ENGLISH GRAMMAR AT A

GLANCE

“Grammar is the base that

forms the backbone of English
language, learn it, enjoy it and
use it”

SUNSHINE ACADEMY
(IELTS/OET/PTE/DUOLINGO)
PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech are among the first grammar topics we learn when we
are in school or when we start our English language learning process.
Parts of speech can be defined as words that perform different roles in a
sentence. Some parts of speech can perform the functions of other parts
of speech too.

Parts of Speech Definition

• The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines parts of speech as “one of

the classes into which words are divided according to their
grammar, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.”
• The Cambridge Dictionary also gives a similar definition – “One of the
grammatical groups into which words are divided, such as noun,
verb, and adjective”.

Different Parts of Speech with Examples

Parts of speech include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.

8 Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples:

1. Nouns are words that are used to name people, places, animals, ideas
and things. Nouns can be classified into two main categories: Common
nouns and Proper nouns. Common nouns are generic like ball, car, stick,
etc., and proper nouns are more specific like Charles, The White House,
The Sun, etc.
Examples of nouns used in sentences:

•
o
• She bought a pair of shoes. (thing)
• I have a pet. (animal)
• Is this your book? (object)
• Many people have a fear of darkness. (ideas/abstract
nouns)
• He is my brother. (person)
• This is my school. (place)
Singular Nouns(one thing) and Plural Nouns(more than one thing)

2. Pronouns are words that are used to substitute a noun in a sentence.

There are different types of pronouns. Some of them are reflexive
pronouns, possessive pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite
pronouns. I, he, she, it, them, his, yours, anyone, nobody, who, etc., are
some of the pronouns.

Examples of pronouns used in sentences:

• I reached home at six in the evening. (1st person singular

pronoun)
• Did someone see a red bag on the counter? (Indefinite
pronoun)
• Is this the boy who won the first prize? (Relative
pronoun)
• That is my mom. (Possessive pronoun)
• I hurt myself yesterday when we were playing cricket.
(Reflexive pronoun)
3. Verbs are words that denote an action that is being performed by the
noun or the subject in a sentence. They are also called action words. Some
examples of verbs are read, sit, run, pick, garnish, come, pitch, etc.

Examples of verbs used in sentences:

 • She plays cricket every day.
• Darshana and Arul are going to the movies.
• My friends visited me last week.
• Did you have your breakfast?
• My name is Meenakshi Kishore.
4. Adverbs are words that are used to provide more information about
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs used in a sentence. There are five
main types of adverbs namely, adverbs of manner, adverbs of
degree, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of time and adverbs of place.
Some examples of adverbs are today, quickly, randomly, early, 10 a.m. etc.

Examples of adverbs used in sentences:

1.
1.
• Did you come here to buy an umbrella? (Adverb of place)
• I did not go to school yesterday as I was sick. (Adverb of
time)
• Savio reads the newspaper everyday. (Adverb of
frequency)
• Can you please come quickly? (Adverb of manner)
• Tony was so sleepy that he could hardly keep his eyes
open during the meeting. (Adverb of degree)
5. Adjectives are words that are used to describe or provide more
information about the noun or the subject in a sentence. Some examples
of adjectives include good, ugly, quick, beautiful, late, etc.

Examples of adjectives used in sentences:

1.
1.
• The place we visited yesterday was serene.
• Did you see how big that dog was?
• The weather is pleasant today.
• The red dress you wore on your birthday was lovely.
 • My brother had only one chapati for breakfast.
6. Prepositions are words that are used to link one part of the sentence to
another. Prepositions show the position of the object or subject in a
sentence. Some examples of prepositions are in, out, besides, in front of,
below, opposite, etc.

Examples of prepositions used in sentences:

1.
1.
• The teacher asked the students to draw lines on the
paper so that they could write in straight lines.
• The child hid his birthday presents under his bed.
• Mom asked me to go to the store near my school.
• The thieves jumped over the wall and escaped before we
could reach home.
7. Conjunctions are a part of speech that is used to connect two different
parts of a sentence, phrases and clauses. Some examples of conjunctions
are and, or, for, yet, although, because, not only, etc.

Examples of conjunctions used in sentences:

1.
1.
• Meera and Jasmine had come to my birthday party.
• Jane did not go to work as she was sick.
• Unless you work hard, you cannot score good marks.
• I have not finished my project, yet I went out with my
friends.
8. Interjections are words that are used to convey strong emotions or
feelings. Some examples of interjections are oh, wow, alas, yippee, etc. It
is always followed by an exclamation mark.

Examples of interjections used in sentences:

1.
 1.
• Wow! What a wonderful work of art.
• Alas! That is really sad.
• Yippee! We won the match.

Sentence Examples for the 8 Parts of Speech

1. Noun – Tom lives in New York.

2. Pronoun – Did she find the book she was looking for?
3. Verb – I reached home.
4. Adverb – The tea is too hot.
5. Adjective – The movie was amazing.
6. Preposition – The candle was kept under the table.
7. Conjunction – I was at home all day, but I am feeling very
tired.
8. Interjection – Oh! I forgot to turn off the stove.

A Small Exercise to Check Your Understanding of Parts of Speech

Let us find out if you have understood the different parts of speech and
their functions. Try identifying which part of speech the highlighted words
belong to.

1. My brother came home late.

2. I am a good girl.
3. This is the book I was looking for.
4. Whoa! This is amazing.
5. The climate in Kodaikanal is very pleasant.
6. Can you please pick up Dan and me on your way home?
Now, let us see if you got it right. Check your answers.

1. My – Pronoun, Home – Noun, Late – Adverb

2. Am – Verb, Good – Adjective
3. I – Pronoun, Was looking – Verb
 4. Whoa – Interjection, Amazing – Adjective
5. Climate – Noun, In – Preposition, Kodaikanal – Noun,
Very – Adverb
6. And – Conjunction, On – Preposition, Your – Pronoun

TENSES

There are 3 types of tenses

1.PRESENT TENSE

2.PAST TENSE

3.FUTURE TENSE

PRESENT TENSE

1.SIMPLE PRESENT

2.PRESENT CONTINOUS

3.PRESENT PERFECT

4.PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

In English most of sentences start With a SUBJECT, Subject could be the

noun (name of a person/a thing) Eg:aAnu) or words that are used
instead pronouns like He, She, It, They, We, You, I.

Subjects are of Two types

1.Singular (Only one person/thing) - He/She/It/Name of a
person/Place/Things

2.Plural( more than one person/thing)- They,We, You,I (In the present
tense,I follow the rules of Plural)
Helping verb : is / am/are/was/were/do/does/did/has/have/had

the helping verbs connect a subject and a verb and

determines the tense. Main verb/Verb: The Actions we

do(Eg: Study ,work,play etc)

Verbs have 3 forms

verb1(V1)(Used in Present/Future tense) verb2(V2)(used in past tense)

verb3(V3)(perfect tense/passive forms)
eg: V1 V2 V3

STUDY STUDIED STUDIED

GO WENT GONE

LIVE LIVED LIVED

PRESENT TENSE

1.SIMPLE PRESENT

Uses

∙ Daily habits.

∙ Basic facts/common facts about a person/thing/nature

∙ Universal truths

Sentence Structure If the sub is plural OR (I,WE,THEY,YOU)

SUB + DO+VERB
DO+VERB - VERB1

SUB+VERB1(First form of verb)

Ex: I DO WORK/I WORK

I(SUBJECT)+DO+WORK(WORK)

They do study/ They study/My friends play cricket with

me everyday. We live in India./They help me

I speak English/my parents work

They do enjoy rain/ we make food together

(in all the sentences given above just add the plural subject and add
the verb1 to make a sentence)
Question making using helping verb "do"

Ex: Do you study? do you work?/Do they live in Kerala?

if there is question word,add question word(What/When/Where/How)

in the beginning ex: Where do you live? What do you do? when do you

go to school? Where do you work?

Negative form- Don't (DO NOT)

Ex: I dont study/They don't work/we don't play football

IF THE SUB IS SINGULAR(HE/SHE/IT/ANY SINGULAR NAME)

SUB+DOES+VERB / SUB+VERB+S/ES

He does speak English (does+speak give speaks)

He speaks English / Anu works as an Engineer/It rains everyday

My brother studies in 10th std./ My mother likes icecream./ Heena
wakesup everyday at 6 am. / Anju lives in the US. / Plant gives food/
Pollution causes health issues/ it creates problem.
Question word is DOES to ask about singular subjects

Does she study? Does she work? Does he speak English?Does your
brother live in india? Does she wakeup early everyday?
IF question word ,put it in the beginning of the question

Where does she work?/how does your mom go to work? does he study?

What does he do? What does your father do? Does he know about it?
IELTS @ SUNSHINE
NEGATIVEFORM - DOESN'T/DOESNOT

He doesn't speak English / She doesn't know him

Anu doesn't work/My mom doesn't like sweets.

Her father doesn't smoke/ he doesn't know cooking/it doesn't rain here
everyday.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

USE

∙ It is used to express actions that are going on at the time of

speaking/ongoing actions.
∙ It is used to express a planned future event.

Sentence structure

SUB+IS/ARE/AM+VERB+ING
Is- if sub is singukar / Are- If the sub is plural / Am- If the sub is I
Ex: She is gardening now/ He is writing now/ Anu is doing

her homework. They are talking to each other/ They are

cooking/We are watching Tv now. I am reading a novel now/

I am helping my mon with chores(works of home) I am doing

Yoga.

IS/AM/ARE are used to make statements also.

Ex: She is my sister/I am his friend/They are my friends/it is a dog

Question making using helping verbs to ask about ongoing

actions are IS/ARE If singular use is

Is she studying now? / Is she cooking now?/ Is he watching TV?

if there is question word,put it in the beginning

What is she doing now? where is she going?

IELTS @ SUNSHINE
Question statements: What is this? Where is your house? What is his
name?

Is this your house? Is this your bag? What is it? Where is your place?
How is your health? Is she your brother?
If sub is plural (you,they) use ARE

Are you doing any work? /Are you making food? Are you enjoying rain?

what are you doing now? How are you feeling today? What are you
making for food? Where are you going?
where are you now? How are you? are you free? are you busy

today? Who are you? NEGATIVE FORMS- is not/isn't/are

not/aren't/am not

Ex: She is not my friend

i am not studying now,i am watching tv

They are not working now./ i am not free now.

NOTE:DONT USE A TIME INDICATION WITH TENSE

FOR EX: I AM WATCHING TV FOR 3 HOURS- THIS SENTENCE IS WRONG

PRESENT CONTINUOUS ONLY USE TO EXPRESS ACTION GOING ON AT

THAT PARTICULAR MOMENT IN THE PRESENT
PRESENT PERFECT

use:

1. It is used to express an action that has happend

just now .2.It is used to express our life experience.

3.it is used to express actions in the pas with an unknown time

indication. sentence structure

sub+has/have+V3(Third form of verb)

has- if sub is singular

have- if sub is plural

ex: I have finished my work just now(action that happend just now) She

has completed her studies recently(recent action without time

indication) They have travelled many places together in their life(life

experience) I have studied in ABC College.

Anu has called me before.

Questions: Using has/have

Have you completed the work?

has she come ?
has the bus gone?
When you have called me?
when she has arrived?

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS USE:

It is used to express an action that started in the past and still going on
with or without a time indication or an action in the past which has its
affect in the present also.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
SUB+HAS/HAVE+BEEN+VERB+ING
HAS-SINGULAR
HAVE-PLURAL
Ex: I have been attending the class since morning
She has been attending the class for 3 hours.
I have been working in this company since 2010
She has been living in the US for 3 years./she has been

sleeping for 3 hours Prime minister has been ruling India

for 3 years.

SINCE- Before exact indication of time

FOR-Before only duration
HAS BEEN/HAVE BEEN - EXIST IN THE PAST AND NOW ALSO
She has been my friend for many years.
They have been married for 10 years.
Pollution has been a problem in my place since 2017.
QUESTION USE HAS BEEN/HAVE BEEN
Have you been studying?
has she been sleeping?
how long have you been working in this company?
how long has she been studying here?
How long have you been married?
Have you been here for so long?
Has she been your friend for a longtime?
How long they have been waiting here?

EXERCISES PRESENT TENSE:

1. The moon (glow)brightly all night.

2. Rahul (finish) all the ice cream.
3. The baker (knead) the dough.
4. Mary (decorate) the room now.
5. The play (start) today.
 6. We (listen)to music since morning.
7. The principal (wish) to see you.
8. Mike (eat) all the sandwiches.
9. We (Wait) for the concert to start at 6:00 P.M.
10. Alex has just (leave)

PAST TENSE
1.SIMPLE PAST

USE

Actions happend in the past with an indication of time in the

past. SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SUB+VERB2 /sub+did+v1(second form of verb)(did+v1 is V2)

Ex: I did study - did+study is studied

I STUDIED

She passedout in 2010/I woke up at 5 am today/i went to supermarket to

buy groceries/I helped him financially
They came here yesterday/She called me last night

She made tea for me./He invited me for his wedding

We watched a film on last sunday./i made cake today

Ask Question using did about past actions/if question word is present
put it in the beginning.
Ex: did you go to school yesterday? How did you make

it? Did she meet you last night?/did they go to work?

Did he come here to meet you?/where did you see that?

What did you do?/ did you enjoy that movie?/when did you wake

upo? Where did she go last night?/ where did you do your studies?

2.PAST CONTINUOUS

USE: It is used to express An action that was going on a particular

time in the past.
sentence structure:

Sub+ was / were/+ verb+ing

was- if the subject is singular(I,He,She,It or any singular

names) were-if the subject is plural(You,they,We or any

plural subjects) EX: I was studying when you called me.

She was reading a book at that time.

We were playing cricket.

She was attending the class when they came here.

They were making food .

NOTE:DONT GIVE TIME INDICATION LIKE I WAS SLEEPING FOR 3

HOURS/ITS WRONG.
WAS/WERE CAN BE USED TO MAKE STATEMENTS IN THE PAST

ex: She was my class mate/ It was a joke/anu was my best

friend we were classmates/ We were roommates/There was a

traffic block.

NEGATIVE FORM: WAS NOT /WERE NOT /Iwasnot sleeping/we were

not studying.
QUESTIONS USING "WAS( TO ASK ABOUT SINGULAR THINGS) AND
WERE(FOR PLURAL)"
Ex: Was she sleeping?

was she writing her note?

What was she doing? Where was she going when i called

her? who was she? What was it? When was it? was that

your friemd? what was her name? Where was he?

WERE
were you sleeping ? Were you attending the class?

what were you doing? where were you going when i called you? where

were you? what were you saying? were you friends in the school time?

who were they? where were they? were you gardening?

3.PAST PERFECT

USES

when we talk about two actions that happend in the past,first

action is expessed by past perfect and second action by simple
past.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SUB+HAD+ V3(third form of verb)

Ex: The bus had gone(First action) before i arrived the bustand(Second

action). I washed the floor(second action) when the painter had gone(first

action)

(we can write sentence in alternate but first action should be

represented by past perfect)
After i had finished my work,i went for lunch.

By the time polica came,the thief had escaped.

She had never seen a boat before she came to alappey.

I had never tasted seafood before i came kerala.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

USE

1. An action that started in the past ,continued for a period of time and
finished at some point of time in the past itself with a time duration.
2.An Action that had been going on until another action

interrupted it. SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SUB +HAD BEEN+ ING FORM OF VERB 1

Ex: He had been studying for 3 hours.(means he started the activity 3

hours before and continued for 3 hours)
She had been attending the class for a month.

They had been living in america for 5 years until they moved to

india(use 2) She had been working abroad until she came to her

home town. They had been playing cricket until it rained.

We had been friends in the school time.(it means now you are not

friends) She had been my room mate in the college days.

I had been reading novel for 5 hours.

Meera had been practicing dance until her friends came home.

HAD BEEN - Pollution had been a problem for a long time.( it means
the problem existed in the past for long time and now its not an
issue)
or this exercise, you'll need to read the sentences and fill in the blanks
with the correct form of the past tense.

1. We ____ basketball all afternoon. (was playing/were playing)

2. I ___ to the concert. (went/go)
3. Sarah ____ towards the beach. (was running/were running)
4. The bus ___ just now. (left/leave)
5. The professor ___ us about philosophy. (teach/taught)
6. We ____ to New York last month. (flew/fly)
7. The singer ___ on the stage. (stand/stood)
8. The burglar ____ into the bank last night. (break/broke)
9. I ___a medal for the race yesterday. (receive/received)
10. The girl ___ piano yesterday. (was playing/were playing)
11. I ___ Jake before he moved. (has seen/had seen)
12. I ___ the series last week. (had watched/has watched)
13. The team ___well. (play/played)
14. Emma __ all the cupcakes. (ate/eaten)
15. Bob ___ the car when it broke down. (was fixing/were fixing)

FUTURE TENSE
SIMPLE FUTURE
USE:

it is used to express all planned future events

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SUB + WILL/SHALL/MAY/MIGHT +V1

WILL -SUREITY

MAY-POSSIBILITY

MIGHT-LESS POSSIBILITY

Ex: I will come

She will call for sure.

They will attend class tommorow.

We will think about ir.

She may come today evening

it might rain.

i may pass the interview.

QUESTIONS using Will About future events

Will you come tommorow? Will you do that?/will she arrive early?what will
you do?/when will she come? who will attend the call?
Will you help me please? who will come with you?

When will the class start tommorow?

NEGATIVE : WILLNOT/MAY NOT (I may not come tommorow/i will not

come tommorow)
2.FUTURE CONTINUOUS
USE

It is used to express an action that will be going on in the future at

particular Time.
STRUCTURE

SUB + WILL BE /MAY BE+ VERB+ING

WILL BE_ SUREITY

MAY BE: POSSIBILITY

Ex: I will be studying today evening.

he will be sleeping at that time.

She will be sleeping at that time.

He may be attending the class

We may be coming today evening

She may be fee/We will be free/I will be at home

she will be outside.

NEGATIVE: WILL NOT/AY NOT

ex: i will not attending the class tommorow.

questions : will be

Will you be attending the class today evening?

WHEN You will be free?

Who will be there? Will you be available at that time?

How you will be coming here?

FUTURE PERFECT
USE

It is used to express an action that will have completed by a certain

point of time in the future.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SUB+ WILL HAVE+ V3(third form of verb)

Ex: He will have completed his studies by 2020.

She will have got married by next year

I will have given IELTS exam within 2 months.

We will have met them by today evening.

Fill in the blanks with the correct tense form of the verbs given in bracket
(10 mints)
1.He…very rudely to me the other day(behave). Usually, he…politely(behave).
2.When I …to my fiancés home yesterday(go), she…a book. (read). She told
me that her brother…school(go), and …. only in the evening(return).
3. George usually…. (read) one book a month. He…. (read) one at the
moment. He...(read) 10 books already. By the end of December, he ….20
books in all(read).
4.The earth…(move) around the sun for millions of years, whereas the
moon …(shine) in the sky for millions of years.
5.The cool atmosphere…(show) that it…(rain) somewhere.
6.The clerk…. (type) the letters still. He usually…(finish) his work very
quickly. He…(type )hundreds of letters.
7.My brother…(start) studying English when he…. (be) younger. He …(study)
English for 5 years.
8.The bus….just….(start) when the conductor …(give) whistle.
9. Yesterday they……….. (go) home only after they…..(finish) their work.
10.when we…(come) to this colony years back, it…(was/were) a lonely
area.But since then many persons…(come) and ….(occupy) the area.

1.Read the following passage, identify the errors and correct them.(10
mints)

My little sister Lisa was practicing how to riding a bicycle yesterday.

Suddenly I hear a loud crash and ran to see what had happened. I saw that
she was lye in the ground. I quickly pulled her up and bought her home.
She was crying out loud. I quickly go inside the house and bring the first
aid box. After cleaning the wound, I apply antiseptic to the wound. Lisa has
scratches on her hand and knee. To calm her down, I take her to the
nearby shop and brought her a big chocolate. Seeing her favorite
chocolate, she immediately stop crying. Within two days, her wounds
healed, and she went to play again.

2. Moreover, in the time period of 1996-2002, there were many changes

that take place in average house prices.
3. Firstly, the population of Ireland spends their 28.91% money on eatables
in 2010.
4. Last Sunday, I meet with an accident in your supermarket.
5. For this reason, I can’t write a letter earlier.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar, and they play a
crucial role in expressing various meanings in a sentence. They are
auxiliary verbs that modify the main verb to express different moods,
attitudes, and degrees of certainty. Modal verbs are used to indicate ability,
permission, obligation, possibility, and probability.
To fully understand the significance of modal verbs in English grammar, it
is essential to have a clear understanding of their different meanings and
how they modify the main verb. Whether you are a native English speaker
or a non-native speaker, this article will provide you with the necessary
knowledge to use modal verbs correctly and confidently. So, let’s dive into
the world of modal verbs and explore their diverse functions in English
grammar.
Modal verbs are also known as modal auxiliary verbs because they help to
express the mood or attitude of the speaker. They are different from other
auxiliary verbs such as be, do, and have, which are used to form tenses
and aspects
Modal Verbs List
Here is a list of the most common modal verbs in English:
MODEL VERB MEANING
CAN ability, possibility, permission
COULD ability, possibility, permission (past tense of can)
MAY possibility, permission
MIGHT possibility
MUST necessity, obligation
 SHALL obligation, suggestion
SHOULD advice, suggestion
WILL future time reference, willingness
WOULD polite request, hypothetical situations

It is important to note that modal verbs do not change form to indicate

tense or person. They are used in the base form regardless of the subject
or tense of the sentence.
For example:
• She can play the guitar. (present tense)
• They could swim when they were young. (past tense)
• He may come to the party. (present tense)
• She might have forgotten her keys. (past tense)
Types of Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that express various meanings
such as ability, permission, possibility, obligation, necessity, request,
suggestion, certainty, and probability. Let’s take a closer look at each of
these sub-sections.
Ability
Modal verbs such as ‘can’, ‘could’, and ‘be able to’ express ability. They
indicate the capability or potential to do something. For example:
• I can swim.
• She could speak Spanish fluently.
• He is able to run a marathon.
Permission
Modal verbs such as ‘may’, ‘can’, and ‘could’ express permission. They
indicate the allowance or authorization to do something. For example:
• May I leave early from work today?
• Can I borrow your car for the weekend?
• Could you please turn down the music?
Possibility
Modal verbs such as ‘may’, ‘might’, and ‘could’ express possibility. They
indicate the chance or likelihood of something happening. For example:
• It may rain tomorrow.
• He might be late for the meeting.
• The concert could be cancelled due to bad weather.
Obligation
Modal verbs such as ‘must’, ‘have to’, and ‘should’ express obligation. They
indicate the necessity or requirement to do something. For example:
• I must finish this report by tomorrow.
• You have to wear a seatbelt while driving.
• We should recycle to protect the environment.
Necessity
Modal verbs such as ‘must’ and ‘have to’ express necessity. They indicate
the essential or mandatory nature of something. For example:
• You must brush your teeth twice a day.
• I have to pay my bills on time.
• They must wear a helmet while riding a bike
Request
Modal verbs such as ‘can’, ‘could’, and ‘would’ express request. They
indicate the desire or need for something to be done. For example:

• Can you please pass me the salt?

• Could you help me with this heavy box?
• Would you mind closing the window?
Suggestion
Modal verbs such as ‘should’, ‘ought to’, and ‘could’ express suggestion.
They indicate the recommendation or advice to do something. For example:
• You should try this new restaurant.
 • We ought to exercise regularly for good health.
• You could take a break and relax for a while.
Certainty
Modal verbs such as ‘must’, ‘can’t’, and ‘should’ express certainty. They
indicate the level of confidence or assurance in something. For example:
• He must be at home by now.
• She can’t have finished the project already.
• They should know the answer to this question.
Probability
Modal verbs such as ‘might’, ‘may’, and ‘could’ express probability. They
indicate the likelihood or chance of something happening. For example:
• The train might be delayed.
• It may snow tonight.
• The project could be completed by next week.
In summary, modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar that
express a wide range of meanings. Understanding their usage can help
you communicate more effectively and accurately in various situations.
Modal Verbs Usage and Conjugation
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express various
meanings such as ability, possibility, permission, obligation, and necessity.
These verbs are followed by the base form of the main verb, also known
as the infinitive form. In this section, we will discuss the usage and
conjugation of modal verbs in English grammar.
Infinitive Form
Modal verbs are always followed by the base form of the main verb. The
base form is also known as the infinitive form. It is used without “to” in
most cases, except for the modal verb “ought to”. Here are some
examples:
• She can speak French fluently.
• They should study harder for the exam.
 • He might come to the party tonight.
• You must finish your homework before you go out.

Past Participle
Modal verbs do not change their form based on the subject or tense. They
are always in the same form, and the main verb is always in the base
form. However, the main verb may change its form based on the tense and
the subject. The past participle is used in perfect tenses and passive voice.
Here are some examples:
• She could have finished the project earlier.
• They should have listened to the instructions carefully.
• He might have been invited to the wedding.
• You must have been mistaken about the date.
Third Person Singular
Modal verbs do not change their form based on the subject, except for the
third person singular. The third person singular form of modal verbs is
“he/she/it + modal verb + base form of the main verb”. Here are some
examples:
• She can drive a car.
• He should be more careful while driving.
• It might rain later today.
• The company must follow the safety regulations.
•
• Modal Verbs in Different Tenses
Modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar that express a
range of meanings such as ability, permission, possibility, and obligation.
They are used in conjunction with the main verb of a sentence to convey a
sense of mood or attitude. Modal verbs do not change form to indicate
tense, but they can be used to refer to past, present, and future time. In
this section, we will explore how modal verbs are used in different tenses.
Present
Modal verbs can be used to refer to present time to express a variety of
meanings. Here are some examples:
• Can: I can play the guitar.
• Should: You should eat more vegetables.
• Must: He must finish his homework before he can go out.
In the present tense, modal verbs are often used to express ability, advice,
or obligation.
Past
Some modal verbs can be used to refer to past time. Here are some
examples:

• Could: I could swim when I was younger.

• Should have: You should have studied harder for the exam.
• Must have: He must have missed the train.
In the past tense, modal verbs are often used to express ability, regret, or
assumption.
Future
Modal verbs can also be used to refer to future time. Here are some
examples:
• Will: I will help you with your project.
• Might: You might be able to come to the party.
• Shall: We shall meet at the park at 2 pm.
In the future tense, modal verbs are often used to express willingness,
possibility, or obligation.
It is important to note that modal verbs do not have a past participle form.
Instead, the perfect form is constructed using the auxiliary verb “have” and
the past participle of the main verb. For example, “I should have studied
harder” or “He must have missed the train.”
In conclusion, modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar that
can be used to convey a range of meanings in different tenses. By
understanding how to use modal verbs in different tenses, you can
improve your ability to communicate effectively in English.
Modal Verbs in Sentences
Modal verbs are used to express a range of meanings in English. They are
auxiliary verbs that add information to the main verb in a sentence. Modal
verbs cannot stand alone in a sentence, but they can be used to add
meaning to a sentence that is already complete.
Examples
Modal verbs are used in a variety of contexts to express different
meanings. Here are some examples:
• Can: Can you help me with this project?
• Could: Could you pass the salt, please?
• May: May I borrow your pen?
• Might: It might rain later today.
• Must: You must finish your homework before you can watch TV.
• Should: You should eat more vegetables.
• Will: I will call you tomorrow.
• Would: Would you like some coffee?
Making a Suggestion
Modal verbs can be used to make a suggestion. For example:
• You should try the new restaurant in town.
• We could go to the park for a picnic.
• Why don’t we take a walk after dinner?
Asking a Question
Modal verbs can be used to ask a question. For example:
• Can you swim?
• Could you help me with this task?
• May I ask you a question?
 • Might I borrow your car?
• Giving a Command
Modal verbs can be used to give a command. For example:
• You must turn in your assignment by Friday.
• You should clean your room before your guests arrive.
• Can you please close the door?
Modal verbs can also be used in negative sentences to express the
opposite meaning. For example:
• You shouldn’t eat too much junk food.
• You mustn’t be late for the meeting.
In conclusion, modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar and
are used in a variety of contexts to express different meanings. By
understanding how to use modal verbs correctly, you can improve your
English writing and speaking skills.
At Home
Modal verbs are also commonly used at home to express different
meanings and nuances. Here are some examples of how modal verbs are
used at home:
• “I have to do my homework before I can watch TV.”
• “You don’t have to clean your room if you don’t want to.”
• “Can you help me with the dishes, please?”
• “May I go out with my friends tonight?”
Modal verbs can be used to express obligation, permission, ability, and
requests in a home setting.

In Social Situations
Modal verbs are also used in social situations to express different
meanings and nuances. Here are some examples of how modal verbs are
used in social situations:
 • “I should call my brother to wish him a happy birthday.”
• “You can come to the party if you want to.”
• “May I buy you a drink?”
• “Could you please pass me the salt?”
Modal verbs can be used to express suggestions, invitations, requests, and
offers in social situations.
In conclusion, modal verbs are an essential part of English grammar that
helps to convey different meanings and nuances in various situations. By
understanding how modal verbs are used in different contexts, you can
improve your communication skills and express yourself more effectively.
Modal Verbs for Expressing Modality
Modal verbs are verbs that express modality, which refers to the speaker’s
attitude towards the likelihood or certainty of a situation. In English, modal
verbs are used to express a range of meanings, including condition, action,
emphasis, likelihood, deduction, interrogative, and subjunctive.
Condition
Modal verbs can be used to express a condition, which is a hypothetical
situation that may or may not be true. For example:
• If I had more time, I would study harder.
• If I were you, I would take a break.
Action
Modal verbs can also be used to express an action, which is something
that is possible, necessary, or permitted. For example:
• You must finish your homework before you can watch TV.
• You can borrow my book if you promise to return it.
Emphasis
Modal verbs can be used to emphasize a point or to express a strong
opinion. For example:
• I really should exercise more often.
 • You absolutely must see this movie.
Likelihood
Modal verbs can be used to express the likelihood of a situation. For
example:
• It might rain later, so bring an umbrella.
• She must be tired after running a marathon.
Deduction
Modal verbs can be used to express deduction, which is the process of
reaching a conclusion based on evidence or reasoning. For example:
• He can’t be at home because his car is not in the driveway.
• She must have forgotten her phone because she never leaves it
behind.
Interrogative
Modal verbs can be used to form questions, which are sentences that ask
for information. For example:
• Can you help me with this math problem?
• Should we go to the beach or the park?
Subjunctive
Modal verbs can be used to express the subjunctive mood, which is used
to describe hypothetical or contrary-to-fact situations. For example:
• If I were rich, I would travel the world.
• I wish I could speak Spanish fluently.
In conclusion, modal verbs are an important part of English grammar that
can be used to express a range of meanings related to modality. By
understanding how to use modal verbs to express condition, action,
emphasis, likelihood, deduction, interrogative, and subjunctive, you can
improve your ability to communicate effectively in English.
Common Mistakes with Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are essential in English grammar, but they can be tricky to
use correctly. Here are some common mistakes to avoid:
Rule 1: Using the Wrong Modal Verb
One mistake people often make is using the wrong modal verb. Each
modal verb has a specific meaning, and using the wrong one can change
the intended message. For example, “can” is used to express ability, while
“should” is used to express obligation.
Rule 2: Using Modal Verbs Incorrectly
Another mistake is using modal verbs incorrectly. Modal verbs should not
be changed into different forms or tenses, and they should not be used
with auxiliary verbs. For example, “I can swim” is correct, but “I am can
swim” is not.
Rule 3: Using Double Modals
Using two modal verbs in the same sentence, also known as double
modals, is incorrect in standard English. For example, “I might could go to
the store” is incorrect. Instead, use one modal verb or rephrase the
sentence using a different structure.
Rule 4: Using Modal Verbs in Negative Sentences
When using modal verbs in negative sentences, the word “not” should be
placed after the modal verb, not before it. For example, “I cannot swim” is
correct, but “I can not swim” is not.
Rule 5: Using Modal Verbs in Questions
When using modal verbs in questions, the subject and modal verb should
be inverted. For example, “Can you swim?” is correct, but “You can swim?”
is not.
Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct and Indirect Speech: In this article, we are going to cover one of the
most important parts of English Grammar, Direct and Indirect Speech. This
is an important topic from an exam’s point of view and would be useful for
students throughout their lifetime. Direct and Indirect Speech also form
questions in various competitive exams. As mentioned earlier, it is
important since all sentences are formed, spoken, and written either in
direct or indirect speech. Learning how to write one and convert it is
essential for learning the English Language. Find below what they mean,
in detail. Also, know about the conversion strategy, formulas, rules, and
more in brief. Students can attempt the questions without looking at the
answers, to evaluate their understanding of the chapters.
Direct Speech Definition
While speaking to another person, we might have to quote something the
third person has said. If the third person is being directly quoted, then it is
called direct speech. In order to write a sentence in direct speech, inverted
commas are used (“ “). The statement or sentence that is to be quoted is
written in between the commas. For example: Ram said, “I am working on
the project right now”.
Direct speech is used to communicate anything directly. You don't use the
third person pronounce or language to quote what the person has said. It
is generally used in written form of communication to reflect upon what
the third person has said or quoted.
Direct Speech Examples
• "Can I borrow the book", he said
• "Where do you live?"
• "I had pizza yesterday", Rita said
The above sentences are presented in direct speech. Their indirect speech
conversions have been provided below.
Indirect Speech Examples
• He asked if he could borrow the book
• He asked me where I lived
• Rita said that she had pizza yesterday
All these sentences are written in indirect speech. Their direct speech
conversions have been presented above.
Indirect Speech Definition
If the third person is being quoted indirectly, without using his exact words
or phrases, then the speech is said to be indirect. For indirect speech,
inverted commas are not used and the sentences are written in the third
form, referring to the third person. For example: Ram said that he was
working on the project at that time. While converting direct speech into
indirect speech, the form of tense and subject are changed. One important
aspect is to keep the meaning of the sentence intact.
This form of sentence is generally used when speaking. We often end up
using indirect speech sentences without even knowing about it. Thus,
whenever you speak in the third person and reflect upon the statements in
a manner that does not sound like exact words, it is called indirect speech.
Difference between Direct and Indirect Speech
Here, the difference between direct and indirect speech has been attached
below in a table format. Check the differences between direct and indirect
speech.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
The person is quoted The person is quoted indirectly by
directly by using his/her explaining what he/she is trying to say. The
exact words and tense and subject of the sentence change.
phrases.
Inverted commas are No usage of inverted commas.
used while quoting the
third person
Example: Hari said, “I am Example: Hari said that he would be going
going to Rita’s house to Rita’s house today.
today

Rules of Direct and Indirect Speech

There are some important rules for writing direct and indirect speeches
and for conversion of the two. These are important for forming correct
sentences. Check all the rules for direct and indirect speech here.
Rules for conversion of direct into indirect and vice versa are slightly
different from each other, given the form of speeches they fall under. But,
the primary rule is that direct and indirect sentences can be divided into
two parts: Reported verb and Reported speech. The reported verb states
who has said the sentence and the reported speech consists of the quote.
Rules for Converting Direct Speech into Indirect Speech
1. While converting direct speech into indirect speech, remove the inverted
commas and replace them with that.
For example: Riya said, “I am honest”. (Direct)

Riya said that……. (Indirect)

2. If the quote or message under inverted commas is a universal truth or a
habitual action, then the tense remains the same.
3. If the reporting verb of the sentence is in the present tense, then the
tense remains unchanged.
For example: He says” There are eight planets in the world”. (Direct)
He says that there are eight planets in the world.
(Indirect)
4. If the reporting verb of the sentence is in past tense, the reporting
speech will be changed to past tense.
For Example: Rahul said, “He is playing” (direct)
Rahul said that he was playing (indirect).
• Simple present gets converted to simple past
• Present Continuous gets converted to past continuous
• Present Perfect gets converted to past perfect
• Present Perfect Continuous gets converted to Past Perfect
Continuous
• Simple Past gets converted to Past Perfect
• Past Continuous gets converted to Past Perfect Continuous
• Will gets changed to would
• May gets changed to might
• Can gets changed to could
• Shall gets changed to should
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple Present Simple Past
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Simple Past Past Perfect
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Will Would
May Might
Can Could
Shall Should

5. While converting direct speech into indirect speech, the subject in the
reported speech gets changed to pronouns, as present in the reporting
verb.
For Example: She said “I am smart” (Direct)
She said that she is smart (indirect)
6. If there’s a mention of time in the reported speech, then the way of
referring to that particular time gets changed in indirect speech.
For example: Rita said “I will be going to the temple tomorrow” (Direct)
Rita said that she would be going to the temple the next
day. (Indirect)
• Today gets changed to that day
• Tomorrow gets changed to the next day or the following day
• Yesterday gets changed to the previous day
• Now changes to Then
• Tonight changes to that night
• Yesterday night changes to the previous night
• Tomorrow night changes to the following night
• Here changes to There
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Today That Day
Tomorrow The Next Day/The Following Day
Yesterday The Previous day
Now Then
Tonight That Night
Yesterday Night Previous Night
Tomorrow Night Following Night
Here There
This That
Say Say
These Those
Say To Tell
Said to Told

7. If a sentence in direct speech starts with a question, no conjunction will

be used while converting it into indirect speech and the question mark will
be removed.
For Example: “What are you doing” asked Riya (Direct)
Riya asked me what I was doing. (Indirect)
8. If a sentence in direct speech starts with a helping verb/auxiliary verb,
then the joining clause gets changed to if/whether. During conversion, if
the reporting verb has words like said or said to, then it gets changed to
asked/enquired/demanded, depending on the nature of the sentence.
For Example: He asked me “Do you listen to Hindi music?” (Direct)
He asked me if I listen to Hindi music
9. Interjections are removed while converting direct speech into indirect
speech. The sentence is turned into an assertive sentence.
For example: Riya said, “Wow, I won the competition”. (Direct)
Riya exclaimed with joy that she had won the
competition. (Indirect)
Rules for converting Indirect Speech into Direct Speech
1. While converting Indirect speech into direct speech, put a comma
before the statement starts and put the first letter of the statement
in the capital.
2. You can use question marks, quotations, commas, and exclamations
on the basis of the nature of the sentence.
3. Avoid the usage of conjunctions. Use only when necessary.
 4. Change the past tense into the present tense, while converting.
5. Change past perfect tense either into present perfect tense or past
tense (based on the need).
6. Use say, said to effectively. Ensure that the meaning of the sentence
is not tweaked.
Direct to Indirect Speech Conversion Exercise with Answers
1. He said, “I arrived before you
2. Harish said, “I have a headache today”.
3. He asked me, “When are you leaving?”
4. Rahul said, “Can you call me back later?”
5. Mom said to me, “May God Bless you”.
Indirect to Direct Speech Conversion Exercise
1. She asked whether I would come to the sun festival
2. My friend says that she dances well.
3. Ram said that he was walking alone on the street the previous night.
4. He enquired me if I reach home by 9 PM every day.
5. The boy said that he has a habit of biting nails.

Active and Passive Verb Forms

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active

forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to
successfully speak English.
Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the
sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences
are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the
sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end
of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing
receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can
also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if
you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing

doing action]

Examples:
Active and Passive Overview

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

Simple Once a week, Tom cleans the Once a week, the house is
Present house. cleaned by Tom
Present Right now, Sarah is writing Right now, the letter is
Continuous the letter. being written by Sarah.
Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by
Sam
Past The salesman was helping The customer was being
Continuous the customer when the thief helped by the salesman
came into the store. when the thief came into
the store.
Present Many tourists have visited That castle has been
Perfect that castle. visited by many tourists.
Present Recently, John has been Recently, the work has
Perfect doing the work. been being done by John
Continuous
Past Perfect George had repaired many Many cars had been
cars before he received his repaired by George before
mechanic's license. he received his mechanic's
license.
Past Perfect Chef Jones had been The restaurant's fantastic
Continuous preparing the restaurant's dinners had been being
fantastic dinners for two prepared by Chef Jones for
years before he moved to two years before he moved
Paris. to Paris.
Simple Future Someone will finish the work The work will be finished
will by 5:00 PM. by 5:00 PM.
Simple Future Sally is going to make a A beautiful dinner is going
be going to beautiful dinner tonight. to be made by Sally
tonight.
Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John will At 8:00 PM tonight, the
Continuous be washing the dishes dishes will be being
will washed by John
Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John is At 8:00 PM tonight, the
Continuous going to be washing the dishes are going to be
be going to dishes. being washed by John.
Future Perfect They will have completed the The project will have been
will project before the deadline. completed before the
deadline.
Future Perfect They are going to have The project is going to
be going to completed the project before have been completed
the deadline. before the deadline.
Future Perfect The famous artist will have The mural will have been
Continuous been painting the mural for being painted by the
will over six months by the time famous artist for over six
it is finished. months by the time it is
finished.
Future Perfect The famous artist is going to The mural is going to have
Continuous have been painting the mural been being painted by the
be going to for over six months by the famous artist for over six
time it is finished. months by the time it is
finished.
Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by
Jerry.
Would Always My mother would always The pies would always be
make the pies made by my mother.
Future in the I knew John would finish the I knew the work would be
Past work by 5:00 PM. finished by 5:00 PM.
Would
Future in the I thought Sally was going to I thought a beautiful dinner
Past make a beautiful dinner was going to be made by
Was Going to tonight. Sally tonight

Linking Words And Phrases In English (List With Examples)

In this study guide, you will learn how to use linking words in English. You
will discover the meaning of common linking words and learn how to use
them in a sentence. Examples are provided to show you the sentence
position and use of common linking words in English. Check out the
exercises at the end to test your understanding!
What are linking words?
Discourse markers (‘linkers’) are words or phrases that we use to make
links between words in a sentence. These discourse markers are used in
both spoken and written English.
Here we will focus on discourse markers in writing and formal spoken
English – commonly known as ‘linking words’. Linkers are a way of making
connections between ideas and sentences.
Formal and informal linkers
Informal linking words are used in spoken English. You can link your ideas
with words and phrases like: I mean, honestly, after all, besides and in any
case. It is useful to learn which linking words are most appropriate in
formal and informal situations. In an email, you might choose linking
words such as so, but, and because. These should already be familiar.
In an essay, you are more likely to choose formal linkers, such as
therefore, however, consequently, on the contrary and moreover. There are
some linking words that are so formal that you may choose not to use
them at all in your writing. Examples include: thus, hence and nonetheless.
Linking words and sentence position
Many linking words are used at the beginning of a sentence, while others
can be used in the middle or at the end. Words and phrases connected
with sequencing and structure appear at the start of a sentence. Examples
include: first, secondly, finally and in conclusion. Adverbs, which express
the writer’s opinion, also occur at the start of a sentence, for example
evidently and obviously.
Linking words can be used between clauses, in the middle of the sentence.
Examples include: words that contrast ideas (however, although), show
consequence (therefore, as a result), and phrases that add more
information (moreover, furthermore). A few linking words can be placed at
the end of the sentence. Look at the following example: Learning a second
language is motivating. It can be very difficult, however.
Punctuation
The use of punctuation with some linking words and phrases is important.
Some grammar books provide you with specific rules about punctuation
and clauses in a sentence. The most important reason for using
punctuation in a sentence is so the reader can understand your intended
meaning.
Punctuation, particularly commas, should help the reader to identify
clauses in your writing and lead to a clearer understanding of the text.
Look at these two example sentences – which is easier to understand?
A: To conclude the cars of the future are likely to be more environmentally
friendly however this change may take many years to implement and
moreover will require the support of the general public.
B: To conclude, the cars of the future are likely to be more environmentally
friendly, however, this change may take many years to implement and,
moreover, will require the support of the general public.

Linking words are very important in written texts. Without them, your
writing may be disconnected and difficult to read. In English examinations,
students are often graded on their ability to write cohesive sentences.
Therefore, learning how to use linking words correctly is an important skill
in learning English as a second language. The examples below will help
you to understand the meaning of linking words in written texts and to
improve your own linking skills!
Linking words: meanings and uses
Conjunctions are a familiar group of linking words, which join two clauses
in a sentence, such as but, because or however. In fact, linking words
have many different functions in a sentence and range from single words
to phrases of up to four words. The categories below show the most
common types of linking words.
Sequencing
First, secondly, subsequently, finally
Words like first, second and finally appear at the start of a sentence. They
help the reader to navigate their way through the text. They are used in
essays but also in instructions, for example recipes.
Adding information
In addition, also, furthermore, what is more
These linking words are used to give additional information or to
strengthen our argument.
Comparison
Similarly, equally, likewise
We use these linking words to add further examples or to make
connections between ideas.
Giving examples
For example, for instance, e.g., such as
Use these linking words to give examples.
Consequence
Consequently, therefore, as a result, hence
These linking words can be used to describe how one idea logically
follows another.
Generalisation
On the whole, generally, in general
These linking words are usually positioned at the start of a sentence. They
are used before a general statement.
Summing up
To sum up, in summary, to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion
These types of phrases are commonly used to start the final section of an
essay. They are also used in formal spoken English, for example a speech
or the TV news, to signal to the listener that the speech is coming to an
end.
Contrasting
However, on the other hand, conversely, in contrast, rather, while, whereas

These linking words are used to introduce an idea or argument that

contrasts with what has been said before. In an essay, they are useful for
introducing, for example, the disadvantages in an advantages and
disadvantages essay. The use of rather in this context is very formal.
Stating fact
In fact, as a matter of fact, actually
These types of linking words can be used to signal to the reader that the
writer’s meaning is different to what the reader expects.
Concession
Although, despite, in spite of, even though
These linking words are used to show that we acknowledge another
person’s opinion, even if we may not agree with it.
A-Z List of common linking words with examples
The list below includes all the commonly used linking words in written
English. Example sentences are also provided to help you understand
them in context.
Additionally
Additionally, students should complete at least 3 hours of homework per
week.
As a result
In recent years, few students have studied languages at school. As a
result, the number of people taking language courses at degree level has
decreased.
But
It is important to adjust your mirrors, but do not do this while driving your
car.
Consequently
John did not study hard for his exams. Consequently, his grades was
disappointing.
Conversely
People who have no savings often have trouble when applying for bank
loans. Conversely, those who already have savings find it much easier to
get credit.
Equally
Studying languages face-to-face has a positive impact on learning.
Equally, online learning can allow students to progress quickly.
Firstly, secondly, etc.
Firstly, we’d like to say a warm welcome to all our new undergrads.
Secondly, we’d like to remind you that students should attend all lectures
on time for the duration of the semester.
For example
You should wear suitable clothing for this trip. For example, a waterproof
coat and a warm hat.
For instance
You can substitute some ingredients in this recipe. For instance, honey can
be used instead of sugar.

Furthermore
In my opinion, the government should provide adequate guidance on
physical exercise. Furthermore, I believe it has a duty to advise the public
on health and diet.
Generally (speaking)
Generally, working from home is less stressful and more productive than
working in a noisy office.
Hence
Mark had inherited a lot of money from his grandmother; hence the large
house.
However
Sports facilities, such as gyms and swimming pools, help people to keep
fit. However, people also need motivation to help them improve their
health.
In addition
As a community, we should do more to improve our wellbeing. In addition,
the government should start a new advertising campaign to promote
health and fitness nationwide.
In conclusion
In conclusion, the advantages of tourism outweigh the disadvantages.
In contrast
Working from home can save time and money. In contrast, commuting long
distances to work every day can be time-consuming and expensive.
In fact
We didn’t enjoy the film. In fact, it was pretty terrible!
In general
In general, working from home is more convenient than travelling to the
office.
In particular
Young children are influenced by the people around them, in particular
their parents.
In spite of this
Tony was not offered a place at his chosen university. In spite of this, he
achieved a first class degree and went on to have a successful career.
Likewise
Squirrels feed on hard grains and nuts, using their sharp front cutting
teeth to break up their food. Likewise, rats are able to gnaw through hard
materials.
Moreover
Children from less affluent households were reported to read less.
Moreover, children who did not have books in the house were found to be
much more likely to have a low reading age.
Nevertheless
You should try to eat five portions of fruit and vegetables a day and reduce
your fat intake. Nevertheless, any changes you can make to your diet will
have a positive effect.
Nonetheless
The disadvantages of living in a city include noise and pollution.
Nonetheless, the majority of people still choose to live in urban areas.
On the contrary
On the contrary, many students chose universities that showed a good
standard of teaching rather than a high ranking.
On the other hand
Tourism can have a positive effect on the wealth of a country. On the other
hand, it can also have a negative impact on the environment.
On the whole
On the whole, most students prefer informal tutorial groups to large group
lectures.
Rather
Rob wasn’t successful in the interview, rather he was given some advice
on improving his application.
So
I really love Spanish culture, so I’m looking forward to my trip to Madrid
next month.
Such as
Stringed instruments, such as the violin and the cello, are among the most
difficult to learn.
Therefore
Sue broke her leg. Therefore, she was unable to attend work for a month.
Thus
The availability of high-sugar and high-fat foods has had an impact on
people’s health; thus, the rate of obesity is increasing.
To conclude
To conclude, a child’s home background has a dramatic effect on their
educational achievement.
To summarise
To summarise, consumer habits are changing: there has been a marked
increase in the amount of clothing and technology sold online during the
pandemic.
To sum up
To sum up, learning a new skill, like a language, can be challenging, but it
is also rewarding.
Similarly
Similarly, increasing the price of fuel and raising parking charges may
discourage people from driving into city centres.
Still
Digital technology has made working from home easier. Still, many people
prefer the social contact of going to their workplace.
What is more
Too much screen time may affect children’s activity levels. What is more,
extended time spent using electronic devices may have a negative impact
on their eyesight.
Whereas
Boys tend to develop physical skills, such as jumping, at a young age,
whereas girls tend to develop fine motor skills.
While
While men still make up the largest proportion of students on science
courses, the number of women is steadily increasing.
Yet
The penalties for breaking the law are high, yet some people continue to
commit crimes.
Linking words: exercises
1.Which of these groups of linking words show consequence?
a. however, although, but
b. therefore, so, as a result
c. for example, such as
d. to conclude, in summary, to sum up
2.Which of these groups of linking words are used to contrast ideas?
a. however, although, but
b. therefore, so, as a result
c. for example, such as
d. to conclude, in summary, to sum up
3.Which linking word does not belong in this group?
a. on the whole
b. in general
c. as a result
d. generally
4.Which statement is correct?
a. Linking words can be positioned at the start, middle or end of a
sentence.
b. Linking words can be positioned at the start or end of a sentence.
c. There are no rules about where linking words can be positioned in a
sentence.
d. Linking words can be positioned at the middle or end of a sentence.
5.Which word is spelled incorrectly?
a. nonethemless
b. consequently
c. similarly
d. likewise
6.Which word has a similar meaning to ‘sum up’?
a. in conclusion
b. in addition
c. in contrast
7.I eat lots of vegetables, _______________ carrots, broccoli and peppers.
a. such as
b. similarly
c. therefore
8.Jason’s income has decreased in recent months, ________ he needs to be
careful with money.
a. although
b. therefore
c. however
9.The weather here reaches around -10ºC in winter, ________ the summer is
quite warm.
a. whereas
b. so
c. in addition
10._____________ measure the dry ingredients and put them in a bowl.
a. in spite of this
b. first
c. hence
11.You can use a paper dictionary to check vocabulary. _________, you can
use an electronic dictionary.
a. in any case
b. subsequently
c. equally
d. for instance
12.Eating healthy food can have an impact on your weight and your health.
____________, you should try to limit your consumption of fatty food.
a. rather
b. in particular
c. despite this
d. while
13.There are many ways to read a book electronically. _________, many
people still choose to buy paperback books.
a. to sum up
b. yet
c. for example
d. what is more
14.Many people like the convenience of working solo from home.
_____________, working with other people can be more motivating.
a. for instance
b. therefore
c. nonetheless
d. conversely
15.Which word does not fit in this group of linking words?
a. on the other hand
b. nevertheless
c. however
d. finally
16.Which word does not fit in this group of linking words?
a. as a matter of fact
b. in fact
c. whereas
d. actually
17.Which linking words are used to add information?
a. similarly, equally, likewise
b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary
c. on the other hand, whereas, however
d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
18.Which linking words are used to make comparisons?
a. similarly, equally, likewise
b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary
c. on the other hand, whereas, however
d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
19.Which linking words are used for summing up?
a. similarly, equally, likewise
b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary
c. on the other hand, whereas, however
d. in addition, furthermore, what is more
20.Which linking words are used to contrast ideas?
a. similarly, equally, likewise
b. to conclude, in conclusion, in summary
c. on the other hand, whereas, however
d. in addition, furthermore, what is more

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before
nouns or noun equivalents and are a type of adjective. The definite article
(the) is used before a noun to indicate that the identity of the noun is
known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun
that is general or when its identity is not known. There are certain
situations in which a noun takes no article.
As a guide, the following definitions and table summarize the basic use of
articles. Continue reading for a more detailed explanation of the rules and
for examples of how and when to apply them.
Definite article
the (before a singular or plural noun)
Indefinite article
a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)
an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular
or plural
Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always
singular

COUNT NON-
NOUNS COUNT
NOUNS

Rule #1 a, an (no
Specific identity article)
not known

Rule #2 the the

Specific identity
known

Rule #3 (no (no

All things or things article) article)
in general

For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is important to

know that nouns can be either count (can be counted)
or noncount (indefinite in quantity and cannot be counted). In addition,
count nouns are either singular (one) or plural (more than
one). Noncount nouns are always in singular form.
For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled on the
table, there can be one drop (singular) or two or more drops (plural) of
water on the table. The word drop in this example is a count noun because
we can count the number of drops. Therefore, according to the rules
applying to count nouns, the word drop would use the articles a or the.
However, if we are speaking of water in general spilled on the table, it
would not be appropriate to count one water or two waters -- there would
simply be water on the table. Water is a noncount noun. Therefore,
according to the rules applying to noncount nouns, the word water would
use no article or the, but not a.
Following are the three specific rules which explain the use of definite and
indefinite articles.
Rule #1 - Specific identity not known: Use the indefinite article a or
an only with a singular count noun whose specific identity is not known to
the reader. Use a before nouns that begin with a consonant sound, and
use an before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
• Use the article a or an to indicate any non-specified member of a
group or category.
I think an animal is in the garage
That man is a scoundrel.
We are looking for an apartment.
• Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to
more than one).
I own a cat and two dogs.
• Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a
vowel sound.
a boy, an apple
◊ Sometimes an adjective comes between the article and noun:
an unhappy boy, a red apple
 • The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an
unspecified, limited amount (but more than one).
an apple, some apples
Rule #2 - Specific identity known: Use the definite article the with any
noun (whether singular or plural, count or noncount) when the specific
identity of the noun is known to the reader, as in the following situations:
• Use the article the when a particular noun has already been
mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.
• Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing
the noun clarifies or restricts its identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.
Thank you for the advice you gave me.
• Use the article the when the noun refers to something or
someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity
the 2003 federal budget
Rule #3 - All things or things in general: Use no article with plural count
nouns or any noncount nouns used to mean all or in general.
Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)

Additional Information Regarding the Use of Articles

• When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of
a count or noncount noun, use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in
general or advice about everything, but a limited amount of advice).
I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited
amount of coffee).
We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a
certain amount of rain, as opposed to rain in general).
There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more
than one drop).
• Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted.
Following are some common examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter,
cabbage, candy, cauliflower, celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate,
coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce, meat, milk, oil,
pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt
◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper,
petroleum, plastic, rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage,
employment, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence,
knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth
◊ Areas of study: history, math, biology, etc.
◊ Sports: soccer, football, baseball, hockey, etc.
◊ Languages: Chinese, Spanish, Russian, English, etc.
◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage,
lumber, machinery, mail, money, news, poetry, pollution, research,
scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
• Geographical names are confusing because some require the and
some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas,
oceans, seas, gulfs, canals, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands
the Gobi Desert
the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians
◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most
countries, continents, bays, single lakes, single mountains, islands
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay

Examples of the Use of Articles

I do not want a gun in my house (any gun).
The gun is in his closet (implies there is a specific gun).
I am afraid of guns (all guns in general).
She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter,
not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).
I have a dog (one dog).
The dog is very friendly (the dog that I have already mentioned).
Dogs make great pets (dogs in general).
Greta needs furniture in her apartment (furniture is a noncount noun).
She is going to select the furniture that she needs (the specific furniture
that she needs).
She hopes to find some furniture this weekend (an unspecified, limited
amount of furniture).
We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of
Liberty).