Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Experimental analysis of jet flow in an aerospike nozzle

K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya ⇑, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh, S. Sai Gopal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRM Valliammai Engineering College, Kattankulathur 603203, Tamil Nadu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present experimental study aims at analyzing the pressure characteristics in an aerospike nozzle of
Received 6 October 2020 15° half-angle conical plug. The current aerospace research has a keen interest in developing launchers
Received in revised form 15 November 2020 through minimalistic equipment with increased efficiency. This purpose can be served by the aerospike
Accepted 21 November 2020
nozzles which can be operated in atmospheric and vacuum conditions. The paper is focused in reduction
Available online 30 January 2021
of potential core length which involves the flow investigation in terms of pressure through experimental
setup of jet flow apparatus with the assistance of CFD results. It is also proved that the spike configuration
Keywords:
results in improvement of efficiency compared to C-D nozzle.
Aerospike nozzle
Jet flow
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Centre-line pressure decay Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
Shadowgraph ence on Materials, Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering for Sustainable Developments-2020.
Core length

1. Introduction complexity and to bring the use of altitude compensation in real

time flight performance. The study is carried over with the objec-
The conventional Convergent Divergent nozzles (C-D nozzles), tive of analysing and studying the jet flow in terms of pressure
which is also called as De-Laval nozzles is being used for Rocket measure, the main focus point is to study the centre line pressure
propulsion systems, by which the launch missions are accom- decay. The aerospike nozzle at sea level, the high ambient pressure
plished through successive stage engines. These stages are pro- forces the exhaust to remain close to the nozzle wall maintaining
vided for the purpose of altitude pressure variations, which high efficiency, at optimum altitude, the exhaust plume is column
means that a single nozzle cannot serve the purpose for the entire shaped producing maximum efficiency similar to that of a bell noz-
flight from sea level to space. This drawback found in De-Laval noz- zle and at higher altitudes neither like the conventional bell nozzle
zles found to be eliminated by the use of an Aerospike nozzle the exhaust plume is bounded by shock waves that forces it to
which compensates the back pressure / Atmospheric pressure remain column shaped to maintain high efficiency [8]. The exper-
(Pa) at different altitudes [1,2]. Aerospike nozzle features the imental analysis in the jet flow [9,10] of the nozzle plays a signif-
requirement of thrust in different altitude through its performance icant role in studying the pressure decay at the nozzle exit and the
and classified into two types namely linear and toroidal [3]. The shadowgraph views [11] the result of optical visualization of shock
bell nozzle provides less efficiency at different altitudes, whereas cells. A number of research papers and data from several other
aerospike nozzle tends to produce increased thrust in all altitudes sources have been analysed and the necessary information are
which makes the nozzle efficient and economical. Experiments are being gathered. The advantages of aerospike involves the single
conducted for small satellites [4,5]. Flow separation is considered rocket engine can be used in flight from sea level to space, without
as important phenomena which occur when the pressure of any stage separating events, implementation in SSTO launch vehi-
exhaust is very less than ambient pressure leading to the damage cles which comes under the category of reusable vehicles thus
of nozzle. The bell nozzle provides less efficiency at different alti- reducing the costs involved in building rockets, it can be powered
tudes, whereas aerospike nozzle tends to produce increased thrust up by using either individual combustion chambers or a single
in all altitudes which makes the nozzle efficient and economical. chamber itself, linear truncated aerospike nozzle provides addi-
The use of aerospike in real time is difficult due to thrust vectoring tional thrust in the base which are not provided by the conven-
problem [6] Gambling the nozzle seems to be difficult. Further tional bell nozzles.
experiments [7] are required in order to eliminate the engineering This study mainly concentrates on studying the jet flow through
aerospike nozzle designed with specific spike geometry [12–14] in
⇑ Corresponding author. high speed jet apparatus. The parameters subjected to study are
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya). Centre line pressure decay, Radial pressure measurements, and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.783
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials, Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering for
Sustainable Developments-2020.
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

Shadowgraph images to study the shock cells. The steps in study  Area ratio to be achieved is 1.17.
carried out are illustrated in Fig. 1. In this present work, the main  Pitot blockage ratio should be equal to or greater than 64.
focus point is to study the centre line pressure decay [15,16]
through jet flow test, which plays an important task in matching Thorat area
¼ 64 ð3Þ
the exhaust gas pressure with the altitude pressure. It is aimed pitot probe area
to analyse the flow through optical visualization method termed
Substituting the probe diameter of 1.5 mm, the throat area cal-
to be the shadowgraph.
culated as follows,

2. Design Thorat area

¼ 64 ð4Þ
p ð1:5Þ2
4
2.1. Calculation of expansion ratio
Nozzle total throat area (A*) = 113.09 mm2
The Area ratio, also called as the Expansion ratio of the nozzle is Trial and error method was adapted and several range of diam-
calculated from the Area-Mach relation as follows, eters were used to satisfy the equations (Eqs. (2) and (3)), this
resulted inner diameter (Di) and outer diameter (Do) are 5 mm
  cþ1
 2ðccþ1 þ c1 2 2ðc1Þ and 13 mm respectively. Hence, the throat area (A*) of the aero-
A cþ1 1 Þ 1 2
M
spike nozzle is 113.09 mm2 (Eq. (4)) and the total area from the
¼ ð1Þ
A
2 M outer edge (A) is calculated is 132.73 mm2.
A Mach number of 1.5 is decided in the nozzle design, hence by
substituting the value for Mach and value of gamma to be 1.4 2.3. Design parameters
(c = 1.4), the area ratio to be achieved was estimated as,
 Spike angle (Half-angle conical) = 15°
A  Throat area, A* = 113.09 mm2
¼ 1:17 ð2Þ
A
 Exit area, Ae = 132.73 mm2
Hence, because of the importance of speed ratio, the Area ratio  Area ratio, Ae/A* = 1.17
to be achieved in the model should be 1.17 (from Eq. (1)) in order  Nozzle exit Mach no, M = 1.5
to achieve Mach 1.5. The required area ratio is to be achieved
through proper dimensioning, but first it has to be checked The parameters obtained through calculation are considered for
whether this relation satisfies aerospike nozzle. the model design in Fig. 2. The nozzle model involved with sepa-
rate design for its parts
2.2. Calculation of nozzle area
3. FEA analysis
The area dimensions are based on the required area ratio calcu-
lated, hence the area ratio of 1.17 is used to fix the diameter and 3.1. Flow analysis
then the fixed diameter range are checked with the Aerospike’s
area ratio equation. Since the pitot measurement technique is used The flow analysis contour obtained for pressure, velocity, tem-
in measuring the pressure at different locations in jet, it is impor- perature profiles using the designed model is shown in Fig. 3, the
tant to make sure that the ratio of the jet cross-sectional area to the contours depicts the variation of pressure along the nozzle with
pitot probe area is more than or equal to 64 [17] in order to treat the maximum pressure at the coupler end (approximating the inlet
the probe blockage effect as being negligible. The measuring equip- pressure) which gradually decreases at the end of spike greater
ment used in the experiment is Pitot tube which has a probe diam- than ambient pressure [18] in Fig. 3(a). In Velocity contour Fig. 3
eter of 1.5 mm. Hence the following are the factors that involved in (b) the flow obtained is the reverse of pressure plot as velocity is
fixing the nozzle’s area, inversely proportional to pressure with maximum velocity of

Fig. 1. Experimental Outline of the present study.

Fig. 2. Design model, (a) Three-Dimensional view; (b) wireframe view of cowl section.

3445
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

Fig. 3. Flow analysis, (a) Pressure contour; (b) Velocity profile; (c) Temperature profile; (d) Streamlined velocity.

stand the experimental conditions. These information are analysed

Table 1
Flow analysis results. (Table 2) in the plots of stress, strain obtained in FEA analysis, in
Fig. 4(a, b). The model designed in CAD software is made sure to
Parameter Inlet Exit
be safe in experimental environments by ensuring the deformation
(a) Pressure (Pa) 992,260 88,400 and FOS in under danger levels which are obtained in the plots in
(b) Velocity (m/s) 100 470 Fig. 4(c, d).
(c) Temperature (Kelvin) 300 190

4. Fabrication
Table 2
Structural analysis. The knowledge obtained in the structural analysis led to the
Parameter Result obtained Location in nozzle
selection of Stainless steel material of grade 304 for nozzle fabrica-
tion. The material is selected due to its mechanical strength, avail-
(a) Max. Stress (MPa) 112.14 Spike end
ability, ability to withstand internal pressure during experiment,
(b) Max. Strain 0.00063252 Spike end
(c) Max. Deformation (mm) 0.0062008 Spike (conical section) machinability and economic feasibility. The fabrication process
(d) Min. Factor of Safety 5 Spike was done with the help of Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
machining process. All the machining was done through CNC and
VMC machines which were programmed in order to do the partic-
470 m per second at the exit of nozzle. In Fig. 3(c) the temperature ular pre-assigned work.
variation along the nozzle, maximum at the inlet and minimum in
the exit at the range of 463 °C (190 K). The flow simulation view
obtained in streamlined velocity profile, Fig. 3(d). 5. Experimental setup
The flow analysis results are presented in Table 1.
The High speed jet apparatus shown in Fig. 5(a) comprises of
compressor unit, high speed jet apparatus, measurement system
3.2. Structural analysis and Shadowgraph setup. The measurement setup comprises of
pitot tube of probe of diameter 1.5 mm, traverse mechanism mov-
The fabrication of nozzle requires the appropriate information able in three directions, scanner and interface to measure the pres-
which plays key role in the selection of material in order to with- sure at the probe in Fig. 5(b).
3446
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

Fig. 4. Structural analysis-I contour, (a) Stress plot; (b) Strain plot; (c) Deformation; (d) Factor of Safety.

Fig. 5. (a) Experimental setup; (b) Measurement setup.

6. Pressure measurements the pitot probe and cannot be considered for shock loss. Hence,
the measurements obtained represent only the qualitative nature
The experimental results obtained shows the pressure decay in [19] of the flow. From the centerline pressure number of shock
both axial and radial directions through which the nature of flow cells, nature of shock waves and the area of characteristic decay
and the occurrence of shock waves for the designed nozzle geom- can be analysed. To study the evolution of jet, measurements are
etry are studied. The exit flow of nozzle (Centerline) consists of taken in radial direction. The pressure measurements in the both
three sections, namely potential core region, characteristic decay directions are carried out at NPR 4 which is the dimensionless
and fully developed zone. In supersonic flow, the measured pitot measure of stagnation pressure (Po) in the settling chamber to
pressure refers to the pressure behind the shock wave in front of the back pressure Pb.

3447
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

characteristic decay starts at X/D = 2.58 where the core length gets
completed at 30% of pressure loss as the flow meets relaxation at a
length of 33.551 mm from the nozzle exit at major axis (From
graph). At first Supersonic flow is noticed as the Pp decreases from
the exit of nozzle to some distance indicating flow acceleration
exactly at the shock wave behind the pitot probe, thereafter the
pressure ratio assumes the first minimum point where from the
opposite ends, the oblique shocks meets on jet axis. The increase
of Pp or the raise after the first minimum point represents the flow
of subsonic acceleration reaching the first peak point. In similar
way the upcoming two peaks are formed. This kind of oscillation
nature takes place until the characteristic decay begins providing
the length of supersonic core.

6.2. Radial measurements

Fig. 6. Center-line pitot pressure decay.

To study the evolution of jet in the aerospike nozzle, the radial

measurements are taken in major axis (Y-Direction) at various
6.1. Centerline pressure decay locations such as from the centre, from the characteristic decay
start point and the pressure profiles are obtained at certain dis-
The centreline pitot pressure decay is a measure of jet mixing tances for study. The results are analysed based on the non-
with the entrained atmospheric fluid. The experimental results of dimensionalized X/D ratio as the measurements are taken with
centerline pitot pressure distribution at NPR of 4 and under expan- the reference to X-axis from 0.15D to 2.3D. Hence the radial pres-
sion level of 2.47 is shown in the Fig. 6. The Center-line pressure sure profiles are taken in X/D  0.15, 0.76, 1.53 and 2.3 which rep-
decay represents the core length, the axial distance from the nozzle resents the measurement taken at tip, at 10 mm from tip, 20 mm
exit to the location where the characteristic decay begins. The pitot from tip and 30 mm from tip respectively. The plots in Figs. 7
pressure (Pp) distribution along the centerline of jet divided by the and 8 shows the measurements taken in distance mentioned above
chamber pressure (Po) is plotted against the non-dimensionalized and the shock waves are studied at NPR 4 at. The oscillating nature
axial length of X/D (where X is axial distance and D is exit diameter obtained in the radial pressure measurements is due to the same
of nozzle). From this plot, three shock cells are formed and the characteristics mentioned in centerline pressure measurement.

Fig. 7. Pressure profiles, (a) Pressure profile X/D of 0.15; (b) Pressure profile X/D of 0.76; (c) Pressure profile X/D of 1.53; (d) Pressure profile X/D of 2.3.

3448
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

(b). As the measurement is taken away from the core jet the off-
centre of the peaks are formed as the jet evolves through exit shape
of nozzle with less weak waves compared to X/D of 0.15.
It is observed at 1.53D (Fig. 7(c)), the mid of core region where
the atmospheric pressure entrains into the jet flow, the peaks
formed depicts the weaker waves as the measurement is taken at
a much more distance away from the exit of nozzle. The next plot
of radial measurement includes 2.3D shown in Fig. 7(d). In this
plot, the end of core region is depicted where the two peaks repre-
sents the stronger interruption of shock waves at the core end. In
Fig. 8, it is observed that at 2.58D only one peak contains repre-
senting characteristic decay.

7. Flow visualisation

Fig. 8. Pressure profile X/D of 2.58. The flow visualisation is done through shadowgraph method at
NPRs of 2 and 4.
The illustration of the technique in this work is shown in Fig. 9.
Starting at a length of 6.5 mm from the axis of jet, the pitot probe is
The light rays from the point source is made to incident on the
traversed along Y direction from bottom (negative sign) to top
parabolic mirror surface and directed towards the nozzle exhaust
(positive sign) upwards. The measuring distance was focused on
flow which is recorded on a screen behind it through camera. Pre-
after the first minimum point (at X/D  0.15) obtained in center-
cautionary measures were taken by adjusting the light source to
line pressure measurement. It was observed in Fig. 7(a) that two
obtain the rapid changes of high-speed flow through which the
peaks were formed through jet axis demonstrating the evolution
light pass through. To study the shock cells and visualise the flow
of jet. From the spread of jet it is observed that, as the jet transmits
shadowgraph technique is applied. The shadowgraph images are
downstream, the constant pressure zone area keeps on decreasing
obtained at NPR 2 and 4 as shown in Fig. 10. It is observed that
indicating the limitation of jet flow into the atmosphere. As the
as the NPR increase the waves gets stronger in the core region indi-
offered NPR is enough for to produce expansion waves in the jet
cating that the mixing becomes faster and hence the characteristic
core [18] and the off-centre peaks in the profile plot become more
decay is achieved at a quicker rate. Shadowgraph method of visu-
pronounced. The radial measurement involved in pressure plot is
alisation is chosen due to its simplicity as the test screen was closer
of at 0.76D which was concentrated on the raise of second maxi-
to the flow section. It also has the advantage of its best suitability
mum point comprised of subsonic acceleration is shown in Fig. 7
in capturing the flow of promptly varying density gradients. The

Fig. 9. Optical visualisation.

Fig. 10. Shadowgraph images, (a) NPR: 2; (b) NPR: 4.

3449
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya, M. Santhosh, V.K. Santhosh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021) 3444–3450

idea behind choosing different Nozzle Pressure Ratios is to visu- V.K. Santhosh: Resources, Data curation, Visualization. S. Sai
alise the strength of waves formed for the designed geometry. As Gopal: Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing, Supervision.
the pressure measurements were taken at a single NPR to study
and analyse the evolution of jet with centreline pressure distribu- Declaration of Competing Interest
tion, the shadowgraph method is implemented to investigate the
flow pattern that the nozzle would exhibit at different NPRs. It The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
was observed in centerline pressure measurement that the cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
strength of waves gets weaker as the probe was traversed away to influence the work reported in this paper.
from the nozzle exit in X direction at NPR 4 (Fig. 6) which remains
same at different NPRs experienced in visualisation in Fig. 10. References
The nozzle exhibited rapid criss-cross wave pattern. Starting
from the shock at the exit of nozzle comprising of expansion waves [1] J.J Korte, A.O.Salas, H.J Dunn and N.M. Alexandro, W.W.Follet, G.E.Orient and A.
H.Handid ‘‘Multidisciplinary approach to Aerospike nozzle” February 1997,
due to the relaxation of pressurised air to the largely spaced envi- NASA.
ronment making the Pp to decrease (Supersonic zone) followed by [2] J.J.Korte ‘‘Parametric model of Aerospike rocket engine” NASA Langley
the compression waves that are formed in the boundary layer Research Center Hampton, Virginia 38th Aerospace SciencesMeeting &
Exhibit 1 0-13 January 2000.
which directs the flow towards the jet axis thus forming an accel- [3] Abid A. Khan ‘‘Design and analysis approach for Linear Aerospike nozzles”
eration, increase in Pp (Subsonic zone). At NPR 2 in Fig. 10(a), the Article  July 2014- Research gate.
waves are mild which in turn increases with NPR. It is observed [4] Bani, Abdalla Ali, ‘‘Design and analysis of an axisymmetric aerospike
supersonic micro-nozzle for a refrigerant-based cold-gas propulsion system
that the spike geometry makes the shock wave pattern complex. for small satellites” (2016). Masters Theses. 7591.
The shock cell structure signifies in the potential core area with [5] K Naveen Kumar ‘‘Design and Optimization of Aerospike nozzle using CFD”
the increase in NPR as in Fig. 10(b) as the wave incident angle et al 2017 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 247 012008.
[6] Bach, Christian & Sieder-Katzmann, Jan & Propst, Martin & Tajmar, Martin.
increases making the boundary wider which visualises the
(2014). Numerical Analysis on an aerodynamically thrust-vectored Aerospike
strength of waves. Nozzle.
[7] S.B.Verma, AbdellahHadjadj, OskarHaidn ‘‘Origin of side-loads in a subscale
truncated Ideal contour nozzle” 1270-9638/2017 Published by Elsevier
8. Conclusions MassonSAS.
[8] Oskar J. Hadin ‘‘Advanced Rocket Engines” Educational Notes RTO-EN-AVT-
 It is found from the results, the strength of jet core increases as 150, Paper 6. Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, 2008.
[9] Kiran chutkey (NAL) ‘‘Analysis of annular plug nozzle flow field” Article in
NPR increases in flow visualisation which leads to the advan- Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. Vol. 51, No. 2, March–April 2014.
tage of faster mixing rate resulting in achieving high velocity [10] Kiran Chutkey, B. Vasudevan, N. Balakrishnan, Flow field analysis of linear plug
in shorter span. nozzle, J. Spacecraft Rocket. (2012), https://doi.org/10.2514/1.60915.
[11] Qingwei Zhao, J. D. Mo ‘‘Numerical modelling of Aerospike nozzle
 In Center-line pressure decay measurement, in NPR 4 leads to characteristics” 36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference &
the formation three shock cells for the designed geometry and Exhibit. May 16-19, 2000 AIAA 2000-3849.
the core length achieved was about to 2.58D of axial distance. [12] Denton, Brandon Lee, ‘‘Design and analysis of rocket nozzle contours for
launching Pico-Satellites” (2008). Thesis. Rochester Institute of Technology.
 The evolution of jet in major axis (Y/D), the pressure profile
[13] Douglas E. Harrington, ‘‘Performance of 10° conical plug nozzle with various
obtained at certain distances represent shock cell structures primary flap and nacelle configurations at mach number 0 to 1.97” December
which also leads to conclusion, core region near the exit will 1970, NASA.
have stronger waves. [14] Shiva Prasad U ‘‘Nozzle Contour Design for Space Propulsion Module” Article
August 2017. DOI: 10.24247/ijmperdaug201735
 It is found that at 0.15D in radial measurement produces three [15] S. B. Verma, M. Viji ‘‘Base Pressure Characteristics of a Linear Plug Nozzle with
peaks of shock cell structure with stronger waves. Freestream Effects” 45th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference &
 At 0.76D, three peaks representing less weak waves which indi- Exhibit 2 - 5 August 2009(AIAA 2009-5148).
[16] S.B. Verma, M. Viji, Freestream effects on base pressure development of an
cates faster atmospheric air mixing and reducing the span of annular plug nozzle, Shock Waves 21 (2011) 163–171.
pressure decay. This is continuously identified in further mea- [17] G. Anbuchezhiyan, B. Mohan, D. Sathyanarayanan, T. Muthuramlingam,
surements at 1.53D to 2.58D as in Fig. 7(c, d). Synthesis and characterization of hollow glass microspheres reinforced
magnesium alloy matrix syntactic foam, J. Alloys Compd. 719 (2017) 125–132.
 It was observed that the designed aerospike geometry provides [18] N Karthikeyan, S B Verma, L Venkatakrishnan ‘‘Experimental Investigation of
superior performance by achieving shorter core length when the Acoustics of an Annular” 15th AIAA/CEAS Aero acoustics Conference (30th
compared to a CD nozzle of circular throat [20]. AIAA Aero acoustics Conference) 11 - 13 May 2009. AIAA 2009-3375.
[19] G. Anbuchezhiyan, B. Mohan, R.V. Karthikeyan, Development of magnesium
matrix syntactic foams processed through powder metallurgy techniques,
CRediT authorship contribution statement App. Mech. Mater. 766–767 (2015) 281–286.
[20] S. Manigandan, K. Vijayaraja, Flow field and acoustic characteristics of
elliptical throat CD nozzle, Int. J. Ambient Energy (2017), https://doi.org/
K. Sankari Ashok Alshiya: Conceptualization, Methodology,
10.1080/01430750.2017.136020.
Writing - original draft. M. Santhosh: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Validation, Supervision, Project administration.

3450