Eacvi Handbook of Cardiovascular CT Oliver Gaemperli Full Chapter PDF
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The EACVI Handbook of
Cardiovascular CT
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The EACVI Handbook of
Cardiovascular CT
Editors
Oliver Gaemperli
HeartClinic Zurich AG, Hirslanden Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland
Pal Maurovich-Horvat
Medical Imaging Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
Koen Nieman
Stanford University School of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular
Medicine and Department of Radiology, Stanford, CA, USA
Gianluca Pontone
Department of Perioperative Cardiology and Cardiovascular
Imaging, Centro Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, Milan, Italy
Francesca Pugliese
Queen Mary University of London and St Bartholomew’s Hospital,
London, UK
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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Preface
vi
Contents
Contributors xi
Abbreviations xv
Index 357
Contents
ix
Contributors
Contributors
Semmelweis University Heart and
Department of Perioperative Cardiology Vascular Center, Budapest, Hungary
and Cardiovascular Imaging, Centro Chapter 2.2
Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, Milan, Italy
Chapter 2.5 Richard A.P. Takx
Amsterdam University Medical Center,
Francesca Pugliese Department of Radiology and Nuclear xiii
Queen Mary University of London and Medicine, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, UK Chapters 2.2 and 3.
Chapters ., .5, .6, and .7
Sebastian Vandermolen
Ronak Rajani Barts Heart Centre, London, UK
Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Chapter .
Trust and King’s College London,
London, UK Martin Willemink
Chapter .4 Stanford University School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology, Stanford,
Ian Rogers CA, USA
Stanford University School of Medicine, Chapter 2.
Division of Cardiovascular Medicine,
Department of Medicine, Stanford,
CA, USA
Chapter 2.8
Abbreviations
AC alternating current
ACHD adult congenital heart disease
ACS acute coronary syndrome
AF atrial fibrillation
AHA American Heart Association
AI artificial intelligence
ALARA as low as reasonably achievable
ALCAPA anomalous LMCA from the pulmonary artery
AR aortic regurgitation
ARCAPA anomalous RCA from the pulmonary artery
AS aortic stenosis
xv
ASD atrial septal defect
BAV bicuspid aortic valve
BMI body mass index
bpm beats per minute
BSA body surface area
CA catheter ablation
CAA coronary artery anomaly
CABG coronary artery bypass grafting
CAC-DRS Coronary Artery Calcium Data and Reporting System
CAD coronary artery disease
CAD-R ADS Coronary Artery Disease –Reporting and Data System
CAV cardiac allograft vasculopathy
CCT cardiac CT
CCTA coronary CT angiography
CDRIE cardiac device-related infective endocarditis
CIN contrast-induced nephropathy
CM contrast media
CMR cardiac magnetic resonance
cMPR curved multiplanar reconstruction
CS coronary sinus
CTA CT angiography
DC direct current
EACVI European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging
ECF extracardiac finding
ECG electrocardiogram
ECV extracellular volume
ED Emergency Department
EDV end diastole
EF ejection fraction
ESC European Society of Cardiology
ESV end systole
FBP filtered back projection
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
MR mitral regurgitation
mSv millisievert
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MV mitral valve
NICE National Institute for Health and Care Excellence xvii
NSTE-ACS non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome
PA pulmonary artery
PAU penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer
PCI percutaneous coronary intervention
PDA posterior descending artery
PTP pretest probability
PV pulmonary vein
PVE prosthetic valve endocarditis
RCA right coronary artery
RCT randomized clinical/controlled trial
RV right ventricle
RVEF right ventricle ejection fraction
RVOT right ventricular outflow tract
SAVR surgical aortic valve replacement
SCCT Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography
SPECT single photon emission CT
SVC superior vena cava
TAVI transcatheter aortic valve implantation
TEVAR thoracic endovascular aortic repair
TMVR transcatheter mitral valve replacement
TOE transoesophageal echocardiography
TSH thyroid stimulating hormone
2D two-dimensional
ViMAC valve-in-mitral annular calcification
ViR valve-in-r ing
VSD ventricular septal defect
Abbreviations
xviii
Chapter .
Teaching points
• Contemporary CT scanners comprise a rotating gantry onto which the
X-r ay tube(s) and the detector array(s) are housed.
• Collimators determine the shape of the emitted X-r ay beam to
maximize image quality and minimize radiation exposure to patients.
• Detectors receive and transform the signal necessary to reconstruct CT
images.
• The term ‘multidetector’ or ‘multislice’ CT refers to the ability to image 1
multiple sections of the patient’s anatomy along the z-a xis during one
gantry rotation.
• ‘Dual-source’ CT contains two X-r ay sources coupled with two
detector arrays mounted at an (approximately) 90-degree angle. Dual-
source CT allows doubling of the temporal resolution compared to a
single-source system with the same gantry rotation time.
• A motorized scanner table, the electrocardiogram (ECG)
synchronization system, and power injection are further key
requirements to deliver cardiac CT in clinical practice.
Gantry
The gantry is the ring-shaped structure that houses the X-ray tube and the de-
tector array.
• In contemporary scanners, the gantry can rotate continuously thanks to (contactless)
slip-ring technology. Slip-ring technology allows fast transfer of power and data to
and from the gantry without the need of power cables. Power cables would require
unwinding every few turns, which would prevent continuous rotation and require
reversal of gantry rotation. Cables can be replaced by brush technology that is in
permanent electrical contact with the gantry and allows continuous rotation.
• The switch-mode power supply allows construction of a small and light but
efficient power supply that can be housed in the gantry while generating very
high voltages with limited heat production. In general, this works by converting
Key scanner hardware components
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) using a switch circuit. The DC
current is reconverted to AC at a higher frequency.
• The gantry rotation time is a key determinant of temporal resolution, a
paramount scanner requirement for cardiac CT (discussed in Chapter .2). In
a single-source (one X-r ay tube) scanner, approximately half a revolution is
needed for the acquisition of data required to reconstruct one image (half-scan
algorithm). A single-source CT scanner with a rotation time of 300 ms can
sample data for one image in 50 ms, which is the temporal resolution of this
scanner.
X-ray tube
The X-r ay tube is the component where X-r ay generation occurs (Figure ..).
CHAPTER 1.1
ANODE
X-RAY e- e- e- DC high
PHOTONS voltage
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
CATHODE
FILAMENT/
HEATER
Collimators
and by filtration: this is because energies at the lower end of the spectrum
would otherwise be absorbed by tissue before reaching the detector and would
contribute to patient dose but not to image formation.
• The X-r ay tube voltage determines the average energy of the X-r ay beam; the
X-r ay tube current determines how many X-r ay photons the X-r ay beam is
3
comprised of, without affecting their energy.
• The intensity of the X-r ay beam decreases with the inverse of the distance from
the source squared.
• When traversing tissue, the intensity of the X-r ay beam decreases as X-r ay
photons interact with atoms (Chapter .3). The transmitted intensity depends
on the initial intensity, the thickness of the tissue/material traversed, and their
linear attenuation coefficient. The latter depends not only on the atomic number
of the tissue/material, but also on photon energy and is generally higher at lower
energy.
Collimators
The term ‘collimation’ refers to the process of restricting or confining a beam of
particles.
• Beam collimators are used to shape the X-r ay beam emitted, reduce unnecessary
radiation, and maximize image quality.
• Pre-patient collimators determine the width of the beam (fixed and adjustable
collimators).
• Post-patient collimators reduce scatter radiation.
• The heart is centrally located in the patient’s axial cross section; image quality
can be reduced in peripheral regions that are of limited interest. Additional
shaped filters in cardiac CT may reduce radiation exposure for peripheral
organs and tissues.
Detectors
Key scanner hardware components
The detection of X-r ays constitutes the key ‘signal’ to form projection images needed
to reconstruct CT images.
• Current CT detector technology is based on solid-state rare earth ceramics.
• Incident X-r ays are absorbed with release of light photons.
• Light photons are detected by photodiodes and converted into an electrical
signal.
Dual-source CT
While single-source CT systems contain one X-ray tube and one detector array,
‘dual-source’ CT contains two X-ray sources coupled with two detector arrays
mounted at an (approximately) 90-degree angle (Figure ..2).
• Dual-source CT is a scanner design solution that allows the doubling of temporal
resolution without decreasing gantry rotation time.
• The two-tube detector systems simultaneously generate X-r ays and acquire
data so that a 90-degree gantry revolution (instead of 80-degree) is sufficient to
acquire data for the reconstruction of one image.
Single-source CT Dual-source CT
A’
A A
B B
Dual-energy CT
• Dual-source CT allows dual-energy applications. In dual-source dual-energy CT,
different X-ray tube voltages are applied to each of the X-ray tubes. This is done to
exploit the differential ability of tissues (with different atomic numbers) to attenuate
X-rays of variable energy, with the goal of differentiating tissues on the images.
• Different approaches to dual-energy (or multiple-energy) CT do not require
dual-source CT. Dual-layer detectors comprise two layers made of different
scintillating materials that selectively detect X-r ays of different energy. Ultrafast
kV switching involves rapid changes in X-r ay tube potential with generation of X-
ray beams of different energy.
• Dual-energy CT is not widely applied in cardiac imaging. Potential applications
include subtraction of coronary artery calcium (Chapter 2.), plaque imaging
(Chapter 2.6), and characterization of myocardial enhancement such as in
perfusion and scar imaging (Chapter 2.5).
Further reading
Goldman LW. Principles of CT and CT technology. J Nucl Med Technol 2007; 35: 5–28.
Mamourian AC. CT Imaging. Practical Physics, Artifacts and Pitfalls. Oxford: OUP, 203.
CHAPTER 1.1
Stirrup J, Bull R, Williams M, Nicol E (eds). Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, 2nd edn.
New York: Oxford Medical Publications, 2020.
6
Chapter .2
Teaching points
• High-quality cardiac CT imaging depends on motion-free images. In
half-scan mode, temporal resolution can be defined as the time required
to acquire data to reconstruct one CT image. Therefore, temporal
resolution depends not only on the scanner’s rotation time, but also
on the number of X-r ay sources and the availability of multisegment
reconstruction.
• Some manufacturers have introduced coronary motion correction
algorithms to reduce image motion blur. 7
• The scanner’s detector coverage influences the number of cardiac cycles
needed to complete the scan range and depends on physical collimation,
number of slices, and detector element size (slice width). The scan pitch
also influences through-plane (z-a xis) coverage in the spiral scanning
mode. Wide area detectors aim to cover the heart in a single cardiac
cycle without table movement.
• The typical size of coronary artery lesions is in the sub-millimetre range.
Spatial resolution is the ability to discern two objects as separate from
one another. In-plane and through-plane (isotropic) spatial resolution
depends on focal spot size, individual detector element size, number of
detector channels, number of projections/views, system geometry, and
reconstruction filter/kernel.
• Coronary artery CT angiography is based on high iodine contrast
imaging, which can be optimized by adjusting the X-r ay tube kilovoltage
(kV) to influence iodine enhancement and the tube current (mAs) to
mitigate noise.
Resting phases
Given that the heart moves continuously, the primary aim of a cardiac CT scan is to
‘image during the resting phase(s)’.
HR
60 bpm
Resting phase (ms) 120 200 120 200 120 200
Technical requirements
HR
85 bpm
Resting phase (ms) 110 80 110 80 110 80 110 80
Figure .2. The resting phases in patients with a heart rate (HR) of 60 beats/min (bpm; upper panel)
and 85 bpm (lower panel). Of note, there is significant shortening of the diastolic resting phase (blue)
with increasing HR, while the systolic resting phase (green) remains fairly stable.
CHAPTER .2
Temporal resolution
Owing to the short duration of cardiac ‘rest phases’, optimizing CT acquisition and
reconstruction towards speed to ‘freeze motion’ is essential. Temporal resolution is
the time required to acquire data to reconstruct one CT image. CT images consist
of individual X-r ay data projections recorded during the rotation of the CT system.
The minimum amount of parallel projection data required for a single CT image in
a half-scan, filtered back projection-based image reconstruction is 80 degrees (see
also Chapter .). In single-source CT, data corresponding to a time span of half
gantry rotation contribute to a single cardiac image; hence, the temporal resolution
is defined as ½ times the rotation time. Any movement during this time leads to
blurred images.
Optimization of the temporal resolution can be achieved by:
• Faster gantry rotation times, which are limited by increasing G-force experienced
by the rotating components, data transmission rate increase, and tube power.
• Using CT systems with two tubes (dual-source technology). The required 80
degrees of data consist of two separate, simultaneously recorded data fragments
of approximately 90 degrees (see Chapter .). The in-plane temporal resolution
is decreased to around /4 of the rotation time.
• Multisegment reconstruction. This approach involves acquisition of data over
several cardiac cycles at the same table position, with combination of the data
in the reconstruction process. Typical numbers of segments are 2, 3, 4, and 5
(vendor-specific; Figure .2.2). Ideally, this results in a temporal resolution of /4
(two-segment), /6 (three-segment), /8 (four-segment), or /0 (five-segment) of
the rotation time. This can only be achieved for specific HRs, which makes the
effectiveness of this approach difficult to predict. Segmented reconstructions
require stable HRs and can suffer from blurring due to beat-to-beat variability.
Temporal resolution
The amount of recorded data must be increased, which usually leads to a higher
radiation dose.
• Intelligent coronary wall motion correction algorithms track the vessel path and
velocity to compensate adaptively for residual image motion (blur) on a per-
vessel and segment basis.
Single-segment reconstruction
Multisegment reconstruction
Figure .2.2 The principle of single-segment (left) and multisegment reconstruction (right; two
segments in this case). Image data at the same table position are acquired over several cardiac cycles
and combined in the reconstruction process. Segmented reconstructions require stable heart rates
(upper right panel) and can suffer from heart rate variability (lower right panel).
• In wide-area detector scanners, if the entire cardiac scan range can be covered in
one gantry rotation, the scanner table remains stationary. All images in the scan
range will be simultaneously acquired during one cardiac cycle.
Detector coverage
Technical requirements
The typical scan length of CCTA or calcium scoring examinations is around 4 cm.
Notable exceptions are CCTA bypass examinations with longer scan ranges of
around 6–22 cm.
• Ideally, the required scan length is covered in a single scan of a single cardiac cycle.
• In all other cases, the acquisition is spread over multiple cardiac cycles, which
results in a block-wise combination of the reconstructed images based on data
from multiple cardiac cycles, covering the entire examination range.
• A basic assumption is the equality of heart motion state and anatomical position
CHAPTER .2
in all contributing cardiac cycles. This explains the need for good patient breath-
hold, a regular sinus rhythm, and constant HR. Wider detectors are beneficial in
terms of the required number of blocks and scan time, with fewer requirements
related to the patient being in sinus rhythm and complying with a relatively long
10 breath-hold time.
A CT detector is typically banana shaped, consisting of many thousand individual
elements focused onto the focal spot of the X-r ay source (Figure .2.3).
• The layout of the CT detector can be described along the fan direction by the
number of detector channels in each individual detector row. This geometry
is replicated over multiple slices along the (longitudinal) z-a xis, resulting in a
multislice detector. A modern CT system suitable for cardiac imaging should
provide at least 64 detector rows.
• The width of each individual detector row or element is typically in the range of
0.5–0.8 mm at the iso-centre.
• The total detector coverage in z-a xis direction (detector collimation/physical
collimation) is the product of the number of slices times the width of the detector
element (slice width). A 64-row system with 0.625 mm slice width has a detector
collimation of 40 mm at the iso-centre.
• The physical collimation is the primary factor determining the number of
cardiac cycles required in a single cardiac scan range when different CT systems
are compared. The comparison needs to be done using the same acquisition
technique (e.g. prospective step-and-shoot and retrospective ECG-gated spiral)
as there are large systematic differences between them.
• CT systems with a periodic motion of the tube focal spot in the z-direction (z-f lying
focal spot) create an oversampling of the slices in z-direction and ‘double’ their
slices in the reconstruction process. These CT systems are often referenced by
their effective doubled slice count instead of their physical detector slice count.
The key parameters of current selected cardiac CT scanners are described in
Table .2..
X-ray source
Axis of rotation
Isocentre
Z-
AX
IS
Spatial resolution
Detector rows
64−320 Detector channels
600−1800
Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution is the ability to discern two objects as separate from one another.
• Spatial resolution plays an important role in the assessment of the severity of
coronary stenosis and the overall interpretability of CCTA images. The term
‘isotropic’ indicates similar spatial resolution achieved in the in-plane (x-and y-
axes) and through-plane (z-a xis) directions.
• Sufficient spatial resolution is required for a detailed analysis of coronary plaque
components.
• Insufficient spatial resolution leads to partial volume effects that may result in
blooming artefacts from high-attenuating objects (calcified plaque, coronary
stents), which can lead to overestimation of object size and the severity of
stenosis
The spatial or high-contrast resolution of a CT system can be determined experi-
mentally from phantom measurements of high-contrast objects with a very large
‘signal-to-noise’ ratio. The test measures the system’s ability to resolve objects of
decreasing sizes by scanning, for example, a wire phantom or an aluminium bar pat-
tern phantom. A CT system’s maximum spatial resolution, which can be achieved
given a suitable reconstruction filter/kernel, is typically provided in units of ‘line-
pairs per cm’ (lp/cm). This ‘maximum’ resolution is closely:
CHAPTER .2 Technical requirements
12
Table .2. Key parameters of current selected cardiac CT scanners
Vendor Model Physical No. of slices Physical Gantry Temporal
element (slice (physical collimation rotation resolution
width; mm)* detector (mm)† time (ms) (ms)‡
row count)
Canon Aquilion ONE/G ENESIS Edition 0.5 320 60 275 37.5
Canon Aquilion ONE/G ENESIS 320 0.5 60 80 350 75
Canon Aquilion PRIME 0.5 80 40 350 75
GE Healthcare CardioGraphe 0.5 280 40 240 20
GE Healthcare Revolution Frontier 0.625 64 40 350 75
GE Healthcare Revolution HD 0.625 64 40 350 75
GE Healthcare Revolution CT/A pex 0.625 256 60 280 40
Philips iCT Elite 0.625 28 80 270 35
Philips IQon Elite Spectral CT 0.625 64 40 270 35
Siemens Healthineers SOMATOM Definition Edge 0.6 64 38.4 285 42
Siemens Healthineers SOMATOM Force (dual source) 0.6 (2x) 96 (2x) 57.6 250 66
Siemens Healthineers SOMATOM X.cite 0.6 64 38.4 300 50
*Although unusual in cardiac mode, slice width could be larger than detector element depending on acquisition modes and reconstruction methodology.
†
Also referred to as z-a xis coverage.
‡
In-plane physical temporal resolution based on half-scan time; multisegment reconstruction or software applications not reflected.
• tied to the in-plane detector resolution limits given by the number of detector
elements and their size;
• influenced by the size of the tube focal spot and the number of projections
acquired per rotation;
• influenced by system geometry and reconstruction filter/kernel.
Clinical routine CCTA imaging does typically not achieve maximum spatial resolution
tion velocity: measurement with electron-beam CT. Radiology 2000; 26: 457–63.
Hausleiter J. Estimated radiation dose associated with cardiac CT angiography. JAMA 2009; 30: 500–7.
Lu H, Zhuo W, Xu B, Wang M. Organ and effective dose evaluation in coronary angiography by using
a 320 MDCT based on in-phantom dose measurements with TLDs. J Radiol Prot 205; 35: 597–609.
Meyer M, Haubenreisser H, Schoepf J, Vliegenthart R, Leidecker C, Allmendinger T, et al. Closing in on
the K edge: coronary CT angiography at 00, 80, and 70 kV—initial comparison of a second-versus a
third-generation dual-source CT system. Radiology 204; 273: 373–82.
CHAPTER .2
14
Chapter .3
Teaching points
• X-r ays interact with matter, affecting image quality and patient
radiation dose.
• Effective radiation dose is the parameter currently used to express 15
radiation risk.
• Tissue damage due to radiation is classified as either deterministic or
stochastic.
X-ray generation
In an X-ray tube, a heated coil filament (cathode) emits electrons by thermionic
emission. These electrons are accelerated from the negatively charged cathode to-
ward a positively charged target (anode; also see Figure ..). The energy of the
electrons that strike the anode is determined by the tube voltage (kilovolt, kV).
When the electrons hit the anode, they interact with its atoms. This interaction
generates X-r ay photons through the formation of bremsstrahlung and character-
istic radiation. The resultant X-r ay beam consists of a continuum of photon energies
(polychromatic X-r ay beam) known as the X-r ay emission spectrum (Figure .3.).
The X-r ay energy is measured in kiloelectron volts (keV).
When X-r ays pass through tissue, they are attenuated. Attenuation provides the
basis for all CT image creation and is the process by which photons are removed
from an X-r ay beam as it passes through the body. The major mechanisms leading to
attenuation are photoelectric absorption and Compton scattering. The probability
of occurrence of one mechanism rather than the other depends mainly on tissue
characteristics and the energy of the incident X-r ay photons.
Characteristic X-rays
Basic physics of X-ray imaging
Bremsstrahlung Maximum
photon energy
CHAPTER .3
Photoelectric absorption
Photoelectric absorption occurs when an incident photon interacts with a tightly
bound inner shell (K-shell) electron. During this process, the energy of the photon is
completely absorbed, and the electron is ejected as a photoelectron from its shell,
causing ionization of the atom. Consequently, an electron from an outer shell drops
down to fill the vacancy in the inner shell, resulting in the production of a character-
istic X-r ay (see Figure .3.2).
Photoelectric absorption is related to the effective atomic number (Z), tissue
density (ρ), and energy level of the X-r ay beam (E) by the formula Z3ρ/E3.
• The likelihood of photoelectric absorption decreases dramatically with increasing
incident photon energy. Conversely, its probability of occurrence increases when
the energy of the incident photon is close to the binding energy of the electron in
the K-shell.
• The higher the effective atomic number, the higher the X-r ay absorption. If Z
doubles, photoelectric absorption is increased by a factor of 8.
Photoelectron
Principles of dual-energy CT
Figure .3.2 Photoelectric absorption.
Compton scattering
Compton scattering occurs when an incident photon interacts with a loosely bound
outer shell electron. During this process, the energy of the photon is partially
absorbed by the electron. This results in the ejection of the electron (Compton
electron) and the scattering of the resultant lower-energy Compton photon in a dif-
ferent direction (Figure .3.3).
Compton scattering leads to:
• increased patient radiation dose due to the absorption of scattered photons;
• reduced image quality due to increased image noise caused by the scattered photons.
Compton scattering is directly proportional to tissue density but, unlike photoelec-
tric absorption, it is independent of the material’s effective atomic number. Compton
scattering is the predominant interaction of X-ray photons with soft tissue in the en-
ergy range 30 keV to 30 meV.
Principles of dual-energy CT
Materials or tissues with different elemental composition (atomic numbers and
tissue density) can have identical or very similar ability to absorb X-r ays, leading to
similar Hounsfield units (HU) being assigned to them in the process of CT image for-
mation. This makes tissue differentiation a challenge on CT.
Compton electron
Basic physics of X-ray imaging
Incident photon
Compton photon
1000
100
µ/cm–1
10
0.1
0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Energy/keV
Bone
Iodine (ρ=1)
19
Iodine (ρ=0.1)
Figure .3.4 Dual-e nergy CT. Linear attenuation coefficients as a function of X-r ay energy.
Linear attenuation coefficients for bone (assuming ρ = g/cm3), iodine (assuming ρ = g/cm3), and
iodine with lower density (assuming ρ =0. g/cm3) as a function of X-r ay energy (in kiloelectron
volts (keV)). Assuming monoenergetic X-r ays were used, at 00 keV the same linear attenuation
coefficients can be measured for bone and iodine (arrow). Measuring attenuation at a second energy,
50 keV, enables the differentiation of the two materials (arrowhead). Although X-r ay tubes for
diagnostic use generate a polyenergetic spectra, the general principle remains true.
Source: Reproduced from McCollough CH, Leng S, Yu L, Fletcher JG. (205) Dual-and Multi-E nergy
CT: Principles, Technical Approaches, and Clinical Application. Radiology, 276(3):637–53. doi: 0.48/
radiol.2054263 with permission from RSNA.
(ICRP, 99) for cardiac CT, recent studies have derived higher values, particu-
larly a K-factor of 0.028. With the accumulation of newer data, the K-factor
is likely to be periodically updated. Examples of tissues with higher and lower
radiosensitivities are breast (weighting factor 0.2) and skin tissue (weighting
factor 0.0), respectively.
As with all radiological procedures, the ALARA (‘as low as reasonably achievable’)
principle should always be employed (see Chapter .7). Thanks to technological ad-
vancements and new scan protocols, the radiation dose has decreased considerably
in the last decades, while preserving image quality.
Stochastic effect
Spontaneous
incidence
Radiation dose
Further reading
Bushberg JT. The AAPM/R SNA physics tutorial for residents—X-r ay interaction. Radiographics 998;
8: 457–68.
Halliburton SS, Abbara S, Chen MY, Gentry R, Mahesh M, Raff GL, et al. SCCT guidelines on radi-
ation dose and dose-optimization strategies in cardiovascular CT. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 20;
5: 98–2 24.
McCollough C, Leng S, Yu L, Fletcher JG. Dual-and multi-e nergy CT: principles, technical approaches,
and clinical applications. Radiology 205; 276: 637–53.
Trattner S, Halliburton S, Thompson CM, Xu Y, Chelliah A, Jambawalikar SR, et al. Cardiac-specific
conversion factors to estimate radiation effective dose from dose-length product in computed tom-
ography. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 208; : 64–74.
CHAPTER .3
22
Chapter .4
Teaching points
• Appropriate patient selection and preparation is vital to ensure patient
safety, minimize ionizing radiation, and improve diagnostic accuracy by
avoiding artefacts.
• Patient selection should be considered in accordance with appropriate
local and international guidelines.
• Preparation for cardiac CT should be individualized according to
the clinical question, the patient’s characteristics, and possible
contraindications.
• A focused anamnesis and safety checklist before the examination is
helpful in avoiding undesired events and optimizing diagnostic ability. 23
Patient selection
• Indications for cardiac CT should be vetted for appropriateness against standard
cardiac CT appropriate-use criteria.
• Patients’ pretest probability should be considered when choosing coronary
CT angiography (CCTA) to assess coronary artery disease (CAD), and
generally considered for patients with a low-to-intermediate clinical likelihood
of obstructive CAD.
• For non-coronary cardiac CT, knowing the previous and planned cardiac
procedures is important.
• General contraindications for CT and specific contraindications for cardiac CT on
the planned protocol must be evaluated.
• Non-compliance and inability to follow breathing instructions: anaesthesia
might be helpful (especially in paediatric patients) or consider the use of a high-
pitch acquisition mode where available.
• Unstable clinical condition: postpone CT and consider an alternative test.
• Known history of severe and/or anaphylactic contrast reaction: obtain
a full medical history, and consider other type of contrast agent and/or
premedication (see Chapter .0).
• Renal insufficiency and risk of contrast-induced nephropathy: all requests
for examinations involving iodinated contrast administration should be
Patient selection and preparation
Other:
Allergies Medication allergies and specify (Y/N)
Prior severe allergic reaction: (Y/N)
Prior allergic reaction to X-r ay dye in the past (Y/N)
Female patients Breastfeeding (Y/N)
26
Possibility of pregnancy (Y/N)
* *
*
Warum hatte die Sonne noch nie so hell geschienen, wie an den
nun folgenden Tagen, das Heu noch nie so süßen Duft ausgeströmt,
die klaren Wasser noch nie so melodisch gerauscht, die Ferne noch
nie so verführerisch gelockt? Hanni dachte nicht viel darüber nach,
sondern überließ sich der beglückenden Gegenwart ohne jeden
Rückhalt. Sie fühlte keine Ermüdung, wie früh morgens auch die
Wanderungen begannen. Und wenn am Abend der Mond seinen
flimmernden Schein über die Wiesen ergoß, dann bedurfte es eines
elterlichen Machtspruchs, um die junge Gesellschaft überhaupt zur
Ruhe zu bringen.
Aber auch »die ältesten Leute« gaben zu, einen solchen August
noch nicht erlebt zu haben.
An einem strahlenden Nachmittag kam der stets beschäftigte
Student Eisen mit eiligen Schritten den Fußweg vom Bauernhaus
herauf: »Was für ein Glück, Herr Schack, daß Sie hier so zu Hause
sind! Denken Sie, die beiden Führer, die Majors für die Zugspitze
bestellt hatten, telephonierten eben ab. Sie wären für einen
Krankentransport bestimmt, da müsse alles andere zurückstehen.
Aber Frau Dr. Kähler hat den ihren sicher, und der Burgerhannes
vom Bauernhaus will mitkommen. Wenn dann Sie die dritte Stelle
übernehmen, so ist doch wohl aller Vorsicht Genüge getan! – Wie oft
waren Sie doch oben?«
»Fünfmal, glaube ich, und an den schwierigen Stellen ist mir jeder
Fußbreit bekannt. Ich habe den Weg gefunden, als vor Schnee kein
Drahtseil zu sehen war. Jetzt bei dem klaren Wetter hat’s gar keine
Gefahr! Nicht wahr, Herr Major, Sie vertrauen uns beiden die
Führung Ihrer jungen Damen an? Den Hannes habe ich als einen
durchaus zuverlässigen, ruhigen Menschen kennen gelernt, und ich
für mein Teil bürge dafür, daß nichts Unvorsichtiges geschieht.«
Nach ernstlicher Beratung, der die jungen Mädchen mit nur
mühsam verhaltener Sorge zugehört hatten, wurde der Aufbruch der
kleinen Gesellschaft für drei Uhr früh festgesetzt. Man wollte gern an
einem Tage auf dem Gipfel sein, dort übernachten und am folgenden
Tage den Heimweg antreten. Alle wußten, daß dies eine Leistung
nur für ganz tüchtige Bergwanderer war, und gerade das reizte den
Eifer. Jede Kleinigkeit an den Vorbereitungen wurde mit der Sorgfalt
gemacht, die einer Nordpolfahrt würdig gewesen wäre, und früh
ging’s zur Ruhe, um die nötigen Kräfte zu sammeln. Eben vorm
Schlafengehen schlüpfte Hanni noch einmal zum Abschied in ihrer
Mutter Zimmer, wußte sie doch, daß es der Teuren einen wirklichen
Entschluß gekostet hatte, ihre Erlaubnis zu geben. »Ich verspreche
dir fest, vorsichtig zu sein und gar nichts Waghalsiges zu tun! – Und
Herr Schack paßt ja auf, der so genau Bescheid weiß!« fügte sie
hinzu und verbarg ihr Erröten an der Schulter der Mutter, die sie
innig umarmte.
»Ja, Liebling, ich habe auch keine Angst. Gott ist mit euch. Aber
wenn ihr wieder da seid, will ich doch froh sein.«
O, das Wonnegefühl, mit der Sonne um die Wette
emporzusteigen, eine Höhe nach der anderen unter sich zu lassen,
immer neue Rundblicke, immer freiere Fernsicht! Berückend ist es!
Und wenn der Durst sich meldet, an dem springenden,
plätschernden Bergquell zu rasten, der seinen strömenden Reichtum
unversiegbar hergibt – immerfort und immerfort! Wieviel Gleichnisse
sind an solche Quelle geknüpft worden, wieviel ist über ihre
Unerschöpflichkeit gedichtet! – Ganz kennt nur der sie, der an so
einem himmlischen Morgen, die Glieder ins weiche Moos gestreckt,
ihrer klaren Stimme gelauscht hat und bis ins Herz erquickt ist von
ihrer kühlen Frische.
Als die Wanderer sich gründlich gestärkt und ausgeruht hatten,
ging’s mit neuer Freude voran. Die Sonne brannte schon heißer,
aber was machte das aus, wenn man soviel Überschuß an Kräften
hatte!
»Jetzt kann ich Ihnen klarmachen, was Sie für mich sind,« sagte
Hermann zu der vor ihm auf dem schmalen Fußpfad hinwandernden
Hanni, die so leicht und sicher ging, als wäre Mühe ihr etwas
Unbekanntes. »So leer und durstig nach allem Guten war ich, bevor
wir uns kannten. Sie sind für mich Erquickung und Leben, wie die
frische Quelle für den Verschmachtenden.«
Er konnte ihr Gesicht nicht sehen, der Weg war schmal, und man
mußte acht geben auf die steilen Abhänge.
Als man eine der unwegsamsten Stellen ohne jeden Zwischenfall
passiert hatte, sagte der Student eifrig: »Die Damen steigen ganz
großartig, wir müssen wirklich den Abstieg übers Höllental nehmen,
dann kommen wir eher heim und können doch nachher mitreden.«
Käte stimmte begeistert zu und auch die übrigen waren für den
Vorschlag. Nur Hanni sagte nichts, und als sie später eine
Gelegenheit fand, mit ihrem Begleiter allein zu sprechen, vertraute