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BUDDHISM AND POLITICS IN ASIA PACIFIC: THAILAND, MYANMAR

AND CAMBODIA

Tegar Kartika A (), Wina Nur F (), Wiwit Nurjanah (), Yasmine Putri N (212030102),
Umi Cahyani ()

INTRODUCTION DISCUSSION

Buddhism first flourished in northern India in the 6th century BC with the
teaching of Sakyamuni Buddha. Buddha is not a name but a title. He was born in 623
BC and was a prince named Siddharta Gautama. He was born in the southern
Himalayan city of Lumbini. He lived a life of affluence and luxury with his biological
father, King Kaplavastu. The difference in the miserable life felt by the people around
him caused Siddharta to think that life is a real misery that cannot be avoided. This
caused Siddhara to leave his worldly life filled with luxury and start a new life by
becoming an ascetic (Anggriawan, 2020).

Siddharta is the title given to him for winning the victory of the gods. Because
he felt that meditation did not provide any benefit, he finally sought a middle way,
namely Hajhima Patipada. After meditating 49 times under the bodhi tree he became
Buddha. He spread his faith in India for 45 years, by teaching the way to achieve
understanding and understanding. As time went by, the number of Buddhists began to
increase, starting from kings and their subjects to ask the Buddha for guidance. In the
6th century to the 2nd century BC the Indian state was in turmoil because there was a
political crisis (Hayati, 2023).

Buddhism in Thailand

Buddhism has developed and expanded into various countries, one of which is
Thailand. Buddhism is the main religion of Thailand because it dominates more than 64
million with 95% of Thailand's population adhering to the religion. In Thailand,
Buddhism entered in the 3rd century BC right when
Greek influence entered India. monks from Sri Lanka with the Lankavamsa sect settled
for the first time in Nakorn Sridhammaraj. Then King Ramkhamhaeng invited Phra
Mahaswami to the capital and gave them support to spread Buddhism (Haqiqiyah,
2013).

King Ramkhamhaeng was the king of the Skhothai kingdom in Thailand by

establishing Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka in the 13th century AD. After that
Lankavamsa Buddhism or also called Theravada Buddhism became more widespread
and widely practiced in Thailand Thravada Buddhism became the first and oldest
Buddhist tradition to enter Thailand. Stupas such as Wat Si Chum and Wat Mahathat
located in Sukhothai became a legacy as well as evidence of the glory of Theravada
Buddhism at that time. Other relics of this school of Buddhism include footprints,
Buddha chairs and Dharma Chakras as well as several Pali inscriptions (Nigalolon,
2024).

The Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century-M became the successor to

Sukhothai as the new successor of Theravada Buddhism. During the Ayudhya Period,
Buddhism increasingly entered the lives of Thai people. With the addition of new
temples under the names Wat Phra Si Sanpet and Wat Ratchaburana, the tradition of
translating sacred Buddhist texts that was previously practiced during the time of
Lankavamsa Buddhism was still up and running. Buddhist education and study made
Ayutthaya its center. The reforms of Rama I and Rama IV foreshadowed the fall of
Ayutthaya to strengthen the Sangha (community of Buddhist monks) institution. At this
time Theravada Buddhism became the majority religion of the Thai people and clung to
its identity and culture.

As explained earlier that Buddhism is the main religion of Thailand because it

dominates more than 64 million by showing 95% of the Thai population who adhere to
the religion, therefore the influence of Buddhism, especially its largest school,
Theravada, has an effect on Thailand's socio-cultural life. In a book entitled A Buddhist
Apporach to International Relations Long argues that Buddhism tends to make politics
a means of creating apolitical interests (politics as an important pillar in facilitating
individuals to achieve spiritual happiness) (Nigalolon, 2024).
 The institution of the Sangha, a community of Buddhist monks, plays an
important role in Thai politics. The Sangha acts as a spiritual advisor to the kings and
their families to provide views based on Buddhist teachings in determining important
decisions for state policy. In addition, the Sangha institution also plays an important role
in providing legitimacy to power in Thailand. The kings are regarded as religious
figures with the title Dharmaraja which requires the government to make decisions in
accordance with Buddhist principles. Education, which is largely under the purview of
monks, is also taught in standard Thai, as opposed to Pali, the sacred language of the
dominant Theravada Buddhist school in Thailand, and local languages such as Laotian.
Wide-ranging in the administrative sphere, the Sangha Act of 1902 introduced a
hierarchical structure within Buddhist institutions, especially with regard to the chao
awat (abbots) in monasteries, who were now forced to report to government-appointed
district heads and regional heads (KurzyDlowski, 2022).

According to the Buddhist view, politics if carried out in harmony with the
principles of dharma, can be a means of improving the welfare of the people. The
dharma principles in question consist of several aspects, namely welfare, justice and
people's participation and consent in political decision-making in accordance with
Buddhist recommendations. In addition, the Buddha's dharma teachings also teach the
principles of equality, justice and moral ethics. In addition, as explained earlier,
Buddhism has also been part of the government in Thailand during the ancient
kingdoms, kings claimed themselves as the main patron of Buddhism. The institution of
the Sangha, a community of Buddhist monks, was also a major influence in government
life.

Buddhism was also influential in building a sense of nationalism in Thailand. As

shown by King Chulongkron's leadership, the Buddhist sangha was organized nationally
and led by the king's Sangha, then monastic education was under the auspices of the
government. Religion and government unite to form the concept of nation, religion and
king into the basis of modern Thai ideology (Putro, 2014). In the modern era Buddha is
often used as a symbol for political parties in campaigning for their parties. In addition,
Sangha reform and temple funding have also become one of the subjects of politics in
Thailand.
Buddhism in Myanmar

Buddhism has been the dominant spiritual and cultural force in Myanmar since
ancient times, playing an important role in the country's history, politics and national
identity. Buddhism first developed in Myanmar in the 2nd century BC, Myanmar or
known as Burma in its history, is one of the major countries that embraced Traveda
Buddhism. The first spread was carried out by the Mon tribe who were influenced by
Indian culture and accepted Buddhism as their belief. The spread of Buddhism in
Myanmar occurred before the split between the Mahayana and Hinayana schools that
occurred during Asoka's reign in India. The oldest Buddhist temples in Myanmar were
built in the Mon kingdom in Central Myanmar between the 1st and 5th centuries AD.
Although the Theravada school began to flourish in Myanmar in the 5th century AD, it
was gradually replaced by the Mahayana school from the 6th century AD. However,
thereafter Buddhism in Myanmar was dominated by the Theravada Tradition, which is
practiced by about 89% of the country's population.

In recent years, Myanmar has had the honor of hosting the Sixth Buddhist
Council, which took place in Yangon (Rangoon) in 1954 and 1956. In addition,
Myanmar is the source of two major systems of Vipassana meditation that have spread
throughout the world. The tradition originating from the venerable Mahasi Sayadaw of
Thathana Yeiktha and the tradition originating from Sayagi U Ba Khin of the
International Meditation Center. The influence of Buddhism in Myanmar is not limited
to the spiritual and cultural realms, but has also had a significant impact on the politics
and governance of the country.

For centuries, the relationship between religion and state has been closely
intertwined in Myanmar. Myanmar's kings claim the legitimacy of their rule through the
support of the Sangha, the Buddhist monastic community (Leider, 2012). They are
regarded as protectors of religion and their sovereignty is considered part of their
religious duty to safeguard and promote Buddhism. The government in power from
1962 to 2011, known as the military government, used Buddhism as a tool to gain
legitimacy and support national identity. Even after the transition to a semi-civilian
government, the relationship between state and religion remained strong (Schober,
2011).
 The role of Myanmar's politics and governance in the context of Buddhism is
complex and often involved in a complicated dynamic between political power and
religious authority. Monk-led movements, such as the Saffron Revolution of 2007,
highlight the intersection of religion and politics. Buddhist monks have been both
supporters and critics of governments, depending on the political context and the issues
at stake. This dynamic reflects how Buddhism is inextricably linked to Myanmar's
socio-political fabric, influencing policy, governance and national identity.

Buddhism in Cambodia

Buddhism in Cambodia has a rich and varied history, evolving through various
periods marked by significant cultural and religious changes. Buddhism first arrived in
Cambodia between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, introduced through trade routes from
India and Sri Lanka. In this early period, Buddhism coexisted with Hinduism and
Mahayana Buddhism. These religious traditions were practiced simultaneously,
contributing to a diverse spiritual landscape. The simultaneous presence of various
religious practices laid the foundation for Cambodia's complex religious heritage
(Mukhopadhyaya, 2013).

The Angkor period, which lasted from the 9th to the 15th century, was a time of
significant religious and cultural development. The Khmer Empire, which dominated
this era, initially adopted Hinduism as the state religion. The magnificent Angkor Wat
temple complex, originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu, stands as a
testament to this Hindu influence. However, Mahayana Buddhism was also practiced
during this period, indicating a pluralistic religious environment. Over time, Angkor
Wat and other temples gradually incorporated Buddhist elements, reflecting the growing
influence of Buddhism in the empire (Harris, 2005).

A major transformation occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries when Theravada
Buddhism began to replace Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism. This shift was
influenced by the spread of Theravada practices from Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Theravada Buddhism, with its emphasis on monastic discipline and meditation,
resonated with Cambodian society and soon became the dominant religious tradition
(Harris, 2005). This period marked the decline of Hindu practices and
Mahayana as well as the establishment of Theravada Buddhism as the main spiritual
framework in Cambodia.

The arrival of the French in 1863 introduced a new chapter in Cambodian

history. As a French protectorate, Cambodia underwent significant political and cultural
changes. The French colonial administration supported Theravada Buddhism, seeing it
as a stabilizing force in the region. This support helped strengthen the role of Buddhism
in Cambodian society, even as the country experienced various modernizing influences.
The French saw Buddhism as a means to maintain social order and control, thus linking
religious practices with colonial rule (Harris, 2005).

After gaining independence from France in 1953, Cambodia entered a new

phase in which Theravada Buddhism continued to play a central role in national identity
and culture. Cambodian society was still recovering from the turmoil-war, mass
population displacement, refugee crisis, political executions, foreign occupation, and
destruction of traditional culture-that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. Cambodian
Buddhism and the Buddhist community (sangha) also suffered during this period.

The darkest period in Cambodia's history was the era of the Khmer Rouge
communist regime (1975-1979), led by dictator Pol Pot. The regime used the state
apparatus to identify and eliminate elements deemed "antisocialist", resulting in the
extermination of nearly a quarter of Cambodia's population. The Khmer Rouge's policy
of agrarian socialism led to widespread persecution of Buddhism in Cambodia. Monks
were regarded as antisocialists and society was prevented from supporting monks who
were deemed economically unproductive, resulting in the destruction of the traditional
monastic economy (Lee, 2020).

An estimated 12,500 monks, about 19 percent of the 65,062 individuals recorded

as monks in 1969, suffered violent deaths. About 60,000 monks and aspiring monks
were sent for re-education, forced to renounce robes, and enter into marriage or military
service. Many copies of Buddhist scriptures, including almost all copies of the Pali
Tipitaka in Khmer, were destroyed. Most of the 3,000 monasteries in Cambodia were
destroyed or converted into prisons or warehouses. In traditional Cambodian society, the
monastery or monastery was the center of the
religious and social life of the community. The Khmer Rouge's policy of systematic
extermination of the Buddhist sangha (as well as other religious minorities such as
Christians and Muslims) caused great damage to Cambodia's social structure (Harris,
2005). This impact is still felt today in the form of various social problems such as
human trafficking, prostitution, drug addiction, aimless consumerism and greed.

The post-socialist era saw a revival of Buddhism in Cambodia. The number of

monasteries, temples and monks now exceeds pre-Khmer Rouge numbers. An important
aspect of the revival of Buddhism in post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia is the active
participation of Buddhist monks and lay leaders in the peace and recovery process of
their country.

Today, about 90% of Cambodia's population are adherents of Theravada

Buddhism. Before the Khmer Rouge era (1975-1979), there were an estimated 88,000
monks in the country and around three and a half thousand monasteries for a population
of over seven million people. In general, about three-quarters of males over the age of
seventeen will spend a period of one or two years in the sangha as a prospective monk
or monk. The Buddhist Sangha is the main propagator of Khmer language and culture,
and even the first Khmer-language newspaper was founded by the Buddhist Institute in
1936 (Harris, 2005).

After the defeat of the Khmer Rouge by the Vietnamese in January 1979, a
remarkable recovery began. In 1979, seven monks were selected by the new
government and re-ordained. They all had between twenty and sixty years of previous
service in the sangha, and their ordinations were supervised by Theravada monks from
Vietnam. The youngest among them, Ven. Tep Vong (born in 1930) is now the supreme
patriarch of one of the two largest Buddhist orders in Cambodia, but like other "reborn"
monks, he is viewed with suspicion by some because of his ties to Vietnam and his
close allegiance to those in power today (Lee, 2020).

After only two years, more than seven hundred pagodas had been restored. Although
there was a huge investment from local people in labor, time, and resources, much of the
reconstruction was funded by Khmers abroad or by the rich and powerful in Phnom
Penh. The Vietnamese state apparatus tries to maintain control
strictures over the sangha throughout the 1980s, inter alia by prohibiting monks from
practicing as beggars and barring men under the age of fifty from ordination. However,
it was in 1981 that in the provinces, "many young aspiring monks could be observed,"
demonstrating rural Cambodians' determination and passion for Buddhism, although for
many, it also offered protection and education, and in the absence of older, experienced
monks, the establishment of legitimacy for aspiring monks remained highly problematic
(Keyes, 1994).

Some village elders, who survived the Khmer Rouge destruction to a greater
extent than ordained monks, began to spontaneously re-form lay pagoda committees,
new monks were ordained, and temple festivals and Buddhist rituals began to be
revived. Some pagodas also began to engage in the reconstruction of roads, schools,
medical and social services through their lay pagoda committees. Unfortunately, many
pagodas today still lack functioning pagoda committees. After Vietnam's withdrawal in
1989, the new government relaxed restrictions on Buddhism in search of legitimacy,
and the number of monks increased rapidly to reach around
50,000 today (as well as about 4,000 nuns) (Emerson, 1997).

Efforts to revive Buddhism also reflect the center of control. Although new
monasteries were spearheaded under Vietnamese inspiration and the rich and powerful
patronized temples around Phnom Penh, poor communities also went out of their way to
support their monasteries despite their poverty, and this signified the hope they placed in
their religion and monks. In the 1990s, laypeople began utilizing donations from
villagers to establish Pali primary schools in Phnom Penh that now attract prospective
monks, especially from among the elderly or orphans. However, the almost total
destruction of the clergy and their literature by the Khmer Rouge means reconstruction
involves a struggle to establish quality education and find continuity with past expertise.
This new generation of young monks was raised in a 'skills vacuum'.

As such, the revival of Buddhism in Cambodia demonstrates the resilience and

passion of its people in reviving traditions that have long been an important part of their
identity and culture. Despite many challenges, Cambodians continue to work hard to
restore and sustain their spiritual heritage.
The role of Buddhism in promoting regional cooperation among Pacific countries

Role is an activity carried out by a person, individual or organization, the role

carried out must be in accordance with the provisions set by an institution or
organization, the role itself has two types, namely the role of expectations and the role of
action carried out in the assigned role, Role according to Koentrajaraningrat. means the
behavior of individuals who decide on a certain position, thus the concept of role refers
to the expected pattern of behavior of a person who has a certain status / position in an
organization or system. According to Abu Ahmadi, a role is a complex of human
expectations of how individuals should behave and act in certain situations based on
their social status and function. (Saefulloh, 2022)

Buddhism has a significant role in promoting regional cooperation among

countries in the Asia Pacific region. The principles of Buddhism such as compassion,
tolerance, peace, and mutual understanding serve as the foundation for building
harmonious relations between countries in the region. One clear example of the role of
Buddhism in encouraging regional cooperation is the cooperation between Southeast
Asian countries in promoting peace and stability in the region. Buddhist leaders such as
the Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh are also often voices of peace that influence the
foreign policies of countries in the Asia Pacific region.With its universal values, such as
the four noble truths and the middle way, Buddhism can serve as a bridge between
different cultures and traditions in the Asia Pacific. Thus, Buddhism has an important
role to play in promoting regional cooperation among countries in the Asia Pacific
region through its values of peace, tolerance and mutual understanding.

Buddhism has played a significant role in fostering regional cooperation among

Asia Pacific countries. Buddhism, which has deep roots in various countries in the Asia
Pacific region, is not only a spiritual foundation for millions of people, but has also
played an important role in promoting peace, tolerance and cooperation between
countries. Here are some of the ways in which Buddhism influences regional
cooperation in the Asia Pacific region:
1. Teaching Humanitarian Values: Buddhism promotes humanitarian values such as
compassion, tolerance, and peace. By teaching these values, Buddhism has made a
positive contribution in building harmonious relations between countries in the Asia
Pacific region.
2. Nonviolent Approach: The concept of ahimsa or non-violence in Buddhism has
influenced the approach to conflicts between countries. By encouraging conflict
resolution through dialogue and negotiation rather than violence, Buddhism has
become a force that promotes peace and stability in the region. (Verma, 2021)
3. Ethics-based Policy Development: Ethical values in Buddhism, such as honesty,
integrity, and social responsibility, have influenced the policies of countries in the
Asia Pacific region. This creates a strong foundation for sustainable and ethical
regional cooperation.
4. Raising Support for Environmental Issues: Buddhism also emphasizes the
importance of protecting the natural environment. With the growing awareness of
environmental issues in the Asia Pacific region, Buddhism has played a role in
rallying support for environmental conservation and sustainable development.
5. Building Openness and Tolerance: Buddhism encourages openness to differences
and tolerance of diversity. It helps create a favorable climate for cooperation
between countries by respecting and understanding different cultures, religions, and
beliefs.
6. Educational and Cultural Initiatives: Through educational and cultural
initiatives, Buddhism has facilitated the exchange of knowledge and understanding
among countries in the Asia Pacific region. This strengthens regional cooperation
through increased mutual understanding and cross-cultural cooperation.
7. Development of Spiritual Tourism: Buddhism has sacred sites and historical
places that attract pilgrims and spiritual tourists. The promotion of spiritual tourism
not only strengthens relations among countries in the Asia Pacific region but also
makes positive economic contributions.
8. Contribution to Crisis and Disaster Management: Buddhism's teachings of
compassion and empathy have encouraged countries in the Asia Pacific to help each
other in crisis management and natural disasters. This solidarity strengthens
regional cooperation in facing common challenges.
9. Role in Conflict Mediation: As a religion that preaches peace and peaceful conflict
resolution, Buddhism has been an effective mediator in easing tensions between
countries in the Asia Pacific region. These mediation efforts strengthen relations
between countries and promote regional stability. (Edelglass, 2021)

10. Empowerment of Women and Marginalized Communities: The values of

equality, justice and empowerment in Buddhism have contributed to enhancing the role
of women and marginalized communities in the Asia Pacific region. This strengthens
social and economic inclusion and reinforces a sustainable framework for regional
cooperation.

Thus, Buddhism has a significant impact in fostering regional cooperation

among Asia Pacific countries through the promotion of human values, peace, ethics,
environment, tolerance, and education. By reinforcing these foundations, Buddhism
continues to be a force that strengthens relations between countries in the region. It can
be concluded that Buddhism not only plays an important role in promoting peace and
harmony in the Asia Pacific but also helps strengthen regional cooperation through
various initiatives that include spiritual tourism, crisis management, conflict mediation,
community empowerment, and more. (Sukhoverkhov, 2021)

CONCLUSIONS