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EMPOWRING GREEN: THE VITAL NEXUS OFCRITICAL MINERALS

AND RENEWABLE ENERGY

COURSE NAME: FUNDAMENTALS ON EARTH SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: 1203

SUBMITTED BY:
ANIKATUZZAMAN NAURIN
ID: 23532007027

SUBMITTED TO:
MD. GOLAM MUKTADIR
LECTURER
DEPARTMANT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SUBMISSON DATE: 18 MAY 2024

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Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 3
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CRITICAL MINERALS ........................................................................................... 4
URANIUM .................................................................................................................................................. 5
COPPER ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
SILVER ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
NICKEL ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
COBALT ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
SUSTAINABLE CHAIN CHALLENGES ............................................................................................................... 7
FUTURE INDICATION: SCENARIO OF CRITICAL MINERALS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES ........... 8
Critical Minerals in Electric Vehicles and Power Generation .................................................................... 8
Critical Minerals in Solar Power ................................................................................................................ 8
Critical Minerals in Wind Power ................................................................................................................ 9
Critical Minerals in Nuclear Power ............................................................................................................ 9
IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 10
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 10
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ABSTRACT
Our globe is facing enormous changes in its climatic conditions and patterns by the increase in
carbon, nitrogen and other GHGs which leads to global warming and many other earths physical
changes that causes trouble for our sustainable life. These problems can be minimized by
utilizing that technologies which do not produce any harmful emissions at the earth’s surface.
The green technologies are : solar panel, wind power , electric battery , nuclear power and so on.
These technologies are conducted by the renewable natural resources which are called critical
minerals such as: lithium, uranium, silver, nickel, cobalt etc. these minerals are nature friendly
and can be recycled which is used as the replacement of fossil, fuel and GHGs emitted materials.
Though there are some geopolitical issues and its natural impact of mining minerals some
governmental and worldwide spewing and helpful measures need to be taken as the green
powering has a bright future.

INTRODUCTION
For generations, humanity has relied heavily on fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas to power
our lives. These sources have given us the energy to light up our cities, drive our vehicles, and run
our factories. But there's a dark side to this dependency. The amount of energy consumed
worldwide has grown by almost a third since 2000 and is expected to do so for some time to come.
The world's energy consumption is expected to increase by 30% to 740 million terajoules by 2040.
This will result in a 77 percent increase in worldwide energy consumption between 2000 and 2040.
The amount of energy used worldwide could quadruple from 300 to 900 million terajoules between
1980 and 2050. It's challenging to estimate how much energy is used globally.[1] Burning fossil
fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Over time, these
gases have accumulated, creating a thickening "blanket" around Earth that traps heat. This
phenomenon, known as the greenhouse effect, is the primary driver of global warming and the
resulting climate change we're experiencing today. This change manifests as extreme weather
patterns, rising sea levels, and shifts in global temperatures, all of which have serious implications
for our planet and its inhabitants. The solution is the uses of renewable energy.
Harnessing the Power of Sun, Wind, and Water: Renewable energy sources, like solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power, offer a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. However, critical minerals are a
frequently disregarded component that operate behind the scenes in solar panels and wind turbines.
These minerals, which include rare earth elements, lithium, and cobalt, are essential to the
development and operation of renewable energy technologies. The fundamentals of
critical minerals are evaluated, along with the current global initiatives to address environmental
concerns and the demands of automotive supply chains, in order to fully understand their critical
role in the successful deployment of clean energy technologies in future transportation(F.
Czerwinski, 2022) .Together critical minerals with renewable energies can minimize the uses of the
non-renewable energies and thus can reduce the carbon emissions which results in minimizing the
global warming and climate change. Because of their availability can shorten the lifespan of such
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technologies, and particularly need to be concerned about the rise in demand for specific metals
brought on by the quick development of new technologies.( L. T.PEIRO´, 2013)

RENEWABLE ENERGY AND CRITICAL MINERALS

Energy derived from resources that replenish naturally within a human timescale, such as sunshine,
wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat, is referred to as renewable energy. When used,
renewable energy sources are plentiful and emit little to no greenhouse gases or other pollutants,
in contrast to fossil fuels, which are limited and cause pollution and carbon emissions that worsen
the environment. Solar panels for solar energy, wind turbines for wind energy, hydroelectric dams
for hydroelectric power, and geothermal power plants for geothermal energy are some examples
of renewable energy technology. These renewable resources are becoming more effective,
affordable, and available to communities everywhere because to technological breakthroughs.
The goal of the European Union's Climate Action initiative is to cut greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by 80 to 95% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. A 40% reduction is desired through
2030. Related technologies are necessary for the promotion of renewable energy sources and
energy efficiency. Regrettably, these technologies frequently rely on "critical metals." When a
metal is needed for renewable energy technologies and is rare due to its geological occurrence, it
is considered critical. (L. Grandell et. Al, 2016)
Metals and non-metals that are essential to society's economic health are referred to as critical
minerals (CMs). They come from three different sources: primary, which are ore deposits;
secondary, which are wastes like electronic (e) waste; and tertiary, which are imports. The CMs
that were subsequently retrieved are highly sought for in a variety of sectors that rely on traditional,
advanced, and cutting-edge technologies. (D. R. Raju (N/A). They are included as strategic
commodities for clean energy, high-tech semiconductors, medical equipment, aerospace, and other
industries, as well as weapons systems for national defense, on at least fifteen national and regional
lists. The majority of vital minerals for energy, including rare earths, cobalt, manganese,
aluminum, bauxite, graphite, lithium, nickel, and platinum group metals, overlap among the 15
lists. (A. DeWit (2023)

Figure: Critical mineral and renewable energy (Land_links.org)

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LITHIUM
An essential part of lithium-ion electric vehicles is lithium. Since lithium is so economically
significant, even though there are potential replacements depending on how it is used, its low
supply risk makes it a critical metal. Its primary economic significance comes from its use as a
raw material for the manufacture of batteries for portable electronic devices like laptops and cell
phones, as well as from its role as an essential part of electric cars. Due to its small weight and
high reducing power, lithium batteries have 50% higher gravimetric and volumetric energy
densities than conventional batteries (usually above 160 Wh/kg and 400 Wh/L). Although lithium
was first used as an industrial catalyst, an additive in frits and glass formulations, and a hardener
in lead alloy-bearing material, its use in secondary batteries is currently the use that is growing at
the fastest rate (L. T. PEIRO´, 2013).
Nowadays, pegmatites, coarse-grained igneous rocks created by magma crystallizing at depth in
the crust as well as clays and seawater are used to extract lithium (L. T. PEIRO´, 2013). Nowadays,
sulfuric acid (an acid approach), calcium oxide (an alkali method), potassium sulfate K2SO4 (a
salt method), or sulfuric acid (an acid method) are used to break down lithium's native minerals,
which are subsequently leached with water. The difference between the solubilities of sodium and
lithium chlorides in concentrated solutions and in the presence of other metal salts is the basis for
the hydrological approach used to extract lithium from natural brines (Kudryavtsev, P. (2016).
Production of lithium secondary batteries increased approximately 25% between 2000 and
2007.Since lithium-ion secondary batteries offer better energy densities and so improve operation,
they are taking the place of nickel metal hybrid (NiMH) batteries, which were used in the first
commercialized electric vehicles (L. T. PEIRO´, 2013).
URANIUM
Common use of uranium in the military is in high density penetrators, such as the Armour Piercing
Disposable Sabo (APDS), which are mostly used as anti-tank weaponry. Depleted uranium plates
are also used to stiffen the armor of tanks and other detachable vehicle parts. In the civilian sector,
uranium is mostly used to power nuclear power plants. Certain containers used for the storage and
transportation of radioactive materials also contain depleted uranium as a shielding material.
Additional applications for depleted uranium include ship counterweights, missile re-entry vehicle
ballast, and airplane control surface counterweights (Awan, I. Z. (2015).
Uranium can be found in a wide range of concentrations in geological matrices, such as 2–5 mg
kg−1 in metamorphic rocks, below 1–23 g kg−1 in igneous rocks, 3–647 mg kg−1 in phosphatized
limestones, 46–85 mg kg−1 in phosphate ores, and approximately 71 and 11 mg kg−1 in slate and
bauxites, respectively (K. S. Patel et al , 2023).Assuming full fission, one kilogram of uranium-235
can theoretically create roughly 20 terajoules of energy (2 X 1013 joules), which is equivalent to
1500 tons of coal. Fuel used in commercial nuclear power reactors is normally enriched to contain
about 3% uranium-235. Fuel rods, made of zirconium metal tubes, are used to hold the uranium
oxide (UO2) pellets that are created from this 3% enriched UF6 gas (Awan, I. Z. (2015).

COPPER
Currently, red metal "copper" is thought of as a clean energy metal. Copper's critical qualities,
including conductivity, ductility, efficiency, and recyclability, are what make it a valuable material
for renewable energy sources like solar and wind power. Flow batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and
sodium batteries are used extensively in the electric vehicle manufacturing industry. Once more,
four to six times as much copper is needed for the production of electricity from solar and wind
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energy than from fossil fuels (non-renewable resources), which helps to partially offset the
consumption of non-renewable energy. Three megawatts (MW) of power from a wind turbine
system requires 4.7 tons of copper, whereas 5.5 tons are required for a solar power system to
produce one MW. Again, 44 pounds and 540 pounds of copper are needed for a one-megawatt
energy storage system using a lithium-ion battery and a flow battery, respectively. The usage of
electric vehicles (EVs) is starting to gain traction since they produce less or no pollution in the
environment, save money on gasoline, and provide energy independence a feature that greatly
depends on copper. Thus, copper output will eventually be impacted by the growing demand for
electric vehicles. The requirement for copper is expected to increase by 1700 kt by 2027.
According to the World Bank research, copper's widespread use in developing low-carbon
technology and technology-based mitigation scenarios which will eventually result in a low-carbon
future has madeitan essential component (S. S. Jena et al, 2022) Every year, almost 24 million metric
tons of refined copper are made from ore and scrap, while over 5 million metric tons of copper
scrap are melted down and recycled. According to Copper Alliance estimates, around 35% of
annual usage is derived via recycling (Copper Alliance, 2017). Roughly 20% to 37% of copper is
recycled overall (UNEP, 2011). Copper is an element that is difficult to re place due to its special
qualities (G. Calvo and A. Valero (2022).

SILVER
Silver is a naturally occurring metal with a wide range of applications in electronics, electrical
systems, photography, and imaging, among other fields. It is well recognized that industrial uses
release it into the environment, which raises the risk of exposure to both terrestrial and aquatic life.
The form that silver takes when it enters the environment matters because there are significant
variations in the toxicity of different silver compounds. A wide range of aquatic creatures have
been demonstrated to be poisonous to the ionic form of silver, whereas the free, or non-ionic, form
of silver is much less harmful. Ionic silver is known to quickly react with naturally occurring
chemical ligands in sewage treatment plants, sewer networks, and the environment to transform
into more benign forms (PURCELL T. W. and PETERS J. J., (1998).It is used in some low-carbon
technologies, it is only deemed significant in specific analyses (Moss et al., 2011). It is anticipated
that between 2018 and 2050, demand for this element will rise by 37%. With an average of 133
kg/MW, c-Si solar panels are the most significant users of silver, even if silver is used in all
renewable technologies (Valero et al., 2018b). Sector-specific silver recycling rates range greatly
from less than 5% in the auto industry to over 60% in industrial uses or 90% in coinage (UNEP,
2011). Silver is the most precious element of all the elements found in c-Si solar cells, and
numerous studies have examined various methods for recovering it after disposal, including
electrochemical procedures (G. Calvo and A. Valero (2022).
NICKEL
Used for cutlery, bathroom taps and shower heads, jet engines, vehicles, cell phones, alloys,
batteries, and coinage (D. R. Raju, (N/A). Electroless composite coatings are mostly used on
machining and finishing tools that need to have the highest possible wear resistance, surface
friction coefficient, and hardness. Ni-P-PTFE offers surfaces that are corrosion-resistant, good
wear resistance, high dry lubricity, low friction, and non-stick. Molds for rubber and plastic parts,
pumps, valves, oil and gas sector butterfly valves, fasteners, precision instrument parts, aluminum
air cylinders, carburetors, and choke shafts are among the applications for it (J. Sudagar et al, 2013)
EV lithium-ion batteries are the primary application for nickel. The three layers that make up an
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EV battery are the cathode, anode, and separators. Lithium with a mixture of nickel and other
minerals make up the majority of the anode. However, in the last few years, producers of EV
batteries have discovered that increasing the amount of nickel in the cathoods compared to earlier
battery models increases the energy density. Batteries and stainless-steel nickel are also required
to guarantee the longevity and integrity of nuclear power plants.
Figures from the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) indicate that 68% of nickel
is recycled, with a range of 29% to 41% for the recycled content (UNEP, 2011). High-purity
recycled steel or stainless-steel waste can be used to create new stainless steel that contains nickel
(G. Calvo and A. Valero (2022).

COBALT
Cobalt is a necessary material for lithium-ion batteries, which give electric vehicles (EVs) the
range and thermal stability to rival internal combustion engines. NMC batteries have between 10%
and 20% cobalt. These batteries feature the lowest self-heating rate, the highest capacity, the
highest power, and a high recycling rate. As ores containing nickel and copper are refined, cobalt
is the byproduct. According to Shedd et al. (2017), around 43% of the world's cobalt production
in 2015 came from mining nickel, and 44% from copper. Cobalt-containing minerals, such as
arsenide’s, oxides, and sulfides, are present in ores in relatively tiny amounts and are employed in
chemical and metallurgical processes such as hard metals, superalloys, catalysts, pigments, and
rechargeable battery components (G. Calvo and A. Valero (2022). 25% cobalt is present in smaltite
(CoAs2) Barceloux D. G. (1999).

SUPPLY CHAIN CHALLENGES

1. According to Henckens et al. (2016), certain vital mineral resources are easily controlled by a
small number of countries due to their geographic concentration in a few chosen countries and
regions. Crucial mineral markets could experience supply chain disruptions and are susceptible to
geopolitical impact. Using lithium batteries as an example, industries that cannot expand
downstream, such as those in cobalt, nickel, and lithium batteries, will always struggle with the
issue of being too big but not strong, and their products' added value will be too low. This will
further impede the advancement of battery energy storage technology (B. Wang et al., 2023)
2.The effects of mining on water resources, such as rivers and groundwater, are particularly
widespread on a big and small scale because of acid mine drainage and the water required for ore
processing. Many times, the low-pH water that runs off mines crosses former tailings piles, adding
high levels of hazardous heavy metals to nearby streams (J. K. Jacka, (2022).
3. The workforce in on-the-ground mining is projected to evolve based on GSI's susceptibility to
modern slavery. Figure 6A compares the projected workforce for on-ground mining in both
scenarios (STEPS and SDS) in 2040 to the workforce in 2019, with each country's GSI 2019 grade
serving as a proxy for vulnerability to modern slavery (B. Berthet et al.,2024)
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FUTURE INDICATION: SCENARIO OF CRITICAL MINERALS IN

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Figure: Critical mineral in various renewable technologies (A. DeWit, (2023).

Critical Minerals in Electric Vehicles and Power Generation

An average EV uses far more materials than a typical car, as shown in the figure's top part,
"Transport." There were approximately 1.2 billion passenger automobiles in the world's fleet of
conventional vehicles as of 2022, while the number of electric vehicles (EVs) may have
increased to 27 million from just one million in 2016. While it is still in its early stages, the
electrification of transportation is developing quickly. When expressed in kilograms/megawatt
(kg/MW) of generation capacity, the lower portion of Figures titled "Power generation"
demonstrates that nuclear and renewable power generation technologies have a material density
that is much higher than that of fossil fuels like coal and natural gas.

Figure: critical mineral demand in EVs and power generation (A. DeWit, (2023).

Critical Minerals in Solar Power

The graph shows how dependent solar panels will be between 2020 and 2040 on three essential
minerals which estimates solar’s increased demand for the three critical mineral based on two
scenarios: the Stated Policies Scenario（STEPS）which implies global warming of over 3
degrees Celsius; and the Sustainable Development Scenario （SDS）， whose aim is to limit
global warming to under 2 degrees Celsius, and ideally to no more than 1.5 degrees.
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Figure: Critical mineral demand in solar power (A. DeWit, (2023).

Critical Minerals in Wind Power

The essential material demand from onshore and offshore wind generation in 2020 and beyond is
depicted in the figure. In an SDS scenario, the demand for copper, zinc, and other metals nearly
triples between 2020 and 2030, as the figure's left side illustrates.

Figure : Critical mineral demand for wind power (A. DeWit, (2023).

Critical Minerals in Nuclear Power

For STEPS and SDS scenarios, the anticipated capacity gains and essential mineral consumption
from nuclear power are summarized in the accompanying figure. According to the following
data, China, Russia, and the Middle East accounted for the majority of new nuclear capacity
expansions in 2020, which involved around 50 kt of essential minerals. a doubling of the average
annual capacity additions in nuclear, particularly in China, in the 2040 SDS scenario. For the
2030 and 2040 SDS scenarios, the key mineral demand from nuclear capacity expansions is
somewhat higher than 80 kt.
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Figure: Critical mineral demand in nuclear power (A. DeWit, (2023).

IMPLICATIONS
The infrastructure is in place to facilitate the energy transition, in theory. However, significant
mining must be increased, which could take some time, as demand for several essential resources
is expected to rise. Meanwhile, significant price swings can be caused by mismatches between
supply and demand, and new geopolitical dangers might arise from the concentration of resources,
mining, and processing in several nations. When creating their plans for the energy transition,
governments should take important materials into account. Future dependencies cannot be
permitted to be handled only by the market, particularly in a world becoming more and more
multipolar. If governments are to regard the supply of key minerals to be vital, they must establish
explicit policy objectives and restrictions. When this is judged necessary, this may entail the
creation of strategic material caches and active support for the establishment of certain safe supply
channels. Constructive and productive approaches to geopolitical concerns include facilitating free
commerce, diversifying suppliers, and organizing an organized global discourse (D. Gielen, 2021)

CONCLUSION
Critical mineral is the blessing for the sustainable earth and green future to utilize the renewable
green technology. So, to reduce supply risks and their negative effects on the environment, this
reliance also emphasizes the significance of creating sustainable mining methods, diversifying
supply sources, and investing in recycling technologies. Through tackling these obstacles, we
can guarantee that the green energy revolution is both financially feasible and ecologically
conscious, ultimately cultivating a future that is more resilient and sustainable.
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