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BUSINESS
ANALYSIS
AND
VALUATION
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Business Analysis and Valuation: © 2019, Cengage Learning EMEA
IFRS Standards edition, 5th Edition
Krishna G. Palepu, Paul M. Healy WCN: 02-300
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Brief contents
PART I Framework 1
1 A framework for business analysis and valuation using financial statements 2
PART II Business analysis and valuation tools 45

2 Strategy analysis 46
3 Accounting analysis: The basics 78
4 Accounting analysis: Accounting adjustments 118
5 Financial analysis 174
6 Prospective analysis: Forecasting 232
7 Prospective analysis: Valuation theory and concepts 274
8 Prospective analysis: Valuation implementation 312
PART III Business analysis and valuation applications 357

9 Equity security analysis 358
10 Credit analysis and distress prediction 386
11 Mergers and acquisitions 417
PART IV Additional cases 459
iii
Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgements xii
PART II
Authors xiii Business analysis and valuation
Digital Support Resources xiv
tools 45
PART I 2 Strategy analysis

Industry analysis 46
46
Framework 1 Degree of actual and potential competition 46

Bargaining power in input and output markets 50
1 A framework for business analysis Applying industry analysis: The european airline
and valuation using financial industry 51
statements 2 Competition in the european airline industry 51
The role of financial reporting in capital markets 2 The power of suppliers and buyers 52
From business activities to financial statements 4 Limitations of industry analysis 53
Influences of the accounting system on information
Competitive strategy analysis 53
quality 5
Sources of competitive advantage 53
Feature 1: Accrual accounting 5
Achieving and sustaining competitive advantage 55
Feature 2: Accounting conventions and standards 7
Applying competitive strategy analysis 56
Feature 3: Managers’ reporting strategy 8
Feature 4: Auditing, legal liability, and public enforcement 9 Corporate strategy analysis 57
Sources of value creation at the corporate level 57
Alternative forms of communication with investors 10
Applying corporate strategy analysis 59
Analyst meetings 11
Voluntary disclosure 12 Summary 60
From financial statements to business analysis 12 Core concepts 61
Analysis step 1: Business strategy analysis 14 Questions, exercises, and problems 61
Analysis step 2: Accounting analysis 14 Problem 1 The European airline industry 62
Analysis step 3: Financial analysis 15
Notes 64
Analysis step 4: Prospective analysis 15
Case Akris: Competition in the high-end fashion
Public versus private corporations 15
industry 65
Summary 16
Core concepts 16 3 Accounting analysis: The basics 78
Questions, exercises, and problems 18 Factors influencing accounting quality 78
Problem 1 The Neuer Markt 18 Noise from accounting rules 78
Forecast errors 79
Problem 2 Fair value accounting for financial
Managers’ accounting choices 79
instruments 20
Steps in accounting analysis 80
Notes 21
Step 1: Identify key accounting policies 81
Appendix: Defining Europe 23 Step 2: Assess accounting flexibility 81
CASE The role of capital market intermediaries in the Step 3: Evaluate accounting strategy 82
dot-com crash of 2000 25 Step 4: Evaluate the quality of disclosure 83
iv
Contents v
Step 5: Identify potential red flags 84 Problem 3 H&M and Inditex’s non-current assets 155
Step 6: Recast financial statements and undo accounting Notes 156
distortions 85
CASE Accounting for the iPhone Upgrade Program (A) 158
Recasting financial statements 86
Some complications 86
Categories of financial statement items 87
5 Financial analysis 174
Ratio analysis 174
Accounting analysis pitfalls 95 Measuring overall profitability 178
Conservative accounting is not “good” accounting 95 Decomposing profitability: Traditional approach 179
Not all unusual accounting is questionable 96 Decomposing profitability: Alternative approach 180
Common accounting standards are not the same as common Assessing operating management: Decomposing net profit
accounting practices 96 margins 184
Value of accounting data and accounting analysis 96 Evaluating investment management: Decomposing asset
Summary 97 turnover 188
Evaluating financial management: Financial leverage 191
Core concepts 97
Putting it all together: Assessing sustainable growth rate 194
Questions, exercises, and problems 98 Historical patterns of ratios for European firms 197
Problem 1 Key accounting policies 99 Cash flow analysis 197
Problem 2 Fashion retailers’ key accounting policies 99 Cash flow and funds flow statements 197
Problem 3 Euro Disney and the first five steps of Analyzing cash flow information 199
accounting analysis 100 Analysis of Hennes & Mauritz’s and Inditex’s cash flow 202
Notes 102 Summary 203
Appendix A: First-time adoption of IFRS Standards 104 Core concepts 203
Appendix B: Recasting financial statements into Questions, exercises, and problems 205
standardized templates 105 Problem 1 ROE decomposition 205
Case Toshiba: Accounting fraud 111 Problem 2 Ratios of three fashion retailers 208
Problem 3 The Fiat Group in 2008 211
4 Accounting analysis: Accounting Problem 4 Ahold versus Delhaize 213
adjustments 118 Notes 215
Recognition of assets 118
Who owns or controls resources? 119 Appendix: Hennes & Mauritz AB financial statements 216
Can economic benefits be measured with reasonable CASE Carrefour S.A. 221
certainty? 120
Have fair values of assets declined below book value? 120 6 Prospective analysis: Forecasting 232
Are fair value estimates accurate? 121 The overall structure of the forecast 232
Asset distortions 122 A Practical Framework for Forecasting 233
Recognition of liabilities 140 Information for forecasting 234
Has an obligation been incurred? 140 Performance behavior: A starting point 235
Can the obligation be measured? 140 Revenue growth behavior 236
Liability distortions 141 Earnings behavior 236
Returns on equity behavior 237
Equity distortions 147
The behavior of components of ROE 238
Contingent claims 147
Forecasting assumptions 239
Summary 148
Background: Macroeconomic and industry growth 239
Core concepts 149 Revenue growth 240
Questions, exercises, and problems 150 NOPAT margins 243
Problem 1 Impairment of non-current assets 153 Working capital to revenue 245
Problem 2 Audi, BMW, and Skoda’s research and Non-current assets to revenue 246
development 153 Non-operating investments 247
vi Contents
Capital structure 247 8 Prospective analysis: Valuation

From assumptions to forecasts 247 implementation 312
Cash flow forecasts 250 Computing a discount rate 312
Sensitivity analysis 250 Estimating the cost of equity 313
Seasonality and interim forecasts 251 Estimating the required return on net operating assets 318
Estimating the weighted average cost of capital 318
Summary 252
Detailed forecasts of performance 322
Core concepts 252 Making performance forecasts for valuing H&M 322
Questions, exercises, and problems 253 Terminal Values 324
Problem 1 Predicting Tesco’s 2017/2018 earnings 254 Terminal values with the competitive equilibrium assumption 326
Notes 257 Competitive equilibrium assumption only on incremental
revenue 326
Appendix: The behavior of components of roe 257
Terminal value with persistent abnormal performance and
CASE Forecasting earnings and earnings growth in the growth 326
European oil and gas industry 260 Terminal value based on a price multiple 327
Selecting the terminal year 328
7 Prospective analysis: Valuation theory Estimates of Hennes & Mauritz’s terminal value 328
and concepts 274 Computing Estimated Values 329
Defining value for shareholders 275 From asset values to equity values 331
The discounted cash flow model 276 Asset valuation versus equity valuation 333
The discounted abnormal profit model 278 Value estimates versus market values 334
Accounting methods and discounted abnormal profit 279 Sensitivity analysis 334
The discounted abnormal profit growth model 280 Some practical issues in valuation 335
Dealing with accounting distortions 335
Valuation using price multiples 285
Dealing with negative book values 335
Main issues with multiple-based valuation 285
Dealing with excess cash flow 336
Determinants of value-to-book and value-earnings
multiples 286 Summary 336
Shortcut forms of profit-based valuation 289 Core concepts 337
Abnormal profit (growth) simplification 289 Questions, exercises, and problems 338
ROE and growth simplifications 291 Problem 1 Hugo Boss’s and Adidas’s terminal values 339
Comparing valuation methods 291 Problem 2 Anheuser-Busch InBev S.A. 339
Focus on different issues 292
Notes 340
Differences in required structure 292
Differences in terminal value implications 292 CASE Ferrari: The 2015 Initial Public Offering 341
Summary 294
Core Concepts 294 PART III
Summary of notations used in this chapter 295
Business analysis and valuation
Questions, exercises, and problems 296
Problem 1 Estimating Hugo Boss’s equity value 297
applications 357
Problem 2 Estimating Adidas’s equity value 298
9 Equity security analysis 358
Notes 299 Investor objectives and investment vehicles 358
Appendix A: Asset valuation methodologies 300 Equity security analysis and market efficiency 360
Appendix B: Reconciling the discounted dividends, Market efficiency and the role of financial statement
discounted abnormal profit, and discounted abnormal analysis 360
profit growth models 301 Market efficiency and managers’ financial reporting
CASE Valuation Multiples in Fast Fashion 303 strategies 361
Contents vii
Evidence of market efficiency 361 Notes 410

Approaches to fund management and securities CASE Getronics’ debt ratings 411
analysis 361
Active versus passive management 362 11 Mergers and acquisitions 417
Quantitative versus traditional fundamental analysis 362 Motivation for merger or acquisition 417
Formal versus informal valuation 362
Acquisition pricing 420
The process of a comprehensive security analysis 362 Analyzing premium offered to target shareholders 420
Selection of candidates for analysis 363 Analyzing value of the target to the acquirer 421
Inferring market expectations 363 DuPont’s pricing of Danisco 424
Developing the analyst’s expectations 366
Acquisition financing and form of payment 424
The final product of security analysis 366
Effect of form of payment on acquiring shareholders 424
Performance of security analysts and fund managers 367 Effect of form of payment on target shareholders 426
Performance of security analysts 367 DuPont’s financing of Danisco 426
Performance of fund managers 368
Acquisition outcome 427
Summary 369 Other potential acquirers 427
Core concepts 369 Target management entrenchment 428
Questions 370 Antitrust and security issues 429
Analysis of outcome of DuPont’s offer for Danisco 429
Notes 371
Reporting on mergers and acquisitions: Purchase price
CASE Valuation at Novartis 373
allocations 430
Danisco’s purchase price allocation 432
10 Credit analysis and distress Summary 441
prediction 386
Why do firms use debt financing? 386 Core concepts 441
The market for credit 388 Questions 442
Commercial banks 389 Notes 443
Non-bank financial institutions 389 CASE Glencore/Xstrata: Playing Aida’s Triumphal March
Public debt markets 389 on Top of the Everest 445
Sellers who provide financing 390
Country differences in debt financing 390
Country factors and credit types 390 PART IV
Country factors and the optimal mix of debt and equity 391
Additional cases 459
The credit analysis process in private debt markets 392
1 Enforcing financial reporting standards: The case
Step 1: Consider the nature and purpose of the loan 393
of White Pharmaceuticals AG 460
Step 2: Consider the type of loan and available security 393
Step 3: Conduct a financial analysis of the potential borrower 395 2 KarstadtQuelle AG 468
Step 4: Assemble the detailed loan structure, including loan 3 Tesco: From Troubles to Turnaround 479
covenants 396 4 Valuing Europe’s fastest growing company:
Financial statement analysis and public debt 398 HelloFresh in 2017 490
The meaning of debt ratings 398 5 Spotify’s direct-listing IPO 499
Factors that drive debt ratings 399
6 The Air France–KLM merger 519
Prediction of distress and turnaround 402
7 Measuring impairment at Dofasco 539
Models for distress prediction 402
Investment opportunities in distressed companies 404 8 The initial public offering of PartyGaming Plc 558
Credit ratings, default probabilities, and debt valuation 404 9 Two European hotel groups (A): Equity analysis 568
Summary 407 10 Two European hotel groups (B): Debt analysis 577
Core concepts 408 11 Fiat Group’s first-time adoption of IFRS Standards 582
Questions 409
Index 599
Preface
F inancial statements are the basis for a wide range of business analyses. Managers use them to monitor and judge
their firms’ performance relative to competitors, to communicate with external investors, to help judge what
financial policies they should pursue, and to evaluate potential new businesses to acquire as part of their investment
strategy. Securities analysts use financial statements to rate and value companies they recommend to clients. Bankers
use them in deciding whether to extend a loan to a client and to determine the loan’s terms. Investment bankers
use them as a basis for valuing and analyzing prospective buyouts, mergers, and acquisitions. And consultants use
them as a basis for competitive analysis for their clients. Not surprisingly, therefore, there is a strong demand among
business students for a course that provides a framework for using financial statement data in a variety of business
analysis and valuation contexts. The purpose of this book is to provide such a framework for business students and
practitioners. This IFRS Standards edition is the European adaptation of the authoritative US edition – authored by
Krishna G. Palepu and Paul M. Healy – that has been used in Accounting and Finance departments in universities
around the world. In 2007 we decided to write the first IFRS Standards edition because of the European business
environment’s unique character and the introduction of mandatory IFRS Standards reporting for public corpora-
tions in the European Union. This fifth IFRS Standards edition is a thorough update of the successful fourth edition,
incorporating new examples, cases, problems and exercises, and regulatory updates.
This IFRS Standards edition

Particular features of the IFRS Standards edition are the following:
●● A large number of examples support the discussion of business analysis and valuation throughout the chapters.
The examples are from (mostly European) companies that students will generally be familiar with, such as
Audi, BMW, British American Tobacco, BP, Carlsberg, Deutsche Telekom, easyGroup, Hennes and Mauritz,
Lufthansa, Renault, Sanofi, Société Générale, and Tesco.
●● The chapters dealing with accounting analysis (Chapters 3 and 4) prepare students for the task of analyzing IFRS
Standards-based financial statements. All numerical examples of accounting adjustments in Chapter 4 describe
adjustments to IFRS Standards-based financial statements. Further, throughout the book we discuss various
topics that are particularly relevant to understanding IFRS Standards-based (European) financial reports, such
as: the classification of expenses by nature and by function; a principles-based approach versus a rules-based
approach to standard setting; the first-time adoption of IFRS Standards; cross-country differences and similari-
ties in external auditing and public enforcement, and cross-country differences in financing structures.
●● The terminology that we use throughout the chapters is consistent with the terminology that is used in the
IFRS Standards.
●● Throughout the chapters, we describe the average performance and growth ratios, the average time-series
behavior of these ratios, and average financing policies of a sample of close to 7,800 firms that have been listed
on European public exchanges between 1998 and 2017.
●● The financial analysis and valuation chapters (Chapters 5-8) focus on firms in the apparel retail sector, primar-
ily Hennes & Mauritz and Inditex. Throughout these chapters, we explicitly differentiate between analyzing
and valuing operations and analyzing and valuing non-operating investments. Further, Chapter 8 explicitly
discusses implementation differences between equity-based and asset-based valuation approaches.
viii
Preface ix
●● Chapter 10 on credit analysis includes a discussion of how credit ratings and default probability estimates can
be used in debt valuation. Chapter 11 on M&A analysis includes a discussion on how to perform a purchase
price allocation using the tools and techniques from Chapters 5 through 8.
●● Data, analyses, problems, and examples have been thoroughly updated in the fifth edition.
●● We have updated some of the fourth IFRS Standards edition’s cases (‘Carrefour SA,’ ‘Forecasting Earnings
and Earnings Growth in the European Oil and Gas Industry,’ ‘Two European Hotel Groups’) and have
included eight new cases: ‘Akris: Competition in the High-End Fashion Industry,’ ‘Toshiba: Accounting Fraud,’
‘Accounting for the iPhone Upgrade Program,’ ‘Valuation Multiples in Fast Fashion,’ ‘Ferrari: The 2015 Initial
Public Offering,’ ‘Tesco: From Troubles to Turnaround,’ ‘Spotify’s Direct Listing IPO,’ and ‘Valuing Europe’s fast-
est growing company: HelloFresh in 2017.’
Key features
This book differs from other texts in business and financial analysis in a number of important ways. We introduce
and develop a framework for business analysis and valuation using financial statement data. We then show how this
framework can be applied to a variety of decision contexts.
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

We begin the book with a discussion of the role of accounting information and intermediaries in the economy, and
how financial analysis can create value in well-functioning markets (Chapter 1). We identify four key components,
or steps, of effective financial statement analysis:
●● Business strategy analysis
●● Accounting analysis
●● Financial analysis
●● Prospective analysis
The first step, business strategy analysis (Chapter 2), involves developing an understanding of the business and
competitive strategy of the firm being analyzed. Incorporating business strategy into financial statement analysis
is one of the distinctive features of this book. Traditionally, this step has been ignored by other financial statement
analysis books. However, we believe that it is critical to begin financial statement analysis with a company’s strategy
because it provides an important foundation for the subsequent analysis. The strategy analysis section discusses
contemporary tools for analyzing a company’s industry, its competitive position and sustainability within an indus-
try, and the company’s corporate strategy.
Accounting analysis (Chapters 3 and 4) involves examining how accounting rules and conventions represent a
firm’s business economics and strategy in its financial statements, and, if necessary, developing adjusted account-
ing measures of performance. In the accounting analysis section, we do not emphasize accounting rules. Instead
we develop general approaches to analyzing assets, liabilities, entities, revenues, and expenses. We believe that such
an approach enables students to effectively evaluate a company’s accounting choices and accrual estimates, even
if students have only a basic knowledge of accounting rules and standards. The material is also designed to allow
students to make accounting adjustments rather than merely identify questionable accounting practices.
Financial analysis (Chapter 5) involves analyzing financial ratio and cash flow measures of the operating, financ-
ing, and investing performance of a company relative to either key competitors or historical performance. Our
distinctive approach focuses on using financial analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of a company’s strategy and to
make sound financial forecasts.
Finally, under prospective analysis (Chapters 6–8) we show how to develop forecasted financial statements and
how to use these to make estimates of a firm’s value. Our discussion of valuation includes traditional discounted cash
flow models as well as techniques that link value directly to accounting numbers. In discussing accounting-based
x Preface
valuation models, we integrate the latest academic research with traditional approaches such as earnings and book
value multiples that are widely used in practice.
While we cover all four steps of business analysis and valuation in the book, we recognize that the extent of
their use depends on the user’s decision context. For example, bankers are likely to use business strategy analysis,
accounting analysis, financial analysis, and the forecasting portion of prospective analysis. They are less likely to be
interested in formally valuing a prospective client.
APPLICATION OF THE FRAMEWORK TO DECISION CONTEXTS

The next section of the book shows how our business analysis and valuation framework can be applied to a variety
of decision contexts:
●● Securities analysis (Chapter 9)
●● Credit analysis and distress prediction (Chapter 10)
●● Merger and acquisition analysis (Chapter 11)
For each of these topics we present an overview to provide a foundation for the class discussions. Where possible
we discuss relevant institutional details and the results of academic research that are useful in applying the analysis
concepts developed earlier in the book. For example, the chapter on credit analysis shows how banks and rating
agencies use financial statement data to develop analysis for lending decisions and to rate public debt issues. This
chapter also presents academic research on how to determine whether a company is financially distressed.
Using the book

We designed the book so that it is flexible for courses in financial statement analysis for a variety of student audiences –
MBA students, Masters in Accounting or Finance students, Executive Program participants, and undergraduates in
accounting or finance. Depending upon the audience, the instructor can vary the manner in which the conceptual
materials in the chapters, end-of-chapter questions, and case examples are used. To get the most out of the book,
students should have completed basic courses in financial accounting, finance, and either business strategy or busi-
ness economics. The text provides a concise overview of some of these topics, primarily as background for preparing
the cases. But it would probably be difficult for students with no prior knowledge in these fields to use the chapters
as stand-alone coverage of them.
If the book is used for students with prior working experience or for executives, the instructor can use almost a
pure case approach, adding relevant lecture sections as needed. When teaching students with little work experience,
a lecture class can be presented first, followed by an appropriate case or other assignment material. It is also possible
to use the book primarily for a lecture course and include some of the short or long cases as in-class illustrations of
the concepts discussed in the book. Alternatively, lectures can be used as a follow-up to cases to more clearly lay out
the conceptual issues raised in the case discussions. This may be appropriate when the book is used in undergradu-
ate capstone courses. In such a context, cases can be used in course projects that can be assigned to student teams.
Companion website
A companion website accompanies this book. This website contains the following valuable material for instructors
and students:
●● Instructions for how to easily produce standardized financial statements in Excel.
●● Spreadsheets containing: (1) the reported and standardized financial statements of Hennes & Mauritz (H&M)
and Inditex; (2) calculations of H&M’s and Inditex’s ratios (presented in Chapter 5); (3) H&M’s forecasted
Preface xi
financial statements (presented in Chapter 6); and (4) valuations of H&M’s shares (presented in Chapter 8).
Using these spreadsheets students can easily replicate the analyses presented in Chapters 5 through 8 and
perform “what-if ” analyses – i.e., to find out how the reported numbers change as a result of changes to the
standardized statements or forecasting assumptions.
●● Spreadsheets containing case material.
●● Answers to the discussion questions and case instructions (for instructors only).
●● A complete set of lecture slides (for instructors only).
Accompanying teaching notes to some of the case studies can be found at www.harvardbusiness.org or www.
thecasecentre.org. Lecturers are able to register to access the teaching notes and other relevant information.
Acknowledgements
W e thank the following colleagues who gave us

feedback as we wrote this and the previous IFRS
Standards edition:
●● Cornelia Neff, Professor of Finance and
Management Accounting, University of Applied
Sciences Ravens-burg-Weingarten, Germany
●● Bartlomiej Nita, Associate Professor, Wroclaw
●● Constantinos Adamides, Lecturer, University of
University of Economics
Nicosia
●● Nikola Petrovic, Lecturer in Accounting, University
●● Tony Appleyard, Professor of Accounting and
of Bristol
Finance, Newcastle University
●● Roswitha Prassl, Teaching and Research Associate,
●● Professor Chelley-Steeley, Professor of Finance,
Vienna University for Economics and Business
Aston Business School
Administration
●● Rick Cuijpers, Assistant Professor, Maastricht
●● Bill Rees, Professor of Financial Analysis,
University School of Business and Economics
Edinburgh University
●● Christina Dargenidou, Professor, University of
●● Matthias Schmidt, Professor for Business
Exeter
Administration, Leipzig University
●● Dominic Detzen, Assistant Professor, Vrije
●● Harri Seppänen, Assistant Professor, Aalto
University
University School of Economics
●● Karl-Hermann Fischer, Lecturer and Associate
●● Yun Shen, Lecturer in Accounting, University of
Researcher, Goethe University Frankfurt
Bath
●● Zhan Gao, Lecturer in Accounting, Lancaster
●● Radha Shiwakoti, Lecturer, University of Kent
University
●● Ana Simpson, Lecturer, London School of
●● Stefano Gatti, Associate Professor of Finance,
Economics
Bocconi University Milan
●● Nicos Sykianakis, Assistant Professor, TEI of Piraeus
●● Frøystein Gjesdal, Professor, Norwegian School of
●● Isaac Tabner, Lecturer in Finance, University of
Economics
Stirling
●● Igor Goncharov, Professor, WHU Business School
●● Jon Tucker, Professor and Centre Director, Centre
●● Aditi Gupta, Lecturer, King’s College London
for Global Finance, University of the West of
●● Shahed Imam, Associate Professor, Warwick
England
Business School
●● Birgit Wolf, Professor of Managerial Economics,
●● Otto Janschek, Assistant Professor, WU Vienna
Touro College Berlin
●● Marcus Kliaras, Banking and Finance Lecturer,
●● Jessica Yang, Senior Lecturer in Accounting,
University of Applied Sciences, BFI, Vienna
University of East London
●● Gianluca Meloni, Clinical Professor – Accounting
Department, Bocconi University We are also very grateful to the publishing team
●● Sascha Moells, Professsor in Financial Accounting at Cengage Learning for their help and assistance
and Corporate Valuation, Philipps-University of throughout the production of this edition.
Marburg, Germany The Publisher would like to thank all parties who
●● Jon Mugabi, Lecturer in Finance and Accounting, gave permission for the reproduction of case studies.
The Hague University All cases have been individually credited.
xii
Authors
KRISHNA G. PALEPU is the Ross Graham Walker Professor of Business Administration and Senior Advisor to the
President of Harvard University. During the past 25 years, Professor Palepu’s research has focused on corporate
strategy, governance, and disclosure. Professor Palepu is the winner of the American Accounting Association’s
Notable Contributions to Accounting Literature Award (in 1999) and the Wildman Award (in 1997).
PAUL M. HEALY is the James R. Williston Professor of Business Administration and Senior Associate Dean for Faculty
Development at the Harvard Business School. Professor Healy’s research has focused on corporate governance and
disclosure, mergers and acquisitions, earnings management, and management compensation. He has previously
worked at the MIT Sloan School of Management, ICI Ltd, and Arthur Young in New Zealand. Professor Healy
has won the Notable Contributions to Accounting Literature Award (in 1990 and 1999) and the Wild-man Award
(in 1997) for contributions to practice.
ERIK PEEK is Professor of Business Analysis and Valuation at Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University,
the Netherlands. Prior to joining RSM Erasmus University he has been an Associate Professor at Maastricht
University and a Visiting Associate Professor at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Professor
Peek is a CFA charterholder and holds a PhD from the VU University Amsterdam. His research has focused on
international accounting, financial analysis and valuation, and earnings management.
xiii
C engage’s peer reviewed content for higher and
further education courses is accompanied by a range
of digital teaching and learning support resources. The
resources are carefully tailored to the specific needs of
the instructor, student and the course. Examples of the
kind of resources provided include:
• A password protected area for instructors with,

for example, a testbank, PowerPoint slides and
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Framework
PART I
1 A framework for business analysis and valuation using financial statements
1 Avaluation
framework for business analysis and
using financial statements
This chapter outlines a comprehensive framework for financial statement analysis. Because financial state-
ments provide the most widely available data on public corporations’ economic activities, investors and other
stakeholders rely on financial reports to assess the plans and performance of firms and corporate managers.
A variety of questions can be addressed by business analysis using financial statements, as shown in the
following examples:
●● A security analyst may be interested in asking: “How well is the firm I am following performing? Did
the firm meet my performance expectations? If not, why not? What is the value of the firm’s stock given
my assessment of the firm’s current and future performance?”
●● A loan officer may need to ask: “What is the credit risk involved in lending a certain amount of money
to this firm? How well is the firm managing its liquidity and solvency? What is the firm’s business risk?
What is the additional risk created by the firm’s financing and dividend policies?”
●● A management consultant might ask: “What is the structure of the industry in which the firm is operat-
ing? What are the strategies pursued by various players in the industry? What is the relative performance
of different firms in the industry?”
●● A corporate manager may ask: “Is my firm properly valued by investors? Is our investor communication
program adequate to facilitate this process?”
●● A corporate manager could ask: “Is this firm a potential takeover target? How much value can be added
if we acquire this firm? How can we finance the acquisition?”
●● An independent auditor would want to ask: “Are the accounting policies and accrual estimates in this
company’s financial statements consistent with my understanding of this business and its recent perfor-
mance? Do these financial reports communicate the current status and significant risks of the business?”
In almost all countries in the world today, capital markets play an important role in channeling financial
resources from savers to business enterprises that need capital. Financial statement analysis is a valuable activity
when managers have complete information on a firm’s strategies, and a variety of institutional factors make it
unlikely that they fully disclose this information to suppliers of capital. In this setting, outside analysts attempt
to create “inside information” from analyzing financial statement data, thereby gaining valuable insights about
the firm’s current performance and future prospects.
To understand the contribution that financial statement analysis can make, it is important to understand the
role of financial reporting in the functioning of capital markets and the institutional forces that shape financial
statements. Therefore we present first a brief description of these forces; then we discuss the steps that an analyst
must perform to extract information from financial statements and provide valuable forecasts.
The role of financial reporting in capital markets

A critical challenge for any economy is the allocation of savings to investment opportunities. Economies that
do this well can exploit new business ideas to spur innovation and create jobs and wealth at a rapid pace.
In contrast, economies that manage this process poorly dissipate their wealth and fail to support business
opportunities.
Chapter 1 A framework for business analysis and valuation using financial statements 3
FIGURE 1.1 Capital markets
Savings
Financial Information
intermediaries intermediaries
Business
ideas
Figure 1.1 provides a schematic representation of how capital markets typically work. Savings in any econ-
omy are widely distributed among households. There are usually many new entrepreneurs and existing compa-
nies that would like to attract these savings to fund their business ideas. While both savers and entrepreneurs
would like to do business with each other, matching savings to business investment opportunities through the
use of capital markets – funding business ideas with the highest prospects first – is complicated for at least
three reasons:
●● Information asymmetry between savers and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs typically have better
information than savers on the value of business investment opportunities.
●● Potentially conflicting interests – credibility problems. Communication by entrepreneurs to savers is
not completely credible because savers know that entrepreneurs have an incentive to inflate the value of
their ideas.
●● Expertise asymmetry. Savers generally lack the financial sophistication needed to analyze and
differentiate between the various business opportunities.
The information and incentive issues lead to what economists call the lemons problem, which can potentially
break down the functioning of the capital market.1 It works like this. Consider a situation where half the busi-
ness ideas are “good” and the other half are “bad.” If investors cannot distinguish between the two types of
business ideas, entrepreneurs with “bad” ideas will try to claim that their ideas are as valuable as the “good”
ideas. Realizing this possibility, investors value both good and bad ideas at an average level. Unfortunately,
this penalizes good ideas, and entrepreneurs with good ideas find the terms on which they can get financing
to be unattractive. As these entrepreneurs leave the capital market, the proportion of bad ideas in the market
increases. Over time, bad ideas “crowd out” good ideas, and investors lose confidence in this market.
The emergence of intermediaries can prevent such a market breakdown. Intermediaries are like a car
mechanic who provides an independent certification of a used car’s quality to help a buyer and seller agree on
a price. There are two types of intermediaries in the capital markets. Financial intermediaries, such as venture
capital firms, banks, collective investment funds, pension funds, and insurance companies, focus on aggregating
funds from individual investors and analyzing different investment alternatives to make investment decisions.
Information intermediaries, such as auditors, financial analysts, credit-rating agencies, and the financial press,
focus on providing or assuring information to investors (and to financial intermediaries who represent them)
on the quality of various business investment opportunities. Both these types of intermediaries add value by
helping investors distinguish “good” investment opportunities from the “bad” ones.
The relative importance of financial intermediaries and information intermediaries varies from country to
country for historical reasons. In countries where individual investors traditionally have had strong legal rights
to discipline entrepreneurs who invest in “bad” business ideas, such as in the UK, individual investors have
4 PART I Framework
been more inclined to make their own investment decisions. In these countries, the funds that entrepreneurs
attract may come from a widely dispersed group of individual investors and be channeled through public stock
exchanges. Information intermediaries consequently play an important role in supplying individual investors
with the information that they need to distinguish between “good” and “bad” business ideas. In contrast, in
countries where individual investors traditionally have had weak legal rights to discipline entrepreneurs, such
as in many Continental European countries, individual investors have been more inclined to rely on the help
of financial intermediaries. In these countries, financial intermediaries, such as banks, tend to supply most of
the funds to entrepreneurs and can get privileged access to entrepreneurs’ private information.
Over the past decade, many countries in Europe have been moving towards a model of strong legal protection
of investors’ rights to discipline entrepreneurs and well-developed stock exchanges. In this model, financial
reporting plays a critical role in the functioning of both the information intermediaries and the financial
intermediaries. Information intermediaries add value either by enhancing the credibility of financial reports
(as auditors do) or by analyzing the information in the financial statements (as analysts and rating agencies do).
Financial intermediaries rely on the information in the financial statements to analyze investment opportunities
and supplement this information with other sources of information.
Ideally, the various intermediaries serve as a system of checks and balances to ensure the efficient functioning
of the capital markets system. However, this is not always the case as on occasion the intermediaries tend to
mutually reinforce rather than counterbalance each other. A number of problems can arise as a result of incen-
tive issues, governance issues within the intermediary organizations themselves, and conflicts of interest, as
evidenced by accounting scandals at companies such as Carillion, Olympus, Steinhoff, and Tesco. However, in
general this market mechanism functions efficiently, and prices reflect all available information on a particular
investment. Despite this overall market efficiency, individual securities may still be temporarily mispriced,
thereby justifying the need for financial statement analysis.
In the following section, we discuss key aspects of the financial reporting system design that enable it to play
effectively this vital role in the functioning of the capital markets.
From business activities to financial statements

Corporate managers are responsible for acquiring physical and financial resources from the firm’s environ-
ment and using them to create value for the firm’s investors. Value is created when the firm earns a return on
its investment in excess of the return required by its capital suppliers. Managers formulate business strate-
gies to achieve this goal, and they implement them through business activities. A firm’s business activities
are influenced by its economic environment and its business strategy. The economic environment includes
the firm’s industry, its input and output markets, and the regulations under which the firm operates. The
firm’s business strategy determines how the firm positions itself in its environment to achieve a competitive
advantage.
As shown in Figure 1.2, a firm’s financial statements summarize the economic consequences of its business
activities. The firm’s business activities in any time period are too numerous to be reported individually to
outsiders. Further, some of the activities undertaken by the firm are proprietary in nature, and disclosing
these activities in detail could be a detriment to the firm’s competitive position. The firm’s accounting system
provides a mechanism through which business activities are selected, measured, and aggregated into financial
statement data.
On a periodic basis, firms typically produce five financial reports:
1 An income statement that describes the operating performance during a time period.
2 A balance sheet that states the firm’s assets and how they are financed.2
3 A cash flow statement that summarizes the cash flows of the firm.
4 A statement of other comprehensive income that outlines the sources of changes in equity that are (a) not
the result of transactions with the owners of the firm and (b) not included in the income statement.3
5 A statement of changes in equity that summarizes all sources of changes in equity during the period
between two consecutive balance sheets, consisting of (a) total comprehensive income – being the sum of
profit or loss [item 1] and other comprehensive income [item 4] – and (b) the financial effects of transac-
tions with the owners of the firm.
These statements are accompanied by notes that provide additional details on the financial statement line
items, as well as by management’s narrative discussion of the firm’s activities, performance, and risks in the
Management Commentary section.4
FIGURE 1.2 From business activities to financial statements
Business environment Business strategy

Labor markets Scope of business:
Capital markets Business activities Degree of diversification
Product markets: Operating activities Type of diversification
Suppliers Investment activities Competitive positioning:
Customers Financing activities Cost leadership
Competitors Differentiation
Business regulations Key success factors and risks
Accounting environment Accounting system Accounting strategy

Capital market structure Measure and report Choice of accounting
Contracting and governance economic consequences policies
Accounting conventions and of business activities Choice of accounting
regulations estimates
Tax and financial accounting Choice of reporting format
linkages Choice of supplementary
Third-party auditing disclosures
Legal system for accounting Financial statements
disputes Managers’ superior
information on business
activities
Estimation errors
Distortions from managers’
accounting choices
Influences of the accounting system on information quality

Intermediaries using financial statement data to do business analysis have to be aware that financial reports are
influenced both by the firm’s business activities and by its accounting system. A key aspect of financial state-
ment analysis therefore involves understanding the influence of the accounting system on the quality of the
financial statement data being used in the analysis. The institutional features of accounting systems discussed
next determine the extent of that influence.
FEATURE 1: ACCRUAL ACCOUNTING

One of the fundamental features of corporate financial reports is that they are prepared using accrual rather
than cash accounting. Unlike cash accounting, accrual accounting distinguishes between the recording of costs
or benefits associated with economic activities and the actual payment or receipt of cash. Profit or loss is the
6 PART I Framework
primary periodic performance index under accrual accounting. To compute profit or loss, the effects of eco-
nomic transactions are recorded on the basis of expected, not necessarily actual, cash receipts and payments.
Expected cash receipts from the delivery of products or services are recognized as revenues, and expected cash
outflows associated with these revenues are recognized as expenses. Timing differences between the moment of
recording costs or benefits and the moment of experiencing cash inflows or outflows result in the recognition
of assets and liabilities on the balance sheet.
While many rules and conventions govern a firm’s preparation of financial statements, only a few conceptual
building blocks form the foundation of accrual accounting. Starting from the balance sheet, the principles that
define a firm’s assets, liabilities, and equity are as follows:
●● Assets are economic resources controlled by a firm that (a) have the potential to produce future economic
benefits and (b) are measurable with a reasonable degree of certainty. An example of an asset is a firm’s
inventories that will produce economic benefits once sold and delivered to the firm’s customers.
●● Liabilities are economic obligations of a firm that (a) arise from benefits received in the past, (b) have the
potential of being required to be met, and (c) cannot be feasibly avoided by the firm. Examples of liabili-
ties are bonds or bank loans that must be settled in cash or performance obligations that must be settled
by providing services to a customer.
●● Equity is the difference between a firm’s assets and its liabilities.
The definitions of assets, liabilities, and equity lead to the fundamental relationship that governs a firm’s bal-
ance sheet:
Assets 5 Liabilities 1 Equity
The following definitions are critical to the (comprehensive) income statement, which summarizes a firm’s
income and expenses:5
●● Income or revenue consists of economic resources earned (or increases in assets that affect equity) and
performance obligations settled (or decreases in liabilities that affect equity) during a time period. Revenue
recognition is governed by the realization principle, which proposes that revenues should be recognized
when (a) the firm has provided all, or substantially all, the goods or services to be delivered to the customer
and (b) the customer has paid cash or is expected to pay cash with a reasonable degree of certainty.
●● Expenses are economic resources used up (or decreases in assets that affect equity) and economic
obligations created (or increases in liabilities that affect equity) during a time period.
●● Profit or loss is the difference between a firm’s income and expenses in a time period. The following
fundamental relationship is therefore reflected in a firm’s income statement:
Profit or loss 5 Income 2 Expenses
Note from the preceding definitions that the recognition of income and expenses depends on a firm’s mea-
surement of its assets and liabilities. A consistent application of the principles that define assets and liabilities
implies that associated elements of income and expenses are recognized in the income statement in the same
time period – a process that is also referred to as matching of income and expenses. For example, after a firm
has sold and delivered goods to a customer, an increase in the asset “trade receivables” combined with a simul-
taneous decrease in the asset “inventories” lead to the recognition of associated income and expense in the
same time period.
Remeasurements of assets or liabilities may also result in the recognition of income or expense items that
are not related to the firm’s current economic activities. For instance, when a firm holds inventories that have
suddenly become obsolete, writing down the value of such assets will cause the recognition of an expense item
that is unrelated to the firm’s current economic transactions. In sum, expenses are (a) costs directly associated
with revenues recognized in the same period (such as the cost of inventory sold), or (b) costs associated with
benefits that are consumed in this time period (such as depreciation on non-current assets used in the period),
or (c) resources whose future benefits are not reasonably certain (such as research expenditures or inventory
write-downs).
The need for accrual accounting arises from investors’ demand for financial reports on a periodic basis.
Because firms undertake economic transactions on a continual basis, the arbitrary closing of accounting books
at the end of a reporting period leads to a fundamental measurement problem. Because cash accounting does
not report the full economic consequence of the transactions undertaken in a given period, accrual accounting
is designed to provide more complete information on a firm’s periodic performance.
FEATURE 2: ACCOUNTING CONVENTIONS AND STANDARDS

The use of accrual accounting lies at the center of many important complexities in corporate financial reporting.
For example, how should revenues be recognized when a firm sells land to customers and also provides cus-
tomer financing? If revenue is recognized before cash is collected, how should potential defaults be estimated?
Are the outlays associated with research and development activities, whose payoffs are uncertain, assets or
expenses when incurred? Are contractual commitments under lease arrangements or post-employment plans
liabilities? If so, how should they be valued? Because accrual accounting deals with expectations of future cash
consequences of current events, it is subjective and relies on a variety of assumptions. Who should be charged
with the primary responsibility of making these assumptions? In the current system, a firm’s managers are
entrusted with the task of making the appropriate estimates and assumptions to prepare the financial statements
because they have intimate knowledge of their firm’s business.
The accounting discretion granted to managers is potentially valuable because it allows them to reflect inside
information in reported financial statements. However, because investors view profits as a measure of managers’
performance, managers have incentives to use their accounting discretion to distort reported profits by mak-
ing biased assumptions. Further, the use of accounting numbers in contracts between the firm and outsiders
provides another motivation for manipulation of accounting numbers. Income management distorts financial
accounting data, potentially making them less valuable to external users of financial statements. Therefore the
delegation of financial reporting decisions to corporate managers has both costs and benefits.
A number of accounting conventions have been implemented to ensure that managers use their account-
ing flexibility to summarize their knowledge of the firm’s business activities, and not to disguise reality for
self-serving purposes. For example, in most countries financial statements are prepared using the concept of
prudence, where caution is taken to ensure that assets are not recorded at values above their fair values and
liabilities are not recorded at values below their fair values. This reduces managers’ ability to overstate the value
of the net assets that they have acquired or developed.
Accounting standards and rules also limit management’s ability to misuse accounting judgment by regulating
how particular types of transactions are recorded. For example, accounting standards for leases stipulate how
firms are to record contractual arrangements to lease resources. Similarly, post-employment benefit standards
describe how firms are to record commitments to provide pensions and other post-employment benefits for
employees. These accounting standards, which are designed to convey quantitative information on a firm’s
performance, are complemented by a set of disclosure principles. The disclosure principles guide the amount
and kinds of information that are disclosed and require a firm to provide qualitative information related to
assumptions, policies, and uncertainties that underlie the quantitative data presented.
More than 100 countries have delegated the task of setting accounting standards to the International
Accounting Standards Board (IASB). For example:
●● Since 2005 European Union (EU) companies that have their shares traded on a public exchange must
prepare their consolidated financial statements in accordance with International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRS Standards) as promulgated by the IASB and endorsed by the EU. Most EU countries,
however, also have their own national accounting standard-setting bodies. These bodies may, for example,
8 PART I Framework
set accounting standards for private companies and for single entity financial statements of public compa-
nies or comment on the IASB’s drafts of new or modified standards.6
●● UK-based public companies must continue to prepare IFRS Standards-based consolidated financial state-
ments, even after the United Kingdom’s exit from the EU.
●● Since 2005 and 2007, respectively, Australian and New Zealand public companies must comply with
locally adopted IFRS Standards, labelled A-IFRS Standards and NZ-IFRS Standards. These sets of
standards include all IFRS Standards requirements as well as some additional disclosure requirements.
●● South African public companies have prepared financial statements that comply with IFRS Standards, as
published by the IASB, since 2005.
●● Some other large economies with stock exchanges that require (most) publicly listed companies to pre-
pare IFRS Standards-compliant financial statements are Brazil (since 2010), Canada (2011), Korea (2011),
Mexico (2012), and Russia (2012).
In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has the legal authority to set account-
ing standards. Since 1973 the SEC has relied on the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), a private
sector accounting body, to undertake this task.
Uniform accounting standards attempt to reduce managers’ ability to record similar economic transactions
in dissimilar ways either over time or across firms. Thus the standards create a uniform accounting language,
improve the comparability of financial statements, and increase the credibility of financial statements by limiting
a firm’s ability to distort them. Increased uniformity from accounting standards, however, comes at the expense
of reduced flexibility for managers to reflect genuine business differences in a firm’s accounting decisions. Rigid
accounting standards work best for economic transactions whose accounting treatment is not predicated on
managers’ proprietary information. However, when there is significant business judgment involved in assess-
ing a transaction’s economic consequences (such as in determining the economic benefits of product develop-
ment), rigid standards (such as requiring the immediate expensing of product development outlays) are likely
to be dysfunctional for some companies because the standards prevent managers from using their superior
business knowledge to determine how best to report the economics of key business events. Further, if account-
ing standards are too rigid, they may induce managers to expend economic resources to restructure business
transactions to achieve a desired accounting result or forego transactions that may be difficult to report on.
FEATURE 3: MANAGERS’ REPORTING STRATEGY

Because the mechanisms that limit managers’ ability to distort accounting data add noise, it is not optimal to use
accounting regulation to eliminate managerial flexibility completely. Therefore real-world accounting systems
leave considerable room for managers to influence financial statement data. A firm’s reporting strategy – that
is, the manner in which managers use their accounting discretion – has an important influence on the firm’s
financial statements.
Corporate managers can choose accounting and disclosure policies that make it more or less difficult for exter-
nal users of financial reports to understand the true economic picture of their businesses. Accounting rules often
provide a broad set of alternatives from which managers can choose. Further, managers are entrusted with making
a range of estimates in implementing these accounting policies. Accounting regulations usually prescribe mini-
mum disclosure requirements, but they do not restrict managers from voluntarily providing additional disclosures.
A superior disclosure strategy will enable managers to communicate the underlying business reality to
outside investors. One important constraint on a firm’s disclosure strategy is the competitive dynamics in
product markets. Disclosure of proprietary information about business strategies and their expected economic
consequences may hurt the firm’s competitive position. Subject to this constraint, managers can use financial
statements to provide information useful to investors in assessing their firm’s true economic performance.
Managers can also use financial reporting strategies to manipulate investors’ perceptions. Using the discre-
tion granted to them, managers can make it difficult for investors to identify poor performance on a timely
basis. For example, managers can choose accounting policies and estimates to provide an optimistic assessment
of the firm’s true performance. They can also make it costly for investors to understand the true performance
by controlling the extent of information that is disclosed voluntarily.
The extent to which financial statements are informative about the underlying business reality varies across
firms and across time for a given firm. This variation in accounting quality provides both an important oppor-
tunity and a challenge in doing business analysis. The process through which analysts can separate noise from
information in financial statements, and gain valuable business insights from financial statement analysis, is
discussed in the following section.
FEATURE 4: AUDITING, LEGAL LIABILITY, AND PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT

Auditing
Broadly defined as a verification of the integrity of the reported financial statements by someone other than the
preparer, auditing ensures that managers use accounting rules and conventions consistently over time and that
their accounting estimates are reasonable. Therefore auditing improves the quality of accounting data. In Europe,
the United States, and most other countries, all listed companies are required to have their financial statements
audited by an independent public accountant. The standards and procedures to be followed by independent
auditors are set by various institutions. By means of the Revised Statutory Audit Directive and Regulation, the
EU has set minimum standards for public audits that are performed on companies from its member countries.
These standards prescribe, for example, that the external auditor does not provide any nonaudit services to the
audited company that may compromise his independence and place a cap on nonaudit service fees. To maintain
independence, the auditor also must not audit the same company for more than ten consecutive years. Further, in
most European countries, audits must be carried out in accordance with the International Standards on Auditing
(ISA), as promulgated by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB).
In the United States, independent auditors must follow Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS), a set
of standards comparable to the ISA. All US public accounting firms are also required to register with the Public
Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), a regulatory body that has the power to inspect and investi-
gate audit work, and if needed discipline auditors. Like the Statutory Audit Directive and Regulation in the EU,
the US Sarbanes–Oxley Act specifies the relationship between a company and its external auditor, for example,
requiring auditors to report to, and be overseen by, a company’s audit committee rather than its management.
While auditors issue an opinion on published financial statements, it is important to remember that the
primary responsibility for the statements still rests with corporate managers. Auditing improves the quality
and credibility of accounting data by limiting a firm’s ability to distort financial statements to suit its own pur-
poses. However, as audit failures at companies such as Carillion, Olympus, Steinhoff, and Tesco show, auditing
is imperfect. Audits cannot review all of a firm’s transactions. They can also fail because of lapses in quality or
because of lapses in judgment by auditors who fail to challenge management for fear of losing future business.
Third-party auditing may also reduce the quality of financial reporting because it constrains the kind of
accounting rules and conventions that evolve over time. For example, the IASB considers the views of auditors – in
addition to other interest groups – in the process of setting IFRS Standards. To illustrate, about one-quarter of the
IASB board members have a background as practicing auditor. Further, the IASB is advised by the IFRS Standards
Advisory Council, which contains several practicing auditors. Finally, the IASB invites auditors to comment on its
policies and proposed standards. Auditors are likely to argue against accounting standards that produce numbers
that are difficult to audit, sometimes also if the proposed rules produce relevant information for investors.
Legal liability
The legal environment in which accounting disputes between managers, auditors, and investors are adjudi-
cated can also have a significant effect on the quality of reported numbers. The threat of lawsuits and result-
ing penalties have the beneficial effect of improving the accuracy of disclosure. In the EU, the Transparency
Directive requires that every member state has established a statutory civil liability regime for misstatements
10 PART I Framework
that managers make in their periodic disclosures to investors. However, legal liability regimes vary in strict-
ness across countries, both within and outside Europe. Under strict regimes, such as that found in the United
States, investors can hold managers liable for their investment losses if the investors prove that the firm’s disclo-
sures were misleading, that they relied on the misleading disclosures, and that their losses were caused by the
misleading disclosures. Under less strict regimes, such as those found in France, Germany, and several other
Continental European countries, investors must additionally prove that managers were (grossly) negligent in
their reporting or even had the intent to harm investors (i.e., committed fraud).7 Further, in some countries
only misstatements in annual and interim financial reports are subject to liability, whereas in other countries
investors can hold managers liable also for misleading ad hoc disclosures.
The potential for significant legal liability might also discourage managers and auditors from supporting
accounting proposals requiring risky forecasts – for example, forward-looking disclosures. This type of concern
has motivated several European countries to adopt a less strict liability regime.8
Public enforcement
Several countries adhere to the idea that strong accounting standards, external auditing, and the threat of legal
liability do not suffice to ensure that financial statements provide a truthful picture of economic reality. As a final
guarantee on reporting quality, these countries have public enforcement bodies that either proactively or on a
complaint basis initiate reviews of companies’ compliance with accounting standards and take actions to correct
noncompliance. In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) performs such reviews
and frequently disciplines companies for violations of US GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles).
In recent years, several European countries have also set up proactive enforcement agencies that should enforce
listed companies’ compliance with IFRS Standards. Examples of such agencies are the French AMF (Autorité
des Marchés Financiers), the German DPR (Deutsche Prüfstelle für Rechnungslegung), the Italian CONSOB
(Commissione Nazionale per le Società e la Borsa), and the UK Financial Reporting Council. Because each Euro-
pean country maintains control of domestic enforcement, there is a risk that the enforcement of IFRS Standards
exhibits differences in strictness and focus across Europe. To coordinate enforcement activities, however, most
European enforcement agencies cooperate under the stimulus of the European Securities and Markets Authority
(ESMA). One of the ESMA’s tasks is to develop mechanisms that lead to consistent enforcement across Europe.
For example, the ESMA organizes peer reviews of national enforcement agencies and promotes best practices
through the publication of peer review reports and guidelines. The coming years will show whether a decen-
tralized system of enforcement can consistently assure that European companies comply with IFRS Standards.
Public enforcement bodies cannot ensure full compliance of all listed companies. In fact, most proactive
enforcement bodies conduct their investigations on a sampling basis. For example, the enforcement bodies
may periodically select industry sectors on which they focus their enforcement activities and select individual
companies either at random or on the basis of company characteristics such as poor governance. The set of
variables that European enforcers most commonly use to select companies includes market capitalization or
trading volume (both measuring the company’s economic relevance), share price volatility, the likelihood of
new equity issues, and the inclusion of the company in an index.9
Strict public enforcement can also reduce the quality of financial reporting because, in their attempt to
avoid an accounting credibility crisis on public capital markets, enforcement bodies may pressure companies
to exercise excessive prudence in their accounting choices.
Alternative forms of communication with investors

Given the limitations of accounting standards, auditing, and enforcement, as well as the reporting credibility
problems faced by management, firms that wish to communicate effectively with external investors are often
forced to use alternative media. Next we discuss two alternative ways that managers can communicate with
external investors and analysts: meetings with analysts to publicize the firm and expanded voluntary disclosure.
These forms of communication are typically not mutually exclusive.
Public Enforcement Practices
T he fact that most countries have a public enforcement agency does not, of course, imply that all countries have
equally developed effective enforcement systems. One measure of the development of public enforcement is
how much a country spends on enforcement. A study has shown that there still is significant variation worldwide in
enforcement agencies’ staff and budget size. For example, in the late 2000s, agencies in Italy, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom, and the United States spent more than twice as much as their peers in France, Germany, Spain,
and Sweden.10 Although public enforcement has important preventive effects – it deters violations of accounting
rules just through its presence – another measure of its development is an enforcement agency’s activity, potentially
measured by the number of investigations held and the number of actions taken against public companies. Most
agencies disclose annual reports summarizing their activities. In addition, the ESMA periodically publishes extracts
from its confidential database of enforcement decisions taken by the national agencies. These reports illustrate that
many actions taken by enforcement agencies (a) target poor disclosure quality (45 percent of all actions in 2017)
and (b) are recommendations to firms on how to improve their reporting and better comply with IFRS Standards in
the future (75 percent of all actions in 2017). In several cases the agencies took corrective actions. Following are two
examples of such actions:
●● In the year ending in March 2017, the UK Financial Reporting Council reviewed 203 annual reports, 183 on its
own initiative and 20 in response to complaints or referrals. In only a few cases a firm had to either restate its
current financial statements or adjust the prior period figures in its next financial statements. For example, in
2015 Learning Technologies Group (LTG) acquired Eukleia, a provider of e-learning services, for £8.3 million
plus a contingent consideration estimated at £2.2 million, based on future revenue growth. Because part of the
contingent consideration was payable to Eukleia’s employees, LTG was asked to charge an amount of £335
thousand as remuneration to the comparative income statement for 2016. In its 2015 financial statements, LTG
had incorrectly capitalized this amount.
●● In May 2016 the German supervisory authority (DPR) publicly “named and shamed” solar power specialist
Phoenix Solar AG. The DPR disclosed that Phoenix Solar had reduced transparency by disclosing two different
income statements in its 2014 financial statements, one of which did not comply with IFRS Standards 5 on
discontinued operations.
ANALYST MEETINGS
One popular way for managers to help mitigate information problems is to meet regularly with financial ana-
lysts that follow the firm. At these meetings management will field questions about the firm’s current financial
performance and discuss its future business plans. In addition to holding analyst meetings, many firms appoint
a director of public relations, who provides further regular contact with analysts seeking more information on
the firm.
Conference calls have become a popular forum for management to communicate with financial analysts.
Research finds that firms are more likely to host calls if they are in industries where financial statement data
fail to capture key business fundamentals on a timely basis.11 In addition, conference calls themselves appear to
provide new information to analysts about a firm’s performance and future prospects.12 Smaller and less heavily
traded firms in particular benefit from initiating investor conference calls.13
12 PART I Framework
While firms continue to meet with analysts, rules such as the EU Market Abuse Directive affect the nature
of these interactions. Under these rules, all EU countries must have regulations and institutions in place that
prevent unfair disclosure. Specifically, countries must ensure that exchange-listed companies disclose non-
public private information promptly and simultaneously to all investors. This can reduce the information that
managers are willing to disclose in conference calls and private meetings, making these less effective forums
for resolving information problems.
VOLUNTARY DISCLOSURE
Another way for managers to improve the credibility of their financial reporting is through voluntary disclo-
sure. Accounting rules usually prescribe minimum disclosure requirements, but they do not restrict managers
from voluntarily providing additional information. These could include an articulation of the company’s long-
term strategy, specification of non-financial leading indicators that are useful in judging the effectiveness of
the strategy implementation, explanation of the relationship between the leading indicators and future profits,
and forecasts of future performance. Voluntary disclosures can be reported in the firm’s annual report, in bro-
chures created to describe the firm to investors, in management meetings with analysts, or in investor relations
responses to information requests.14
One constraint on expanded disclosure is the competitive dynamics in product markets. Disclosure of propri-
etary information on strategies and their expected economic consequences may hurt the firm’s competitive posi-
tion. Managers then face a trade-off between providing information that is useful to investors in assessing the
firm’s economic performance, and withholding information to maximize the firm’s product market advantage.
A second constraint in providing voluntary disclosure is management’s legal liability. Forecasts and voluntary
disclosures can potentially be used by dissatisfied shareholders to bring civil actions against management for
providing misleading information. This seems ironic, since voluntary disclosures should provide investors with
additional information. Unfortunately, it can be difficult for courts to decide whether managers’ disclosures
were good-faith estimates of uncertain future events which later did not materialize, or whether management
manipulated the market. Consequently, many corporate legal departments recommend against management
providing much in the way of voluntary disclosure. One aspect of corporate governance, earnings guidance,
has been particularly controversial. There is substantial evidence that the guidance provided by management
plays an important role in leading analysts’ expectations towards achievable profit targets, and that management
guidance is more likely when analysts’ initial forecasts are overly optimistic.15
Finally, management credibility can limit a firm’s incentives to provide voluntary disclosures. If manage-
ment faces a credibility problem in financial reporting, any voluntary disclosures it provides are also likely to
be viewed skeptically. In particular, investors may be concerned about what management is not telling them,
particularly since such disclosures are not audited.
From financial statements to business analysis

Because managers’ insider knowledge is a source of both value and distortion in accounting data, it is difficult
for outside users of financial statements to separate accurate information from distortion and noise. Not being
able to undo accounting distortions completely, investors “discount” a firm’s reported accounting performance.
In doing so, they make a probabilistic assessment of the extent to which a firm’s reported numbers reflect eco-
nomic reality. As a result, investors can have only an imprecise assessment of an individual firm’s performance.
Financial and information intermediaries can add value by improving investors’ understanding of a firm’s current
performance and its future prospects.
Effective financial statement analysis is valuable because it attempts to get at managers’ inside information
from public financial statement data. Because intermediaries do not have direct or complete access to this
information, they rely on their knowledge of the firm’s industry and its competitive strategies to interpret
financial statements. Successful intermediaries have at least as good an understanding of the industry econom-
ics as do the firm’s managers, as well as a reasonably good understanding of the firm’s competitive strategy.
Although outside analysts have an information disadvantage relative to the firm’s managers, these analysts are
more objective in evaluating the economic consequences of the firm’s investment and operating decisions.
The Impact of EU Directives on Financial Reporting and Auditing in Europe
D uring the past 15 years, the European Commission has issued or revised a few Directives and Regulations that
significantly affect financial reporting and auditing practices in the EU. The Revised Statutory Audit Directive and
Regulation (SAD; effective since 2014) regulates the audit of financial statements. In addition, the Amended Transpar-
ency Directive (TD; 2013) and the Revised Market Abuse Directive and Regulation (MAD; 2014) regulate firms’ periodic
and ad hoc disclosures, with the objective to improve the quality and timeliness of information provided to investors.
Some of the highlights of these Directives and Regulations include:
●● Prescribing that firms issuing public debt or equity securities (public firms) publish their annual report no more
than four months after the financial year-end. The annual report must contain the audited financial statements,
a management report, and management’s responsibility statement certifying that the financial statements give a
true and fair view of the firm’s performance and financial position (TD).
●● Requiring that public firms publish semiannual financial reports, including condensed financial statements, an
interim management report, and a responsibility statement, within two months of the end of the first half of the
fiscal year. The firms must also indicate whether the interim financial statements have been audited or reviewed
by an auditor (TD).
●● Ensuring that each EU member state has a central filing and storage system for public financial
reports (TD).
●● Requiring that public firms prepare annual financial reports in a single electronic format as of 2020 (TD).
●● Requiring that public firms immediately disclose any information that may have a material impact on their
security price and prohibiting that insiders to the firm trade on such information before its disclosure (TD, MAD).
●● Requiring that the member states impose common criminal sanctions for insider trading offences (MAD).
●● Prohibiting that the external auditor provides any nonaudit services to the audited firm that may compromise his
independence, such as tax advice and valuation services (SAD).
●● Enhancing auditor independence by prescribing that the external auditor does not audit the same firm for more
than ten consecutive years, unless a second ten-year period follows a public tender (SAD).
●● Requiring that all audits are carried out in accordance with International Standards on Auditing (SAD).
●● Requiring that all audit firms are subject to a system of external quality assurance and public oversight (SAD).
●● Mandating that each public firm has an audit committee, which monitors the firm’s financial reporting process,
internal control system and statutory audit (SAD).
●● Ensuring that each EU member state designates a competent authority responsible for supervising firms’
compliance with the provisions of the Directives (SAD, TD, MAD).
Each EU member state must implement the Directives by introducing new or changing existing national legislation.
This has at least two important consequences. First, because the member states have some freedom in deciding how
to comply with the Directives, some differences in financial reporting, disclosure, and auditing regulation continue to
exist. Second, in spite of the United Kingdom’s exit from the EU, national UK legislation reflects many elements of the
preceding Directives.
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Nella camera termale o caldarium era da una parte il bagno d’acqua
calda detto alveus e dall’altra il laconicum, o alcova semicircolare,
riscaldata da una fornace e da tubi, hypocausis, sotto il pavimento e
attraverso le pareti praticate espressamente vuote. Fu detto
laconicum, perchè l’uso ne fu dapprima introdotto fra i Lacedemoni,
e nel pompejano di cui parlo stava in mezzo il labrum, di cui spiegai
lo scopo più sopra; ch’era cioè là vasca a fondo piano che
conteneva l’acqua della qual s’aspergeva il balneante mentre gli si
raschiava il sudore prodotto dalla temperatura elevata a cui eran
mantenute le stanze, e immediatamente su di essi v’era un’apertura,
lumen, che poteva esser chiusa od aperta con un disco di metallo
detto clipeus, sospeso mediante catene, secondo si fosse voluto
abbassare od elevare il grado di calore, come è indicato da Vitruvio.
Tre finestre quadrate si veggono nella vôlta del laconicum ed eran
chiuse con vetri, lapis specularis, e vietavano l’entrata dell’aria. La
seguente iscrizione venne decifrata sui bordi del bacino, scrittavi in
lettere di bronzo:
GN. MELISSARO GN. F. APRO. M. STAIO. M.
F. RVFO II. VIR. ITER. I. D. LABRVM EX D. D.
EX P. P. F. C. CONSTAT H. S. DCC. L. [200]
Tutte le altre località minori valevano al servizio dei bagni.

La rimanente porzione dell’edificio è occupata da un altro
appartamento distribuito sull’identico principio che ho esposto,
avente un solo ingresso, e serviva, secondo l’opinione di molti, per i
bagni separati delle donne. Esso era più piccolo di quello destinato
agli uomini, ma non appariva in ricambio nè più elegante nè più
grazioso: dal primo tempo di loro scoperta furono detti bagni rustici e
si credettero destinati invece alla povera gente.
Ricordo qui come per gli scavi venissero in questi bagni trovati un
materozzolo di quattro strigili, un vaso di profumi ed uno specchio, il
tutto in bronzo, e si conservano tuttavia nel Museo.
In quanto a ornati e cose d’arte, nel frigidarium si notò un fregio in
istucco rappresentante carri ed amori pieni di espressione; e nel
tepidarium una sequela di piccoli atleti, detti telamoni, in terra cotta
che simulano sforzo per sostegno della cornice che posa sulla loro
testa. La vôlta poi è lavorata a cassettoni dipinti in rosso e in
azzurro; in ciascuno, de’ bassi rilievi leggiadri esprimenti Cupido che
s’appoggia sul suo arco, Amorini a cavalcione di mostri marini, altri
guidanti delfini o ippogrifi, o suonanti de’ timpani, un centauro, un
Pegaso, un Ercole fanciullo seduto sul leone, e dappertutto poi si
vedono festoni con ghirlande di fiori.
Frigidarium, tepidarium e caldarium hanno egualmente bei pavimenti
di musaico.
Il lettore non ci vorrà pertanto negar ragione di aver detto di questi
bagni o terme come si vogliano chiamare, che se non avevano tutta
l’esorbitanza della magnificenza e del lusso delle più celebri terme di
Roma, spiccavano nondimeno per i pregi della migliore semplicità e
per l’eleganza.
La descrizione delle singole parti dei Bagni Publici che ho appena
terminata, mi renderà più spiccio nel dire delle Terme Stabiane, così
appellate dal ritrovarsi esse sulla via detta di Stabia.
Questo grande stabilimento è isolato da tre lati e v’ha chi con assai
buona ragione sostiene che fossero bagni più antichi de’ precedenti
che abbiamo visitato. Qualche argomento in proposito avverrà di
trovare più avanti.
Intanto ci arresta a prima giunta una particolarità che non han gli altri
bagni, una palestra, cioè, o più propriamente un ginnasio; perocchè
la palæstra fosse il luogo dove gli atleti che dovevano esporsi ne’
ludi publici si esercitassero nel pugilato e nella lotta, mentre il
gymnasium fosse un luogo imitato da quell’istituto di Grecia, nel
quale la gioventù si procurava ricreazione ne’ giuochi ed esercizi
corporali. Pressochè ogni città greca aveva il suo ginnasio: i resti di
quello di Efeso stanno a ricordanza di quella istituzione, che presto
divenne in Roma e nelle altre città che si reggevano a forma di
Roma una parte interessante, direi quasi indispensabile di ben
ordinate terme.
Quante maniere di comodi avesse un ginnasio lo si apprenda da
Vitruvio.
«Nella palestra dunque si fanno i porticati quadrati, o bislonghi che
sieno in modo che il giro attorno sia un tratto di due stadii, che i
Greci chiamano δίαυλον: tre di questi portici si fanno semplici, e il
quarto che riguarda l’aspetto di mezzogiorno, doppio, acciocchè
nelle pioggie a vento non possa lo spruzzo giungere nella parte
interiore. Ne’ porticati semplici vi si situano scuole (exedræ)
magnifiche con de’ sedili, nei quali stando a sedere possano fare le
loro dispute i filosofi, i retori e tutti gli altri studiosi.
«Nel porticato doppio poi si situano questi membri. Nel mezzo
l’Efebeo [202]: questa è una scuola grandissima con sedili e deve
essere lunga un terzo più della larghezza: a destra il Coriceo [203]:
immediatamente appresso il Conisterio [204]: appresso a questo,
appunto nell’angolo del portico, il bagno freddo da’ Greci detto
λοὒτρον: a sinistra poi dell’Efebeo l’Eleotesio [205]: accanto
all’Eleotesio il Frigidario: da questo, e giusto nell’altro angolo del
portico, il passaggio del Propnigeo [206]: accanto, ma d’altra parte
intorno e dirimpetto al Frigidario, viene situata una stufa a vôlta
(concamerata sudatio) lunga il doppio della larghezza: questa tiene
ne’ cantoni da una parte il Laconico e dirimpetto al laconico il bagno
caldo. I porticati dentro la palestra debbono essere distribuiti con
quella perfetta regola che abbiamo detta altrove.
«Al di fuori poi si fanno tre porticati, uno all’uscio della palestra, i due
altri stadiati [207] a destra e a sinistra: di questi quello che guarda il
settentrione, si faccia doppio e spazioso, l’altro semplice, ma in
modo che tanto dalla parte del muro, quanto dalle colonne vi resti un
tratto come una viottola, non meno larga di dieci piedi, il mezzo sia
sfondato per un piede e mezzo dalla viottola al fondo; al quale si
scende per due scalini: il piano del fondo non sia meno largo di
dodici piedi. In questo modo coloro che vestiti passeggeranno
intorno per la viottola non saranno incomodati da lottatori unti che si
esercitano. Questo portico si chiama da’ Greci ξὐστὸς [208] perchè vi
si esercitano i lottatori in stadii coperti ne’ tempi di inverno.
«I sisti poi si fanno in questo modo: hanno fra due portici a piantarsi
boschetti o platani, e in essi viali spalleggiati da alberi con de’ riposi
fatti di smalto. Accanto al sisto ed al porticato doppio si lascino i
passaggi scoperti, che i Greci chiamano παρκὸρομίδας, e noi
chiamiamo sisti, ne’ quali anche d’inverno, ma a ciel sereno, escono
dal sisto coperto ad esercitarsi i lottatori. Dietro a questo sisto vi
vuole uno stadio fatto in modo che vi possa stare molta gente con
agio a vedere i lottatori [209].»
Il Ginnasio in Pompei, chiamavasi palæstra, come di questa voce si
serve pure Vitruvio nella citazione che ho finito di fare. Tanto si
raccoglie da un’antica iscrizione, incisa su d’una tavoletta di
travertino, trovata in una sala di questi bagni il 15 maggio 1857,
secondo si rileva dalla succitata opera del commendatore Fiorelli e
che suona così:
C. VVLIVS C. F. P. ANINIVS C. F. II. V. I. D.
LACONICVM ET DESTRICTARIVM
FACIVND . ET PORTICVS ET PALAESTR.
REFICIVNDA LOCARVNT EX D. D. EX
EA PEQVNIA QUOD EOS E LEGE.
IN LVDOS AVT IN MONVMENTO
CONSVMERE OPORTVIT FACIVN.
COERARVNT EIDEMQVE PROBARV [210].
Questa iscrizione ci apprende doversi ai duumviri Cajo Vulio e Publio

Aninio la ricostruzione di questa palestra; ma non è sufficiente a dirci
se tale rifacimento fosse a seguito delle rovine cagionate dal
tremuoto del 63; perocchè si voglia anzi dalla natura dei caratteri
impiegati, inferirne anzi una data d’un secolo e mezzo prima.
Ma se questo fosse, come conciliare tal fatto con quanto afferma
Vitruvio prima del brano che ho testè riferito; nunc mihi videtur,
tametsi non sint italicæ consuetudines, palæstrarum ædificationes
tradere explicata et quemadmodum apud Græcos constituantur
monstrare [211], e con cui si vorrebbe escludere che al tempo di
questo illustre architetto e scrittore non fossero in Italia conosciute le
palestre? Or ritenendosi comunemente non potervi esser dubbio
ch’egli abbia vissuto e fiorito sotto il regno d’Augusto, al quale egli
dice nella Prefazione dell’Opera sua d’essere stato raccomandato
dalla sorella di lui, non è possibile accogliere l’illazione dedotta dagli
archeologi che l’iscrizione possa rimontare a tanto tempo addietro.
Del resto l’impiego di più vetusti caratteri non può addursi a prova
irrecusabile; perocchè potrebbe essere stato un vezzo di chi li usò,
come usiamo far pur di presente.
La palestra pompejana era decorata di portici, doveva avere la sua
sala di giuoco alla palla, sferisterio, se vi si trovarono ancora de’
globi di pietra, che avevano servito appunto al giuoco della sfera, al
quale la gioventù si esercitava per acquistare forza ed elasticità di
membra.
L’ingresso principale è dal lato di mezzogiorno, e presso di esso nel
vestibolo, si ammira una bella scultura romana rappresentante un
Termine sotto le forme d’una figura di donna molto elegantemente
palliata.
Dal manco lato evvi un’ampia piscina pei balneanti; intorno ad essa
son disposte diverse camerette per l’uso di essi. Una fra l’altre si
distingue per eleganza di pittura e per una nicchia rettangolare
destinata certo a contenere l’immagine di qualche divinità protettrice
del luogo. Questa nicchia è fiancheggiata da due cariatidi che
sostengono un bacino ed all’ingiro è dipinta una zona a scomparti,
interrotta da paesaggi con pigmei e delfini.
Si pretende che siffatte pitture alludano al culto egizio e si trae la
congettura da ciò che i Greci d’Alessandria stabiliti a Pompei e
probabilmente in prossimità delle terme abbiano dovuto contribuire
d’assai alla costruzione d’uno stabilimento che ricordava i loro usi
nazionali.
I muri del portico sono dipinti a specchi rossi incorniciati d’una fascia
gialla: le colonne di stucco rosse verso la base, sono bianche nella
parte superiore e sormontate da capitelli pure in istucco che
sostengono una cornice di squisito lavoro, se si argomenta da un
frammento che si ritrovò e si ricollocò al suo posto.
Dal lato di mezzogiorno poi, nell’ottobre 1854, fu scoperto un bel
quadrante solare, formato d’un semicerchio praticato in un
rettangolo, sostenuto da zampe di leone, con eleganti fregi ai lati. Il
gnomone collocato orizzontalmente nel centro dei raggi convergenti
è perfettamente conservato. L’iscrizione osca che vi era, fu letta
dall’illustre archeologo cav. Giulio Minervini di questo modo: Marius
Atinius, Marii filius, quæstor, ex multatitia pecunia conventus decreto
fieri mandavit [212]. Questo monumento è certo interessante: ci
attesta per lo meno che, anche dopo essersi stabilita la colonia
romana, in Pompei si usasse della lingua osca, e mi conforta
nell’idea che mi sono formato ch’essa anzi durasse viva
continuamente sulla bocca del popolo.
Dalla palestra poi si facea passaggio al bagno degli uomini: per le
donne dovevano esser quelli ai quali si accedeva dalla Via di Stabia.
La prima sala del bagno degli uomini era il frigidario: tutte le pareti
all’interno dipinte in azzurro hanno nicchie rettangolari come a
ripostigli di vasi di unguenti e di profumi odorosi. Doveanvi essere
pitture sulla volta e sulle muraglie, ma la prima crollò, e sulla
seconda a sinistra non rimase che un pezzo di nudo di donna
accosciata.
A destra di questa sala s’apre il tepidario, le cui muraglie hanno un
doppio fondo, per la circolazione del vapore che per siffatta guisa
moderava il calore dell’atmosfera; all’estremità sta il baptisterium che
doveva essere rivestito di marmi, arguendovisi ciò dalla impronta
lasciatavi dalle tavole di marmo che vi stavano, vi lasciarono
impresse le lettere d’un’iscrizione che così si arrivò a decifrare dal
sullodato Minervini:
IMP. CAESARI
DIVI FILI
AVGVSTO IMPERATORI
XIII TRIB. POTESTATE XV
PATRI PATRIAE COS. XI [213].
La sala che segue era destinata al caldarium, o sudatorium

altramente detta. Come il tepidarium, aveva il pavimento detto
suspensura, costruito cioè alto da terra, sorretto da specie di tegole
di terra cotta, quadrate e con peducci, e valeva a permettere che il
calore potesse liberamente circolare sotto di esso. Doppie pure son
le pareti tinte in rosso, con pilastri in giallo a capitelli bianchi. Un
bacino circolare stava da un lato della sala e nel mezzo di esso
zampillava un getto di acqua bollente che contribuiva a rendere più
caldo l’ambiente.
Tepidarium delle antiche Terme in Pompei. Vol. II. Cap. XV.
Il destrictarium, di cui si è fatto cenno nella surriferita iscrizione, che

in un col laconicum venne provveduto dai duumviri Cajo Vullo e
Publio Aninio, stava rimpetto all’ingresso della palestra ed era quella
località in cui i balneanti praticavano l’operazione dello strigile
all’uscir del bagno. È forse la prima volta che si trovi questa sala così
designata, non rinvenendosi la voce destrictarium in alcun dizionario,
essendovi derivata forse da destringere, raschiare.
Si sa che tale operazione di polirsi la pelle collo strigile era così
usata e congiunta al bagno stesso, che i ricchi usavano portare gli
strigili seco al bagno, ivi mandandoli a mezzo de’ loro servi, come si
raccoglie da Persio:
I, puer, et strigiles Crispini ad balnea defer, [215]
che ogni stabilimento termale di qualsiasi città ne fosse largamente

provveduto, e che nel bagno de’ poveri, dove questi arnesi non
erano, nè eranvi le altre delicature, i bagnanti, a vece degli strigili, si
fregassero contro le muraglie.
Contasi a tale proposito un aneddoto. Un giorno l’imperatore
Adriano, visitando la terme di Roma, gli venne dato di scorgere un
povero veterano che si stregghiava in questo modo contro il muro e
che gli avesse a dare denari e schiavi onde potersi per l’avvenire
farsi strigilare dopo il bagno; e che ritornato Adriano dopo qualche dì
nello stesso luogo, uno sciame di poveri affettasse, appena accorti di
sua presenza, di far altrettanto di quello aveva praticato il veterano,
sfregandosi a tutta possa la schiena contro il muro; ma che allora
l’imperatore argutamente avesse a consigliarli a fregarsi piuttosto gli
uni gli altri.
A sinistra del destrictarium, in un lungo corridojo che dava su d’un
viottolo, trovansi quattro camerette, solia, certo riserbate a bagni
isolati, poichè vi si trovassero le rispettive vasche in muratura.
Le sale pei bagni delle donne, a cui entravasi per la via di Stabia,
erano pur degne di attenzione. Una, a gran volta con eleganti opere
in istucco e pavimento in marmi, serve a ricevimento ed ha proprie
nicchie, in numero di ventinove, per gli olj, le essenze e le lampade
per quando vi si veniva o se ne usciva di notte. Tutt’all’ingiro corre un
sedile di materia laterizia, e doveva valere anche per apodyterium o
spogliatoio.
Un’altra sala, circolare e pure elegante e con quattro nicchie per
deporvi le vestimenta, ed una quinta per dar passaggio a un getto
d’acqua, serviva pel bagno freddo; un’altra pel tepidario ed un’ultima
pel sudatorium, ambe queste a suspensura per la circolazione del
vapore. Dovevano avere stucchi e pitture, ma il loro deperimento
non permette che riscontrarne qualche reliquia appena.
Sul muro del vestibolo che separa il bagno degli uomini da quello
delle donne evvi una pittura in giallo, rosso e verde, che raffigura
un’ara ed un serpe che le si avvicina, e tali sacri emblemi, secondo
Dyer, sarebbero valsi come di divieto agli uomini di non avanzare
nell’appartamento riservato alle donne.
Eguale sistema nella distribuzione dei locali, come nel loro uso che
abbiam veduto adottato per le terme e pei bagni publici, seguivasi
pure ne’ balinei, o bagni de’ privati.
Vediamo, a mo’ d’esempio, adesso il balineum appartenente alla
villa suburbana di Pompei di Marco Arrio Diomede, e del quale m’ero
riserbato di parlare nell’esordire di questo capitolo.
I bagni e loro pertinenze occupano un angolo ad una estremità
dell’intero edifizio e vi si entrava dall’atrium mediante una porta.
Immediatamente a destra è una cameretta, forse usata come sala di
aspetto, o destinata fors’anco agli schiavi addetti a questa bisogna
dell’azienda domestica. Più in là l’apodypterium era situato fra i
bagni caldi e freddi, ed aveva un’entrata separata ad amendue.
Presso vi è un cortiletto triangolare coperto in parte da un colonnato,
su due de’ suoi lati e nel centro vi era la piscina, o natatio pel bagno
freddo. In prossimità dell’apodyterium era il tepidario, quindi la
camera termale o calidarium, col laconicum all’estremità circolare, e
all’altra estremità l’alveus, o bagno d’acqua calda.
V’è inoltre il serbatojo generale per l’alimentazione dei bagni, la
cisterna dell’acqua fredda, il sito per la caldaja dell’acqua calda; non
che quello per la fornace e la stanza ad uso degli schiavi che la
servivano.
Ora l’ordine mi imporrebbe indagare se in questa città vi fossero
ninfei; ma senza ritornare sulla questione del loro significato, poichè
non se n’è finora precisato alcuno, noterò invece che diverse erano
le fontane sparse per ogni parte della città. Già nel corso dell’opera
m’avvenne di rammentarne qualcuna; ora completerò alla meglio il
discorso intorno alle stesse.
Quasi tutte le vie scoperte di Pompei mostrano aver avuto fontane, il
più spesso collocate sull’angolo di crocicchi: anzi, come vedremo nel
capitolo delle Case, la maggior parte degli edificj avevano fontane,
impluvii e puteali: come poi ricevessero le acque, oltre il già detto,
toccherò più avanti.
Fontane, Crocicchii di Fortunata in Pompei. Vol. II. Cap. XV.
Le fontane publiche sono pressochè tutte eguali e di una rara

semplicità; perocchè si compongano d’una vasca formata da cinque
pietre vesuviane riunite con legacci di ferro e sulla pietra posteriore
un’altra se ne alza più alta, nella quale è scolpita in rilievo una testa
di lione o d’altro animale o un mascherone, dalla bocca de’ quali
esce l’acqua per versarsi nel sottoposto bacino.
Alcune fontane ottennero negli scavi nomi particolari: tali sono quelle
dette dell’Abbondanza, all’ingresso del vicolo della Maschera,
perchè reca sovra il bacino una figura scolpita con cornucopia; del
Bue che dà il nome alla via, perchè l’acqua vi è emessa da una testa
di quest’animale; di Mercurio, perchè il suo cippo ha una testa di
questa divinità che dà pure il suo nome alla via nella quale si trova, e
su d’un muro dicontro la fontana fu dipinto questo dio in atto di
fuggire stringendo una borsa; di Venere sulla via di Stabia
raddossata alla così detta Casa del forno, o come la chiama Dyer, la
casa di Modesto per esservisi veduto appunto scritto su di essa il
nome modestvm, perchè sormontata da una testa grossolanamente
sculta e con una sola colomba; di Rotonda sull’angolo di Vico Storto,
per la sua forma che differenzia dalle altre; della Viottola del Teatro, i
cui bordi o margini s’alzano di poco dal marciapiede, e però è difesa
d’una inferriata, ecc.
Se ogni via finora dissepolta ebbe la sua fontana; se fontane
troveremo in tante case, se terme publiche e bagni privati
esistevano, è necessaria l’illazione che dunque copiosissima
dovesse essere l’acqua in Pompei.
Vi bastava a ciò l’acqua del fiume Sarno? Vi sarebbe bastata se il
suo livello fosse stato alto; ma sapendo già noi come questo fiume
fosse a livello del mare, per formare il bacino di comunicazione e per
essere perfino navigabile per un tratto di strada, come abbiam già
veduto, e il Sannazzaro dicendolo eziandio impiegato alla irrigazione
de’ campi
. . . . pinguia culta vadosus

Irrigat, et placido cursu petit aequora Sarnus [216];
non era assolutamente possibile che bastasse a tanto bisogno,

molto più che sappiamo che la città dal mare si veniva su su
adagiando pel declivio montuoso. Acquedotti saviamente praticati vi
dovevano indubbiamente, secondo il sistema in que’ tempi
generalizzato, derivar l’acqua da lungo, e così provvedere pe’ suoi
mille condotti di ramificazione anche a tutte le fontane e serbatoj
dalla parte più alta della città.
Infatti, in ogni parte di essa vennero trovati canali e condotti in
muratura, in terra cotta ed in piombo; le case poi hanno latenti nelle
muraglie siffatti tubi di piombo e in più luoghi, ad attestarlo, mettono
fuori tra le macerie e le rovine i loro capi e provano quanta fosse la
cura e l’importanza che si aggiungeva ad aver copia di acqua
ovunque.
Il canonico Andrea De Jorio, nella sua Guida di Pompei, dedicò
un’appendice a bella posta per le indagini sulle sorgenti che
conducevano le acque alle terme, e giova ricorrervi per avere una
certa luce nell’argomento, che pur fu soggetto a tante controversie.
Pose prima per base il livello attuale del Sarno, il suo canale attuale
che passando per Pompei trasporta le acque alla Torre
dell’Annunziata; l’impossibilità che vi era che il suo livello potesse
alimentare tutte le fontane di Pompei e infine tenne conto degli
avanzi di antichi acquedotti, che sono nell’antico territorio di Sarno
egualmente che nella città di Pompei. Esaminò poi la natura de’
condotti trovati dall’architetto Domenico Fontana, quegli che fu
incaricato di condur l’acqua a Torre dell’Annunziata, e li dichiarò
ramificazioni del principale antico, che doveva derivare dal luogo
detto la Foce, o sorgente del Sarno; giudicò che la sorgente, che
apprestava l’acqua all’antica Pompei fosse più alta di quella che oggi
alimenta il canale detto del Conte.
Derivata per tal modo l’acqua dai monti e dalle sorgenti del Sarno,
distribuivasi per tutta la città a mezzo di canali costruiti sotto le vie,
per la cui manutenzione di tratto in tratto erano spiragli difesi da
graticci di ferro, e mercè delle conserve e delle pressioni che
esercitavano si faceva montare al livello dei getti più o meno alti
delle publiche fontane, e servire ai bagni delle Terme ed agli altri dei
quali ci siam venuti intrattenendo.
Il tremuoto dapprima del 63 e il cataclisma ultimo di Pompei
sconvolsero ed ostruirono acquedotti e canali, e le acque deviarono
e per modo, che ciò che allora poteva formar testimonio de’ savi
provvedimenti edilizi per la somministrazione delle acque alla bella
città, ora è divenuto astruso tema di congetture e di studj,
frammezzo a’ quali se il solito dubbio, che, cioè, non vi fosse tutta
quella copia di acque che si dice, non s’è cacciato, si fu perchè ad
impedirlo, rimangono eloquenti i ruderi di aquedotti e di fontane, di
bagni e di stabilimenti termali, che ponno essere tuttavia presi a
modello e con buon frutto imitati al presente.
CAPITOLO XVI.
Le Scuole.
Etimologia — Scuola di Verna in Pompei — Scuola di

Valentino — Orbilio e la ferula — Storia de’ primordj della
coltura in Italia — Numa e Pitagora — Etruria, Magna
Grecia e Grecia — Ennio e Andronico — Gioventù
romana in Grecia — Orazio e Bruto — Secolo d’oro —
Letteratura — Giurisprudenza — Matematiche — Storia
naturale — Economia rurale — Geografia — Filosofia
romana — Non è vero che fosse ucciditrice di libertà —
Biblioteche — Cesare incarica Varrone di una biblioteca
publica — Modo di scrivere, volumi, profumazione delle
carte — Medicina empirica — Medici e chirurghi — La
Casa del Chirurgo in Pompei — Stromenti di chirurgia
rinvenuti in essa — Prodotti chimici — Pharmacopolæ,
Seplasarii, Sagæ — Fabbrica di prodotti chimici in Pompei
— Bottega di Seplasarius — Scuole private.
Se fu dato potersi formulare a proverbio: di’ con chi tratti e ti dirò chi
sei; parrebbe potersi eziandio dire, di’ come si istruisca un popolo e
ti dirò quanto sia civile. Questo per adesso: forse non si poteva
altrettanto affermare ai tempi di Roma, dei quali m’intrattengo col
discreto e umano lettore.
Egli vedrà s’io mal non m’apponga nelle poche pagine che ho
riserbato alle Scuole, traendone argomento dalle due di cui gli
avanzi di Pompei ci han tramandato memoria.
La parola, come tanta parte delle nostre e delle latine, deduce
l’origine sua dal greco. Schola scrissero i latini e σχολή i greci, e
vollero significare riposo da fatica corporea, il quale dà opportunità di
ricreazione o di studio: così ci accadde già di ricordare la schola o
sedile in Pompei, ov’era l’orologio solare: così schola chiamavansi
quegli altri sedili in muratura ch’erano nelle terme, e via discorrendo.
Presto poi venne adoperato il vocabolo ad esprimere il luogo in cui i
maestri e i loro scolari si raccolgono per fine d’istruzione; nel qual
unico senso fu quindi ricevuto nell’idioma nostro.
Io, come dissi, dalle due scuole summentovate, di cui ci è attestata
da due iscrizioni l’esistenza in Pompei, nonchè dal ritrovamento di
ferri chirurgici, de’ quali verrò a intrattenere chi legge, partirò per
indagare l’indole dell’istruzione e della coltura intellettuale d’allora.
Senza di questo capitolo, crederei incompleto il quadro che mi sono
proposto di condurre delle condizioni di Roma e delle sue colonie,
del quale mi danno causa e pretesto le rovine di Pompei.
Sotto il portico orientale del Foro civile di questa esumata città, e che
già a suo luogo ho descritto, si è scoperta una vasta sala: nel fondo
di essa è nel mezzo una specie di nicchia; altre minori sono
distribuite tutte all’intorno, con porte agli angoli. Gau, scrittore, la cui
autorità ho più volte in addietro invocata, riconobbe in tutte queste
disposizioni, le disposizioni stesse delle antiche scuole d’Oriente. La
nicchia del fondo avrebbe, secondo lui e con tutta ragione di
probabilità, servito di cattedra al maestro; quelle all’ingiro spettavano
invece agli scolari, per deporvi abiti e libri. Siffatta supposizione fu
universalmente accolta e trovò il suo suggello di verità nella
iscrizione seguente, che stava scritta in caratteri rossi, oggi affatto
scomparsi, vicino alla porta, sull’angolo della casa:
C. CAPELLAM D. V. I. D. O. V. F. VERNA CVM DISCENT [217].
Questa iscrizione valse di per sè ad imporre a quella sala la

denominazione di Scuola di Verna, e i commentatori e scrittori di
Guide a farne fuori un maestro di scuola di ragazzetti d’ambo i sessi,
una specie di moderno asilo d’infanzia. Io mi permetto di dubitare
che potesse trattarsi di scolari di così tenera età e molto meno di
fanciulli d’ambo i sessi; perocchè, se ciò fosse stato, qual valore si
avrebbe voluto aggiungere allora ad una raccomandazione in una
elezione amministrativa fatta da piccoli fanciulli e da ragazzine?
Doveva adunque essere, a mio avviso, una scuola almeno di
giovinetti.
Anche un’altra iscrizione, fra le tante che vi dovevano essere state
scritte sulla muraglia dell’edificio d’Eumachia, venne trovata il 26
gennaio 1815 [218], e ci fa essa conoscere un tal Valentino, pur
senza alcun altro prenome, per un altro maestro: essa è così
concepita:
SABINVM ET RVFVM AED. R. P. D.
VALENTINVS
CVM DISCENTES (sic)
SVOS ROG [219].
È notevole e sorprende sulla bocca d’un maestro un sì grosso

strafalcione di grammatica come questo cum discentes suos, in
luogo di cum discentibus suis, e dà la misura sì della scienza del
maestro, che di quella de’ magistrati che lo tolleravano. «Il avait, dice
a tal proposito Bréton, parlando di questa cima di maestro e delle
sue sgrammaticature, il avait certes besoin d’invoquer la protection
des Ediles.»
Ma ad altre considerazioni, più che di fredda grammatica, queste
zelanti raccomandazioni de’ maestri di Pompei mi han fornito il
soggetto e m’han condotto ad una savia conclusione.
I tempi sono pur sempre i medesimi, mi son detto: le più utili e
virtuose istituzioni vengono sempre falsate e guaste: le passioni
degli uomini se le assoggettano e sfruttano a loro profitto. Le
sventure e i danni d’ogni natura, che ad essi toccano, non sono
bastevoli lezioni ai popoli; oggi, come a’ tempi di Verna e Valentino, il
greggie degli stipendiati governativi e delle anime subalterne è pur
sempre l’eguale.
Non lamentiamoci poi adesso del pari di vedere a’ dì nostri, ne’
giorni delle elezioni politiche od amministrative, sguinzagliarsi
impiegati e poliziotti a portare il loro voto in suffragio del candidato
messo innanzi dal partito che siede al governo della cosa publica, o
dalla così detta consorteria. Quest’ultima ho già fatto altrove rilevare
essere esistita anche allora; Terenzio l’ha rammentata sotto il nome
di comitum conventus; onde hassi da noi a conchiudere tali disordini
dell’oggi essere nuove edizioni di vecchia storia, più o meno
accresciute ed illustrate, a beneficio dei meglio accorti.
Questo Verna e questo Valentino di Pompei io suppongo essere stati
precettori in quella città della adolescenza, della risma, o suppergiù,
di quell’Orbilio, che fu maestro in Roma di belle lettere e reso
immortale dal suo discepolo Orazio Flacco, il quale per vendicarsi
dei colpi ricevuti per avventura dalla ferula di lui sulle mani e sulle
spalle, lo ha marchiato, in una delle sue Epistole, qualificandolo
plagosus [220], quasi produttor di piaghe, per aver fatto uso co’ suoi
scolari di sferze e di flagelli.
Nè doveva essere, a quanto pare, codesto sciagurato vezzo
esclusivo di Orbilio, ma generale ne’ pedagoghi, s’anco Giovenale vi
fece aperta illusione in quel verso della Satira I, sui Costumi:
Et nos manum ferulæ subduximus..... [221]
e del barbarico costume, come avvien d’ogni cosa brutta, è arrivata

la tradizione infino a noi; perocchè io non sappia davvero se
dappertutto, malgrado i divieti severi delle leggi e delle autorità, e più
ancora i postulati della civiltà, sia stato ovunque per Italia diradicato,
di gravi e sanguinose punizioni inflitte da’ maestri a fanciulletti
avendo a’ giorni di mia infanzia udito più d’una volta lamentare.
Non chiamato a fare una completa monografia degli studj in Roma e
nelle Colonie a lei soggette, non ne dirò ora che a larghi tratti,
siccome è richiesto dalla economia dell’opera.
Presso questo popolo gagliardo e primitivo, dedito prima alle cure
dei campi, poi a quelle dell’armi, gli studj, o furono quasi e per lungo
tempo sconosciuti, o ne furono tardo pensiero. Il linguaggio
medesimo era ben lungi dall’avere quella sonorità, armonia e
maestà che assunse di poi nelle opere ammirabili de’ suoi scrittori:
aspro e duro, era più proprio a comandar a’ soldati nelle battaglie; e
se, al dir di M. Catone, fu costume delle genti italiche di cantare ne’
loro antichi dialetti inni e canzoni guerriere o nenie pei caduti in
guerra, sposandole al suono delle tibie, ciò non attesta a favore di
una avanzata civiltà. Imperocchè consuetudine siffatta si riscontri in
tutte le genti rozze e bellicose. Ossian e i bardi caledonici non
cantarono che le imprese di eroi d’una patria guerriera sì, ma non
colta e civile. Ho già toccato altrove, parlando delle origini del teatro,
come prima di Livio Andronico, Roma non avesse teatro proprio,
paga delle Sature degli istrioni d’Etruria, e Andronico non fiorì che al
principiar del sesto secolo. Meglio dimostrerà la condizione
intellettuale e la nessuna coltura il singolarissimo rito usato ancora
nel quinto secolo per la numerazione degli anni. Consisteva esso nel
piantare nel muro del tempio di Giove, che era il più venerato di
Roma, un grosso chiodo. Ciò facevasi alle idi di settembre
solennemente per mano de’ pontefici, e dove alcun altro
straordinario avvenimento si fosse voluto raccomandare alla
memoria de’ posteri, eleggevasi all’uopo un dittatore che figgesse
altro chiodo. E questi chiodi, in mancanza di lettere, segnarono per
lungo tempo l’epoche più famose di Roma. Ecco le testuali parole di
Tito Livio: Eum clavum, quia raræ per ea tempora erant litteræ,
notam numeri annorum fuisse ferunt [222]. L’aritmetica e la geometria
non si conoscevano se non tanto, quanto era necessario per
misurare un campo, o per far le faccende giornaliere. Le loro cifre
numeriche, osserva giustamente Francesco Mengotti, rappresentano
espressamente le dita delle mani, che sono la prima aritmetica de’
fanciulli, dei villici e della natura [223].
La medicina stessa, reclamata dalla sollecitudine del corpo, distinta
in sacerdotale e magica, rimase involuta lungo tempo nelle ubbie
superstiziose. Solo poi, 263 anni prima di Cristo, Valerio Messala
recò di Sicilia un quadrante solare, come già dissi a suo luogo, e
appena 159 anni vennero da Scipione Nasica Corculo introdotti gli
orologi ad acqua o clessidre. Prima i Romani erano rimasti per molti
secoli senza neppure conoscere la divisione in ore del giorno e della
notte e senza stromento alcuno per la misura del tempo. Plinio il
Vecchio scrisse che le Dodici Tavole, compilate al principio del
quarto secolo, non distinguevano che il nascere e il tramontar del
sole [224]: dopo vi fu aggiunto il meriggio, che annunciavasi dal
banditor del console, quando il sole si trovava fra la tribuna e la
grecostasi. Allorchè dalla Colonna Menia il sole inclinava alle carceri,
era sera.
Pel corso di parecchi secoli i Romani non posero alcun pensiero alla
filosofia. Essi la conoscevano a mala pena di nome. Occupati da
principio in difendersi, poi in rassodare la loro potenza sui vicini
popoli che avevan soggiogati, interamente pratica era la sapienza
che dalla esperienza avevano attinta. Un mirabile buon senso derivò
loro dalle difficoltà dell’esterna lor posizione e dal godimento di una
libertà sempre perturbata, ma che per le stesse sue commozioni,
rinvigoriva gli animi e gli ingrandiva. Si è voluto attribuire alla filosofia
pitagorica qualche influenza sulle instituzioni di Numa, e si è potuto
con tanto maggiore facilità unire insieme a quest’uopo qualche tratto
di rassomiglianza, in quanto che è probabile aver Pitagora inserito
nella sua filosofia alcuni frammenti delle dottrine sacerdotali alle
quali Numa non era straniero. Ma ecco dove fermar si deve ogni
comunanza fra il greco filosofo e il re secondo di Roma [225]. Forse
invece di queste dottrine sacerdotali di Numa e di altri legislatori a lui
succeduti, la ragione e l’origine dev’essere ricercata altrove, in
Etruria come verrò a notare.
Bisogno di studi elementari e di intellettuale coltura si sentì, più per
ispirito d’imitazione che per altro, dopo che i Romani conobbero i
Greci. Già sa ognuno di là dedotte le leggi delle Dodici Tavole: là
unicamente reputavasi infatti la sede della scienza, della poesia,
dell’arti.
Erasi, è vero, per l’addietro usato mandar in Etruria i giovani, per
apprendervi i riti augurali, senza di che non avrebbero acquistato
valore i pubblici atti, ed era molto se di là recavasi qualche tintura o
conoscenza di lettere. E sì che colà la coltura e la sapienza erano
più antiche che in Grecia, a cui per avventura e da essi e dagli
Atalanti, i progenitori nostri, era ogni lume di civiltà e di sapere
derivato. Fu altrimenti adunque, quando ebbe luogo mercè le
conquiste fatte dalle armi romane, il contatto con la Grecia: il
dirozzamento cominciò ad operarsi tra’ Romani, e n’ebber merito in
principalità gli Scipioni, che tolsero a proteggere i letterati venuti di
Magna Grecia in Roma. Ogni partito volle avere schiavi greci e,
come sarebbesi scelto fra quelli sventurati il celliere ed il cuoco; così
venne cercato il pedagogo, onde a’ figliuoli apprendere la lingua di
Omero. E la lingua greca divenne di moda, nè uomo aspirar poteva
al vanto di educato, se a lui famigliare non fosse stato quel magnifico
idioma. Quinto Catulo comperò Dassi Lutazio per duecento mila
sesterzj; Livio Salinatore procacciò maestro a’ suoi figli quel Livio
Andronico, del quale tenni parola dicendo de’ Teatri; Paolo Emilio
riempì la casa di filosofi, di retori, di grammatici, di pedagoghi e
d’artisti d’ogni maniera; Scipione l’Africano protesse Plauto e
Terenzio, ed ebbe amico e compagno di sue militari spedizioni
Quinto Ennio di Rudia in Calabria, che era stato richiamato da
Catone l’antico da Sardegna in Roma, e che, in buona fede o no,
affermava in lui trasmigrata l’anima d’Omero.
Contuttociò, riguardavano i Romani gli studj, più che altro, oggetto di
adornamento e di ricreazione, e Sallustio lasciò scritto: che i più
assennati attendevano agli affari, nessuno esercitava l’ingegno
senza il corpo; ogni uomo grande volea men tosto dire che fare, e
lasciava che altri narrasse le imprese di lui anzichè narrar esso le
altrui.
E poichè ho nominato ancora Andronico ed Ennio, dirò che anche
dopo l’epoca in cui i Romani strinsero i legami coi Greci d’Italia e di
Sicilia, essi non iscorgevano tuttora che leggerezza, mollizie e
corruzione appo questi popoli, i quali dal lato loro li riguardavano
quai barbari [226]. Verso il fine della prima Guerra Cartaginese, i
Romani principiarono a conoscere la drammatica letteratura de’
Greci. Alcune tragedie greche tradotte da Andronico, il quale voltò
pure in versi latini l’Odissea, presero il luogo de’ versi fescennini, de’

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Questa iscrizione ci apprende doversi ai duumviri Cajo Vulio e Publio

La sala che segue era destinata al caldarium, o sudatorium

Il destrictarium, di cui si è fatto cenno nella surriferita iscrizione, che

I, puer, et strigiles Crispini ad balnea defer, [215]

che ogni stabilimento termale di qualsiasi città ne fosse largamente

Le fontane publiche sono pressochè tutte eguali e di una rara

. . . . pinguia culta vadosus

non era assolutamente possibile che bastasse a tanto bisogno,

Etimologia — Scuola di Verna in Pompei — Scuola di