the two class sections in the
study’s sample?

The descriptive statistics used in the given example above are the mean (M) and standard
deviation (SD). The results suggest that although Section A may appear to have higher scores
than Section B, the standard deviation of Section A is greater, which implies that the
students have more dispersed scores.

How can the research questions help in

interpreting the statistical results?

Interpreting Inferential Statistics

Often, researchers need to analyze data using more complex methods that are beyond the
reach of descriptive statistics. This calls for the use of inferential statistics. Comparison
and relationship are some of the main purposes of inferential statistics. Examples of
comparison and relationship research questions are: “Do boys differ from girls in terms of
their academic motivation?“ and “Does client satisfaction relate to the annual sales of a
company?”

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Review
Inferential statistics go beyond the description of a single variable
data. It compares data with two or more variables and its relationship
using hypothesis testing.

Some of the most commonly used inferential statistics, such as the t-test, Mann-Whitney,
and Pearson correlation coefficient, are discussed in more detail in the previous sections.
Table 2 summarizes these inferential statistics, their symbols as expressed in research
reports, their use, how to interpret them, and some example application (Plano Clark and
Creswell 2015).

Table 2. Commonly used inferential statistics

Statistic Name Use How to Interpret Example Application

t-test (t) to test for a difference There is a significant Compare males and
between two groups difference between females on time spent
the groups if p ≤ α. on social media.

Mann-Whitney to test for a difference There is a significant Compare boys and girls
(U) among two groups that difference between in terms of the amount
are nonparametric the groups if p ≤ α. of food eaten.

Pearson to test for a There is a significant Determine whether the

Correlation (r) relationship relationship if p ≤ α. time spent on studying
between two variables is related to grade point
average.

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Example:

Consider the following result from a hypothetical quantitative research article. Assume
the alpha level of .05 is set for the study: “Class A reported higher levels of
conscientiousness than Class B where t(23) = 4.51, p < .05”. Answer the following
questions:
● What can you infer about the information provided for each study’s data analysis
procedure?
● What type of hypothesis was tested?
● What test statistic was selected?
● What p-value was determined to calculate the test statistic?
● Was there sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis?

The example given above is a hypothesis test comparing Class A and Class B in terms of
their conscientiousness levels. The researchers made use of the t statistic and found p < .05
for their data. Because p is less than .05, there was sufficient evidence to reject the null
hypothesis. Therefore, the researchers found a statistically significant difference.

Tips
Keep the study’s research questions and hypotheses in mind as you
write or interpret the results of the data. The information in the
report of the results must be organized to address each of these.

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Extend

Activity 1
Analyze the report from the results section of the given studies below. Then, fill in the boxes
pointing to a specific part in the report. Identify what particular details were being reported
in the study. Write your answer in the boxes for each study.

Study 1

Study 2

Study 3

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Guide
In Study 1, the report consists of details about the range of the values and the
descriptive statistics used, which are the mean and standard deviation of the ages of
the students.

In Study 2, the report indicated the result of the statistical test and the direction of
the relationship using the sign (i.e., inverse relationship), the test statistic used, which
is the Pearson correlation coefficient (i.e., “r”), the strength of the relationship which
is described by the numerical value (i.e., -0.73), and the probability value of the
statistical test (i.e., p < 0.05).

Finally, Study 3 included the descriptive statistics used in the study, the result of the
statistical test, the statistical test (t-test) used with the df (i.e., t and 23), the value of the
test statistic (4.41), and the probability value of the statistical test (i.e., p < 0.05).

Activity 2
Look for a quantitative research article. List your source. Take a portion of its statistical
analysis report. Then, deconstruct the details as what has been done in the previous activity.
Identify the essential details in the report and try to interpret the results of the researcher/s’
data. Write your output in the space provided.

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Guide
The statistical analysis report of a research article is found in the results section of a
research study. The symbols used in the report often tell what type of statistical
analysis was used in the study. The descriptive statistics of the data are most often
reported even if the researchers made use of inferential statistics.

Evaluate

A. Write your answer in the space provided below.

1. What is the ideal order in reporting the statistical results of the data?

2. Why is it necessary to report the descriptive statistics even if it is not the main statistical
test that was used?

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

3. What things must be taken into consideration when writing the statistical report of the
data?

B. Write a brief statistical report with interpretation for the given values
below.

1. Erika is a scientist who conducted a study about the effects of a new plant-based pill
that is believed to decrease blood sugar levels of people who have diabetes. She has
24 participants for the study and obtained the following values:

Experimental Group Control Group

No. of Participants 12 12

Mean 106.53 125.67

Standard Deviation 3.5 6.7

t-statistic 4.56

Probability Value p < 0.05

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

2. Kathlyn wants to know if there is a relationship between the anxiety levels of her
students and their academic performance. She obtained the following values:

Details Values

No. of Participants 30

r -0.83

Probability Value p < 0.05

3. Ms. Gemma is a business owner of a small cafe who wants to find out some details
about her customers’ age so that she can cater to their needs. Using a survey
questionnaire, she found out the following information:

Details Values

Lowest Age 16

Highest Age 35

Mean 23.40

Standard Deviation 10.62

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Wrap Up
___________________________________________________________________________________________

● The results section of a research study is where the statistical analyses of the
gathered data are found.
● Descriptive statistics are commonly found in research study reports to show basic
patterns about the data.
● Comparison and relationship are some of the main details reported using inferential
statistics.

Fig. 2. Steps in interpreting statistical results

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Unit 7.4: Interpreting Statistical Results

Bibliography
Howitt, Dennis, and Duncan Cramer. Introduction to Statistics in Psychology. 5th ed. England:
Pearson, 2011.

Leary, Mark R. Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods. 6th ed. New Jersey: Pearson,
2012.

Marczyk, Geoffrey, DeMatteo, David, and David Festinger. Essentials of Research Design and
Methodology. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Mayers, Andrew. Introduction to Statistics and SPSS in Psychology. UK: Pearson, 2013.

Plano Clark, Vicki L., and John W. Creswell. Understanding Research: A Consumer’s Guide. 2nd
ed. New Jersey: Pearson, 2015.

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