Heat and Temperature

Sonet Kumar Saha

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Z. H. Sikder University of Science and Technology
Bhedergonj. Shariatpur
 There are many different forms of energy
– heat, light, sound, electrical, kinetic, potential.

Introduction

All of these forms of energy have the ability to do work.

 One form of energy may be transformed into another.

For example;
potential (stored chemical) energy is converted to heat energy
during combustion.
Kinetic energy (as a result of friction) and electrical energy may
also be converted to heat.

Introduction
 It is not possible to measure heat directly,
Heat is a measure of the total kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules in a body.
Because heat is a form of energy the units it is measured in are
Joules (J) or kilo Joules (kJ).

What is Heat
of a body?
 The heat content of a body will depend on its temperature, its
mass, and the material it is made of.

Heat energy is always transferred from an object at high temperature

to one at lower temperature.

Properties 1kg
2 kg

of heat
 Temperature is not the same as heat, Temperature measures the
degree of hotness of a body (“how hot”).
It can be thought of as a measure of the average kinetic energy of
the atoms or molecules in a body.

What is the
Temperature
of a body?
 Temperature doesn’t depend on the mass or the material of an
object.

Properties of
Temperature
 T=100
°C
In which, is
heat high?

T=30°C
 As the temperature decreases,
the kinetic energy of the particles will decrease.
At some point the kinetic energy of the particles will reach zero.
The temperature at which this would occur is known as “absolute zero”.

Absolute
Zero
Temperature
 The “specific heat” of a substance measures the amount of heat
absorbed by 1 kilogram of the substance when it’s temperature is
raised by 1°C.

Examples
Specific heat of water: 4.20 kJ/kg/°C
Specific Heat of Iron: 0.46 kJ/kg/°C
Specific Heat
 This measures the amount of heat absorbed as 1 kilogram of a liquid
is changed to gas (vapor).

Examples Substance Latent heat (of vaporization)

-Water 2260 kJ/kg
Latent heat (of -Alcohol 860 kJ/kg
vaporization)
Water is
effective as a
cooling
agent
Thermometry
Sonet Kumar Saha
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Z. H. Sikder University of Science and Technology
Bhedergonj. Shariatpur
 ▪ We often associate the concept of temperature with how hot or
cold an object feels when we touch it.

▪ Thus, our senses provide us with a qualitative indication of

temperature. However, our senses are unreliable and often
mislead us.

Why?
 For example, Let a person immerse his hands, one in hot water, the
other in cold.
Let him then put both hands in water of intermediate hotness. The
water will appear cooler to the first hand and warmer to the second hand.

Why?

Thus the judgement of temperature by the sense of the of touch can be

misleading.
 What we need, therefore, is a reliable and reproducible method
for establishing the relative hotness or coldness of bodies.

Scientists have developed a variety of thermometers for making

such quantitative measurements.

reliable and
reproducible
method
 We are all familiar with the fact that two objects at different
initial temperatures eventually reach some intermediate
temperature when placed in contact with each other.

For example, when a scoop of ice cream is placed in a room

temperature glass bowl, the ice cream melts and the
temperature of the bowl decreases.
Concepts of
Temperature 3°C

30°C
 To understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to define
two often used phrases:
thermal contact and thermal equilibrium.

To grasp the meaning of thermal contact,

let us imagine that two objects are placed in an insulated
container such that they interact with each other but not with the
rest of the world.
Thermal
If the objects are at
contact different temperatures,
energy(heat) is exchanged
between them, even if they
are initially not in physical
contact with each other.
 Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects in
thermal contact with each other cease to exchange energy
by the process of heat.

Thermal
equilibrium
 Let us consider two objects A and B, which are not in thermal
contact, and a third object C, which is our thermometer.

determine
thermal
equilibrium
with each
other.
We wish to determine whether A and B are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
 The thermometer (object C) is first placed in
thermal contact with object A until thermal
equilibrium is reached. 30oC
From that moment on, the thermometer’s
reading remains constant, and we record this
determine reading.
thermal
equilibrium
with each The thermometer is then removed
other. 30oC from object A and placed in
thermal contact with object B.
The reading is again recorded after
thermal equilibrium is reached.
 If the two readings are the same, then object A and object B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

zeroth law of
thermodynamics

We can summarize these results in a statement known as

the zeroth law of thermodynamics (the law of equilibrium):
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object
C, then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 This statement can easily be proved experimentally and is very
important because it enables us to define temperature.

We can think of temperature as the property that determines

whether an object is in thermal equilibrium with other objects.

Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the same
temperature.
CONCLUSION Conversely, if two objects have different temperatures, then they
are not in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Thermometers are devices that are used to define and measure
temperatures.

All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical

property of a system changes as the system’s temperature
changes.

Thermometers
 Some physical properties that change with temperature are
(1) the volume of a liquid,
(2) the length of a solid,
(3) the pressure of a gas at constant volume,
(4) the volume of a gas at constant pressure,
physical (5) the electric resistance of a conductor, and thermoelectric effect
(6) the color of an object.
properties
that change
with For a given substance and a given
temperature range,
temperature a temperature scale can be
established on the basis of any
one of these physical properties.
 A common thermometer in everyday use consists of a mass of
liquid—usually mercury or alcohol—that expands into a glass
capillary tube when heated.
In this case the physical property is the change in volume of a
liquid.
Any temperature change can be defined as being proportional to the
change in length of the liquid column.
common
thermometer
 The thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact
with some natural systems that remain at constant temperature.

One such system is a mixture of water and

ice in thermal equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure.
Calibration
of On the Celsius temperature scale, this
thermometer mixture is defined to have a temperature
of zero degrees Celsius, which is
written as 0°C; this temperature is called
the ice point of water.
 The thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact
with some natural systems that remain at constant temperature.

Another commonly used system is a

mixture of water and steam in thermal
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure; its
temperature is 100°C, which is the steam
Calibration point of water.
of
thermometer
 Once the liquid levels in the
thermometer have been established
at these two points, the distance
between the two points is divided into
100 equal segments to create the
Celsius scale.

BASIC of Thus, each segment denotes a change in

thermometer temperature of one Celsius degree.

Also called the centigrade scale

 Thermometers calibrated in this way present problems when
extremely accurate readings are needed.
For instance, the readings given by an
alcohol thermometer calibrated at the ice
and steam points of water might agree
with those given by a mercury
calibrated thermometer only at the calibration
in this way points.

present
Because mercury and alcohol have
problems different thermal expansion properties,
when one thermometer reads a
temperature of, for example, 50°C, the
other may indicate a slightly different
value.
 Thermometers calibrated in this way present problems when
extremely accurate readings are needed.

calibrated
The discrepancies between
in this way thermometers are especially large
present when the temperatures to be
measured are far from the calibration
problems points.
 Two thermometers that use the same liquid may also give
different readings.

⚫ This is due in part to difficulties in constructing uniform-

bore glass capillary tubes.
Readings
problem in
mercury
based
thermometer
 An additional practical problem of any thermometer is the limited
range of temperatures over which it can be used.
⚫ A mercury thermometer, for example, cannot be used below
the freezing point of mercury, which is 39°C,
and
additional ⚫ an alcohol thermometer is not useful for measuring
practical temperatures above 85°C, the boiling point of
alcohol.
problem of
any
thermometer
 To surmount this problem, we need a universal thermometer
whose readings are independent of the substance used in it.

The gas thermometer, discussed in the next section, approaches this

requirement.
The temperature readings given by a gas
surmount thermometer are nearly independent of the
substance used in the thermometer.
this
problem One version is the constant-volume gas
thermometer shown in Figure.
 The physical change exploited in this
device is the variation of pressure
of a fixed volume of gas with
temperature.
gas When the constant-volume gas
thermometer was developed, it was
thermometer calibrated by using the ice and steam
and its points of water.
calibration

Apparatus Details
 Calibration procedure discussed shortly

The flask was immersed in an ice bath, and

mercury reservoir B was raised or lowered
until the top of the mercury in column A was at
the zero point on the scale.
The height h, the difference
Calibration between the mercury levels in
procedure reservoir Band column A, indicated
the pressure in the flask at 0°C.
 Calibration procedure discussed shortly
The flask was then immersed in
water at the steam point, and
reservoir B was readjusted until the
top of the mercury in column A was
again at zero on the scale; this
ensured that the gas’s volume was
Calibration the same as it was when the flask
procedure was in the ice bath (hence, the
designation “constant volume”)

This adjustment of reservoir B gave a

value for the gas pressure at 100°C.
Procedure to
measure
temperature
These two pressure and temperature values
were then plotted, as shown in Graph Fig.
The line connecting the two points serves
as a calibration curve for unknown
temperatures.
Procedure to Substance
measure
temperature

If we wanted to measure the temperature of a substance, we would

place the gas flask in thermal contact with the substance and adjust the
height of reservoir B until the top of the mercury column in A was at zero
on the scale.
Procedure to Substance
measure
temperature

The height of the mercury column would indicate the pressure of the gas;
knowing the pressure, we could find the temperature of the substance
using the graph in Figure 19.3.
 Now let us suppose that temperatures are measured with gas
thermometers containing different gases at different initial pressures.
GAS Experiments show that the thermometer readings are
THERMOMETER nearly independent of the type of gas used, as long as the
S CONTAINING gas pressure is low and the temperature is well above the
point at which the gas liquefies (Fig. 19.4).
DIFFERENT
GASES AT
DIFFERENT
INITIAL
PRESSURES
 The agreement among thermometers using various gases
improves as the pressure is reduced.
GAS If you extend the curves shown in Figure 19.4 toward
THERMOMETER negative temperatures, you find, in every case, that the
S CONTAINING pressure is zero when the temperature is 273.15°C.

DIFFERENT
GASES AT
DIFFERENT
INITIAL
PRESSURES
 This significant temperature is used as the basis for the absolute
temperature scale, which sets 273.15°C as its zero point.

This temperature is often referred to as absolute zero.

absolute
zero
 The size of a degree on the absolute temperatures scale is identical to
the size of a degree on the Celsius scale.

Thus, the conversion between these temperatures is

T = Tc + 273 (19.1)

conversion where Tc is the Celsius temperature and T is the absolute temperature.

between
these
temperatures
Thermocouple
Sonet Kumar Saha
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Z. H. Sikder University of Science and Technology
Bhedergonj. Shariatpur
 Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric effect.
To study this effect, two wires of different materials
say copper and iron are joined at their ends so as to
form two junctions.
A sensitive galvanometer is included in the circuit
as shown in Figure 9.1.
Thermometry This arrangement is called a thermocouple.
Thermoelectric
Effect

Example: a Cu-Fe thermocouple

 When one junction of the thermocouple is kept hot and the other
cold, the galvanometer gives deflection indicating the production
of current in the arrangement.
The current so produced is called thermoelectric currents.
The continuous flow of current in the thermocouple indicates that
there must be a source of e.m.f. in the circuit, which is causing the
Thermometry flow of current.
This e.m.f is called thermoelectric e.m.f.
Thermoelectric
Effect

Example: a Cu-Fe thermocouple

 It is found that for a temperature difference of 100ºC between the hot
and cold junction,
✓ thermo e.m.f. produced in Cu-Fe thermocouple is 0.0013V
✓ and in case of Sb-Bi thermocouple, the thermo e.m.f. produced is
0.008V.

Thermoelectric
Effect
Examples 100°C 0°C

Example: a Cu-Fe thermocouple

 It is found that for a temperature difference of 100ºC between the hot
and cold junction,
✓ thermo e.m.f. produced in Cu-Fe thermocouple is 0.0013V
✓ and in case of Sb-Bi thermocouple, the thermo e.m.f. produced is
0.008V.

Thermoelectric
Effect
Examples 100°C 0°C

Example: a Cu-Fe thermocouple

 This phenomenon of production of electricity with the help of heat
is called thermoelectricity and this effect is called thermoelectric effect
or Seebeck effect.

Thus, the phenomenon of production of e.m.f. causing an electric

current to flow in a thermocouple when its two junctions are kept
at different temperature, is known as Seebeck effect.
Thermoelectric
Effect
Examples 100°C 0°C

Example: a Cu-Fe thermocouple

 In a conductor, there are always free electrons.
In any conductor, the number of free electrons per unit volume
(electron density) depends upon its nature.
In general, the electron density increases with rise in temperature.

Origin of
Thermo E.M.F
 When two metallic wires of different materials are joined at their ends
to form a thermocouple,
✓ electrons from a metal having greater electron density diffuse
into the other with lower value of electron density.

Due to this, a small potential difference is established across the

junction of the two metals.
Origin of
Thermo E.M.F
 The potential difference so established is called contact potential
and its value depends upon the temperature of the junction for
the two given metal obviously, if the two junctions are at the same
temperature, the contact potentials at the two junctions will be
equal.

As the contact potentials at the two junctions tend to send current in

Origin of opposite directions, no current flows through the thermocouple.
Thermo E.M.F
 However, if one of the two junctions is heated, more diffusion of
electrons takes place at the hot junction and the contact potential
becomes more than that at the cold junction.
Hence, when the two junctions of a thermocouple are at different
temperature, a net e.m.f. called thermo e.m.f. is produced.

Origin of
Thermo E.M.F
 The magnitude and direction of the thermo e.m.f. developed in a
thermocouple depends upon the following two factors.
(i) Nature of the metals forming the thermocouple.
(ii) The temperature difference between the two junctions of the
thermocouple.
Magnitude
and
Direction of
the Thermo
E.M.F
 (i) Nature of the metals forming the thermocouple:
For the experimental investigations, Seebeck arranged a number of
metals in the form of a series called thermoelectric series.
Some of the metals forming this series are as below:
Magnitude Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Mo, Cr, Sn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cu, Pt, Co, Ni and Bi.

and
Direction of
the Thermo
E.M.F
 Thermoelectric series: Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Mo, Cr, Sn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cu,
Pt, Co, Ni and Bi.

If a thermocouple is formed with wires of any two metals from this series,
the direction of current will be from a metal occurring earlier in this
series to a metal occurring later in the series through the cold junction.
(i) Nature of the Therefore, in copper-iron (Cu-Fe) thermocouple, the current will flow from
metals forming iron to copper through cold junction or Copper to Iron through the hot
the junction.
In antimony-bismuth (Sb-Bi) thermocouple, the current flows from antimony
thermocouple to bismuth through the cold junction.
Bi

Hot Cold

Sb
 Thermoelectric series: Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Mo, Cr, Sn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cu, Pt,
Co, Ni and Bi.

If a thermocouple is formed with wires of any two metals from this series,
the direction of current will be from a metal occurring earlier in this series
to a metal occurring later in the series through the cold junction.
(i) Nature of the
metals forming Cr
the
thermocouple

Cu
 Thermoelectric series: Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Mo, Cr, Sn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cu, Pt,
Co, Ni and Bi.

As a rule, more the metals are separated in the series, the greater will be the
thermo e.m.f.

The thermo e.m.f. for a difference of temperature equal to 100ºC is about

(i) Nature of the 0.0013V for Cu-Fe thermocouple and about 0.008V for Sb-Bi thermocouple.
metals forming
the
thermocouple
Bi

Hot Cold

Sb
 As the temperature of the hot junction is increased by keeping the
temperature of the cold junction constant at 0ºC, the deflection in the
galvanometer goes on increasing.
The The deflection in the galvanometer is directly proportional to the
thermoelectric current and hence the thermo e.m.f.
temperature The graph between thermo e.m.f. and the temperature of hot junction is
difference found to be parabolic in shape as shown in Figure.
between the
two
junctions of
the
thermocouple
 As the temperature of hot junction is further
increased, a stage comes, when the
thermo e.m.f. becomes maximum.
The The temperature of hot junction at which
the thermo e.m.f. produced in the
temperature thermocouple becomes maximum, is called
difference neutral temperature.
between the
For a given thermocouple, neutral
two temperature has a fixed value. It does not
junctions of depend upon the temperature of cold
the junction of the thermocouple.
thermocouple It is denoted by 𝜃n.
For copper-iron thermocouple, neutral
temperature is 270ºC.
 The temperature of the hot junction, at
which
the direction of the thermo e.m.f.
reverses, is
The called the temperature of inversion. It is
temperature denoted
by 𝜃 i.
difference
between the The temperature of inversion is as much
above the neutral temperature as the
two neutral temperature is above the
junctions of temperature of the cold junction.
Then, if 𝜃 c is temperature of the cold
the junction, then
thermocouple
The
temperature
difference
between the Thus, the netural temperature is the
mean of the temperature of inversion 𝜃 i
two and temperature of the cold junction 𝜃c ,
junctions of but is independent of 𝜃 i and 𝜃 c.
For Cu-Fe thermocouple = 270ºC. If cold
the junction is at 0°C, then it follows that 𝜃 i =
thermocouple 540ºC.
 The temperature of the hot junction, at which
the direction of the thermo e.m.f. reverses, is
called the temperature of inversion. It is denoted
by 𝜃 i.
The
temperature The temperature of inversion is as much above the neutral
temperature as the neutral temperature is above the temperature
difference of the cold junction.
between the Then, if 𝜃 c is temperature of the cold junction, then
two
junctions of
the
thermocouple Thus, the netural temperature is the mean of the temperature of
inversion i and temperature of the cold junction qc, but is
independent of qi and qc.
For Cu-Fe thermocouple qn = 270ºC. If cold junction is at 0°C,
then it follows that qi = 540ºC.
 If the temperature of cold junction is 0ºC, the
graph between the temperature of hot
junction and thermo e.m.f. is found to satisfy the
equation of the parabola.
The
temperature
Where a and b are constants called
difference thermoelectric constants. q represents the
between the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions.
two
junctions of
the
thermocouple