Montaggioni 2005

Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1 – 75
www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev
History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems since the last glaciation:

Development patterns and controlling factors
Lucien F. MontaggioniT
Département des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Environnement, CNRS UMR 6019, Université de Provence,
Place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France
Received 25 May 2004; accepted 10 January 2005
Abstract
A significant body of new information about the development of coral reefs during the last 23 ka has been generated in the
last three decades. In the Indo-Pacific province, structures from a variety of geodynamic settings have been investigated using
subsurface drilling and submersible diving. This paper is based principally on the re-examination of the core dataset from the
literature, with reconversion of many previously published radiocarbon ages into calendar dates.
Seven framework and three detrital facies were identified on the basis of the nature and growth shapes of dominant
framework builders, and on that of the texture of sediments, respectively. Framework facies in high-hydrodynamic energy
settings were dominated by an association of coralline algae and robust-branching corals (Acropora robusta group, A. gr.
humilis, A. palifera, Pocillopora damicornis) with locally encrusting coral forms (faviids). In moderate energy environments,
these were replaced by domal (Porites), tabular-branching (Acropora gr. hyacinthus) and arborescent (Acropora gr. muricata),
whereas sheltered areas included an association of arborescent, foliaceous (Montipora, Pavona) and encrusting coral species.
Detrital facies comprise coral rubble, carbonate sand and mud. On compositional and textural bases, four main sand subfacies
were recognized: coralgal rudstone to packstone; coral–molluscan grainstone/packstone; molluscan–foraminiferal grainstone/
packstone; and green algal (Halimeda) grainstone/packstone. Despite some overlaps in the sand facies association, each
subfacies can provide additional support to reconstruction of paleoreef environments.
Three types of framework facies association were identified within entire reef-margin sequences: framework of
homogeneous composition reflecting stability of environmental conditions through time; superimposition of two distinct
frameworks, usually as deeper water corals overlain by shallower, higher energy ones, and recurrent alternations of shallower
and deeper coral assemblages. The two last associations resulted probably from lateral displacements of coral communities in
response to rapid changes in accommodation space. Such facies transitions also are described from backreef sediment piles:
gravel graded into sand and mud successively as a result of upward shallowing. The degree of reef development seems to be
linked to coral community structure. Communities consisting principally of branching and domal coral forms favoured
substantial accretion and the formation of well-developed reefs, whereas assemblages comprising foliaceous and encrusting
colonies produced only incipient reefs. Within reef systems, the proportions of detritus over framework tend to increase as
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0012-8252/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.01.002
2 L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75
hydrodynamic energy declines. The Indo-Pacific reef systems are classified into four anatomy types on the basis of dominant
depositional patterns: balanced aggrading/onlapping, unbalanced aggrading/downlapping, prograding and backstepping types.
Vertical accretion rates of frameworks are highly variable and are not directly dictated by coral growth habits. However, the
highest rates recorded (up to 20 mm year 1) relate to tabular- and arborescent-acroporid rich sections. Abrupt variations in the
aggradation rates of framework are recorded in sequences at the transitional zone between two distinct coral assemblages. In
detritus-dominated sequences, accumulation rates range from 0.2 to about 40 mm year 1, with higher values suggesting intense
hurricane-controlled deposition. In addition, accretion rates also seem to depend on water-energy conditions. In high-energy
environments, aggradation rates did not exceed 12 mm year 1, but reached 25 mm year 1 in more protected areas. By contrast,
lateral accretion operated at an average rate of 90 mm year 1 in agitated waters, while it did not exceed the mean rate of 55 mm
year 1 in calm waters. Changes in accretion rates appear to be linked to reef growth modes. In the reef zones driven by a bkeep-
upQ mode, mean vertical accretion rates range at around 6 mm year 1. The reef zones developed through a bcatch-upQ mode at
rates of 3–4 mm year 1. There was little variation in accretion rates according to latitude.
At the Last Glacial Maximum, from 23 to about 19 ka BP, reefs (Reef Generation RGO) only developed along what were to
become the foreslopes of present reefs, forming accumulations a few metres thick at vertical rates of up to 1 mm year 1. The
rapid postglacial rise in sea level, from about 19 to 6.5 ka BP, was accompanied by the settlement of three successive reef
generations (the so called RGI, RGII and RGIII), within the periods 17.5–14.7, 13.8–11.5 and 10 ka BP to the Present.
During the Postglacial transgression, regional to local differences in gross morphology and internal architecture of the reefs
have been determined by differing sea-level histories in combination with neotectonics and typographic factors. Locally, reef
colonization seems to have been facilitated or prevented chiefly by small-scale topographic features. Development during
subsequent deglaciation was probably largely independent of variations in sea surface temperatures. Water turbidity also seems
to have been only a minor determinant of reef settlement and growth, but may locally have controlled the composition of coral
communities, resulting in the growth of turbidity-tolerant domal and foliaceous forms.
Changes in atmospheric CO2 levels remained within the tolerance thresholds for reef calcification. The three main reef
growth episodes coincide roughly with rapid increases in atmospheric pCO2. Dust input and variations in sea surface salinities
seem to have had a very limited control on reef growth. The LGM was characterized by salinities comparable with those of the
present, but by higher dust fluxes. By contrast, nutrient levels, hydrodynamic energy, and to a lesser, extent coral recruitment in
relation to substrate availability and ocean circulation, have played major roles in determining reef accretion patterns at both
local and regional scales. Two periods of increased upwelling in the western Indian Ocean, at 15.3 and 11.5–10.8 ka BP,
coincided with the demise of RGI and RGII. During deglaciation, high-frequency storm events probably led to a scarcity of
typical growth framework reefs and favoured the formation of structures composed of reworked and recemented coral
framework. Storm control may have been particularly important in the mid-Holocene when water depths over incipient reefs
were greater than 5 m. From the LGM to the early Holocene, coral settlement has probably declined due to a lack of suitable
nurseries, until the modern patterns of ocean circulation were established and thus favoured larval dispersal from refuges. It is
highly desirable to improve analysis of the core database and to increase the number of core-transects, including forereef sites,
to enhance our knowledge of Recent reef development.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Corals; Reefs; Growth; Paleoenvironments; Indian Ocean; Pacific Ocean; late Pleistocene; Holocene
1. Introduction mental factors of Holocene reefs were still poorly

documented. At present, the history of Holocene reefs
A long-standing objective of carbonate geologists is from the tropical Atlantic province is far better
to understand the structure and composition of organic understood than that of the Indo-Pacific areas,
reefs and to learn what were the main physical– probably because of two major reasons: (1) the tropical
chemical forcing functions that controlled reef devel- Indo-Pacific seas occupy a very extensive area (130
opment through time and how they interacted. Recent millions km2), i.e. 25 times greater than the Caribbean
reefs therefore have been used for a long time as and adjacent tropical waters; (2) the zonation and
counterparts for interpreting ancient reefs, even where community structure of Atlantic reefs are apparently
the origin, growth patterns and controlling environ- simpler than those observed in the Indo-Pacific.
L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75 3
The scientific investigation of Indo-Pacific coral world-wide from the 1970s onwards. New data
reefs began with the visits of von Chamisso and von relating to the interior structure and growth history
Kutzebue (1815–1819), Quoy and Gaimard (1817– of Holocene reefs was obtained from a variety of
1818), and Beechy (1825–1828), summarized by geodynamic settings. Accordingly, new reef models
Lyell (1832). Darwin (1842) was the first to propose emerged, focusing in particular on the relationship
a reasonable (subsidence-controlled) model of coral between sea-level changes and reef growth (Macintyre
reef formation based on observations of the morphol- and Glynn, 1976; Lighty et al., 1982; Hopley, 1982;
ogy of Polynesian islands. This was the starting point Davies et al., 1985; Davies and Montaggioni, 1985;
for over a century of scientific controversy. In Neumann and Macintyre, 1985; Macintyre, 1988;
particular, Daly (1910) contested Darwin’s conclu- Montaggioni, 1988).
sions and suggested that the foundations of present- In the Indo-Pacific province, the starting phase of
day reefs resulted from marine erosion during subsurface reef coring was undertaken in oceanic
Pleistocene low sea-level stands, that is, during glacial islands: Tahiti (Deneufbourg, 1971), Marshall islands
periods (reviews by Stoddart, 1969; Steers and (Henny et al., 1974), Réunion (Montaggioni, 1976,
Stoddart, 1977; Hopley, 1982, pp. 1–25). 1977), Hawaiian islands (Easton and Olson, 1976).
From early in the 20th century, it was clear that the Intensive programmes of shallow drilling through
Indo-Pacific area was destined to be a focus of reef continental shelf reef systems commenced from 1973
research. The voyage of Agassiz (1903) in the tropical with the studies on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia
Pacific Ocean and two Indian Ocean expeditions of (Davies et al., 1977; Hopley, 1977). The earliest
Gardiner (1898) dramatically extended knowledge of shallow drilling operation on Holocene reefs devel-
reef geology. As early as 1896, the Royal Society in oped on island arcs was conducted by Konishi et al.
Britain together with Australian geologists began deep (1978, 1983) in the Ryukyus.
drilling on Funafuti Atoll in search of reef foundations The two following decades were highly productive
(David and Sweet, 1904; Royal Society, 1904). Deep for reconstructing the three-dimensional development
coring through reefs subsequently took place on Kita- histories of the Indo-Pacific reefs. Outstanding results
Daito-Jima Atoll (Ota, 1938, in Ladd et al., 1970), on have been obtained on the Holocene evolution of
the Great Barrier Reef of Australia (Richards and Hill, continental shelf reefs owing to the high drilling
1942), in the Marshall islands (Emery et al., 1954; capacity of Australian teams; between 1973 and 1990,
Ladd and Schlanger, 1960), on Midway Atoll (Ladd about 140 holes were drilled into 44 reefs throughout
et al., 1970), in New Caledonia (Avias and Coudray, the Great Barrier Reef (Hopley and Davies, submitted
1967) and on Mururoa Atoll (Deneufbourg, 1969; for publication). Although drilling operations through
Repellin, 1975). These works broadly supported Recent mid-oceanic and forearc reefs were scattered,
Darwin’s subsidence theory but also restated Daly’s the knowledge of their development has increased
theory of glacial control on reef morphology in terms significantly. All in all, locally enriched by results
of karstic processes (Steers and Stoddart, 1977; Szabo from submersible diving along reef foreslopes, an
et al., 1985; Buigues et al., 1992; Purdy and Winterer, important databank has been provided, regarding the
2001). However, as emphasized by Steers and timing of Holocene reef establishment, the internal
Stoddart (1977), while deep coring increased knowl- architecture and facies relationship and accretion
edge of the Tertiary history of a number of reefs, only rates. The major findings gained at that time can be
rarely did it provide a thorough understanding of the summarized as follows: (1) widespread occurrence of
geology and structure of Postglacial reef sections. Last Glacial reef systems, at present submerged; (2)
Most studies of Recent coral reefs have focused on identification of at least four successive reef gener-
physiography, the distribution of biota and surface ations since the Last Glacial Maximum; (3) growth
sedimentation. Principally descriptive, they have commencement of most of the modern reefs from 9.5
delivered little information on recent geological to 7 ka BP, commonly from karstified pre-Holocene
history (Braithwaite, 1982a,b). foundations; (4) identification of three basic responses
The development of light-weight drilling rigs of reef growth to sea-level rise: bkeep-upQ mode
(Thom, 1978) opened a new era of shallow coring referring to reefs initiated as soon as foundations were
flooded and developed at the same rate as sea-level climatic transition from full glacial, low sea stand to
rise, bcatch-upQ mode typifying reefs that displayed a interglacial, high sea stand. It is based on the re-
lag in initiation and then caught up with sea level, and analysis of previously published core data which have
bgive-upQ mode defining reefs that failed to reach sea been collated for the first time. The paper is an attempt
level and were drowned; (5) identification of the to determine patterns of reef development and to
composition of coralgal communities and of their identify the main environmental factors governing
significance in terms of paleobathymetry; (6) control that development. Finally, the paper expresses some-
of internal facies by variations in water energy; (7) thing of the state of knowledge on the subject at the
dominance of lateral accretion after sea-level stabili- start of the new millennium.
zation between 6.5 and 3 ka BP; (8) regional changes
in reef flat ages; (9) reconstruction of Pacific sea-level
curves for the past 14 ka BP based on corrected reef 2. Materials and methods
growth curves; (10) minor influence of sea surface
temperature on reef development during the Glacial 2.1. The core database: value and limitations
and Postglacial times.
With the increasing realisation that coral reefs are Bio-lithological descriptions of the 684 subsurface
able to provide reliable records of paleoenvironmental cores that have penetrated through modern Indo-
changes (see, for instance, Montaggioni and Macin- Pacific reef are reviewed. The data are compiled in
tyre, 1991; Quinn and Tudhope, 2000), reef geologists Table 1 by geographical region, clockwise from the
tried to integrate neoecological studies conducted by far Western Indian to Far Eastern Pacific oceans. This
biologists (see Cornell and Karlson, 2000) on the review reports the location of subsurface drilling sites,
effects of environmental variables on coral and reef the number of cores extracted from each site, the
growth. This has helped with understanding of number of radiometric dates obtained from cored
the respective role of physical–chemical parameters material, the minimum to maximum thickness of the
in the development of Holocene reefs. Hubbard Postglacial reef sections penetrated and the age of the
(1988), Smith and Buddemeier (1992), Hopley reef base (i.e. age of reef initiation). It intends to
(1994), Brown (1997), Kleypas (1997) and Montag- provide researchers with a comprehensive database
gioni (2000) reviewed the major controls on recent with which to investigate reef growth in the Indo-
reef development. Pacific.
Comprehensive reviews were published previously Diamond drilling and vibrocoring techniques have
on the Postglacial history of Indo-Pacific reefs, but been used to sample the internal parts of the reefs. The
their impact was limited to regional scales: Great core diameters vary between 25 and 85 mm. Except in
Barrier Reef of Australia (Hopley, 1982, 1994, 1997; about ten sites where single or scattered holes only have
Davies and Hopley, 1983; Hopley and Davies, been made, drilling operations have generally been
submitted for publication), high volcanic islands conducted along core-transects, crossing the major top-
(Glynn and Wellington, 1983; Montaggioni, 1988) reef zones, from the reef crest to the backreef. However,
and island arcs (Cabioch, 2003; Yamano et al., all in all, the number of cores recovered from the reef
submitted for publication). Apart from recent synthe- flats was higher than that extracted from the lagoons.
tizing reports based on the analysis of a few reefs Little is known about the geological development
around the world (Hubbard, 1997; Hubbard et al., of reef-front and fore-reef zones in the Indo-Pacific,
1998; Montaggioni, 2000; Hallock, 2001), the only due to the difficulty in coring offshore. The available
review referring mainly to case studies in the Indo- data come from drilling through an ocean-facing
Pacific province is that devoted to Holocene fringing forereef of Western Australia (Collins et al., 2003),
reef growth by Kennedy and Woodroffe (2002). and front slopes of various inner shelf fringing reefs
The aims of this paper are to describe the (Iki island, Japan: Yamano et al., 2001b; Hayman
development of Indo-Pacific reefs (Fig. 1) during island, Eastern Australia: Hopley et al., 1983; Hawaii:
and after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) which Grossman and Fletcher, 2004; Engels et al., 2004;
spans, over the past 23 ka (ka=1000 years), the major Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama: Glynn and Macintyre,
JAPAN AMERICA
RYUKYU IS.
Persian ASIA Minna Kikai
Gulf CHINA Tonaki Yoron
L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

Re
Kume Okinawa
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ea
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Oahu Molokai
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AR Hawaii
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A L
lia
IS Costa Rica
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F RO
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I SEYCHELLES IS. Chagos is.
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at Ba
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Fig. 1. Index map of the Indo-Pacific province showing the location of the main reef sites mentioned in the present study. The dark area refers to the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool.
5
Table 1
Summary of results from shallow drilling operations through modern coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific province
Site location Reef Number of Number of Thickness range of Age range Source
type cores drilled radiometric Postglacial/Holocene of reef initiation
datesa reef sections (in m) (in 1000 calendar
years BP)
Western Indian Ocean
Réunion fr 1 19 N18 7.72–8.00 Montaggioni
(1976, 1977, 1988),
Camoin et al. (1997)
Mauritius fr 3 39 12.8–19.3 6.7–9.60 Montaggioni (1981,1988),
Mayotte br/fr 14 58 2.9–21.5 2.25–9.72 Camoin et al. (1997),
Zinke et al. (2003a,b)
Mahé, Seychelles fr 8 16 N26 5.43–10.59 Braithwaite et al. (2000)
Toliara, Madagascar br 2 19 12.9–13.4 6.63–8.34 Camoin et al. (2004)
Red Sea
Egypt pr 4 NA N15 NA Fletcher et al. (2000)
Eastern Indian Ocean
Maldives, Mahé alt 1,pits 7 N17.2 N6.87 Woodroffe (1992)
Cocos–Keeling alt 1,pits 15 7–N15 6.72 Woodroffe (1994),
Woodroffe et al. (1999)
Pukhet, Thailand fr 21 12 4–N4 0.55–6.62 Tudhope and Scoffin (1994)
Abrolhos, SW Australia pr 6 18 4–N25 7.09–9.80 Collins et al. (1993),
Eisenhauer et al. (1993)
Ningaloo, SW Australia fr 12 8 18 4.37–7.57 Collins et al. (2003)
Western Pacific Ocean
Ryukyu islands
Iki fr 3 5 N3 N1.40 Yamano et al. (2001b)
Kikai-Jima fr 24 exc 69 N3–25 8.95–10.1 Webster et al. (1998),
Yamano et al.
(submitted for publication)
Okierabu-Jima fr 4 exc 30 N2–11 7.5–7.9 Kan et al. (1995),
Ichikawa et al. (1994),
Yamano et al.
Yoron-tou fr 4 10 N4 N6.1 Yonekura et al. (1994),
Yamano et al.
Okinawa-Hontou fr 25 21 10–20 7.57–8.53 Yamano et al.
Minna-Jima fr exc 20 N3 N6.0 Yamano et al.
Tonaki-Jima fr exc 25 N6 N6.30 Kan et al. (1997a,b,c)
Kume-Jima fr 9 37 6–11 7.72–8.23 Takahashi et al. (1988),
Kan et al. (1991),
Yamano et al.
Ishigaki-Jima fr 17 exc 56 N5–22 N6.40–9.42 Yamano et al.
(2001a, submitted for
publication)
Sekisei area fr 3 NA 17–21.5 8.45 Yamano et al.
(submitted for publication),
Kawana and Kan (2000)
Eastern Australia Great Barrier Reef b
Northern Region fr/pr/br 36 84 3.9–25.2 5.60–10.30 Hopley and Davies
(10–178S) (submitted for publication)
Table 1 (continued )
years BP)
Eastern Australia Great Barrier Reef b
Central Region fr/pr/br 52 304 1–30 5.48–9.95 Hopley and Davies
(17–208S) (submitted for publication)
Southern Region fr/pr/br 72 231 8.1–14 6.38–8.52 Hopley and Davies
(20–248S) (submitted for publication),
Smith et al. (1998)
Torres Strait Islands pr 17 27 4.5–8.5 7.57–7.92 Woodroffe et al. (2000)
Lord Howe Island fr 19 55 7–23 6.79–N7.22 Kennedy and Woodroffe (2000)
Middleton and pr 25 27 8–N40 6.7–N6.7 Woodroffe et al. (2004)
Elisabeth reefs
New Caledonia fr 37 33 3–13.5 2.00–8.05 Cabioch (1988, 2003),
Cabioch et al. (1995, 1999c)
br 13 NA 10–15 7.50–9.00 Coudray (1976),
Cabioch (2003)
atl 3 7 7–7.9 NA Degauge-Michalski (1993)
Chesterfield islands atl 13 16 N14.5 N7.29 Degauge-Michalski (1993)
Huon Peninsula, Papua fr 3 47 50–b58.7 23.6 Ota and Chappell (1999),
New Guinea Edwards et al. (1993),
Cutler et al. (2003)
Vanuatu, Espiritu Santo fr 18 43 30–37 20.5–24.3 Cabioch et al. (1998, 2003a),
Cabioch (2003)
Mariana islands
Rota fr 5 14 N7 N6.11 Kayanne et al. (1993)
Guam fr 4 12 5.5–N5.8 N3.88 Kayanne et al. (1993)
Palau islands br 6 21 14.5–24 7.97–8.31 Kayanne et al. (2002)
Marshall islands
Bikini atl 3 1 8–10 N6.17 Emery et al. (1954),
Tracey and Ladd (1974)
Enewetak atl 11 3 7–12 7.90–8.20 Ladd and Schlanger (1960),
Tracey and Ladd (1974),
Szabo et al. (1985)
Kiribati islands
Tarawa atl 10 22 10.6–16.5 7.60–9.01 Marshall and Jacobsen (1985)
Tuvalu islands
Funafuti atl 1 9 26.4–27.4 8.1 Ohde et al. (2002)
Line islands
Kiritimati atl 24 NA 2–5.3 b4.5 Woodroffe and
Mc Lean (1998)
Central Pacific Ocean
Hawaiian islands
Oahu fr 47 98 9.5–18 7.93–7.49 Easton and Olson (1976),
Grigg (1998),
Grossman and Fletcher (2004)
Midway br 2 NA 3–5 NA Ladd et al. (1970)
Molokai fr 24 31 N5.3 N8.14 Engels et al. (2004)
Cook Islands
Pukapuka atl 3 5 14.5–22.0 9.2 Gray et al. (1992)
Rakahanga atl 2 3 15–17 N8.4 Gray et al. (1992)
Mangaia fr 5 8 N5 N5.29 Yonekura et al. (1988)
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued )
years BP)
Central Pacific Ocean
Society islands
Tahiti fr/br 14 80 52–87 13.8 Deneufbourg (1971),
Montaggioni (1988),
Bard et al. (1996),
Montaggioni et al. (1997a,b),
Cabioch et al. (1999a)
Moorea fr/br 3 15 N25 N5.73 Montaggioni (1988)
Tuamotu islands
Mataiva atl 4 9 4–8.8 6.71 Pirazzoli and
Montaggioni (1986)
Mururoa atl 10 14 3–24 8.3–9.0 Lalou et al. (1966),
Repellin (1975),
Perrin (1989),
Buigues et al. (1992),
Eastern Pacific Ocean
Galapagos,
Isabella island fr 4 exc 2 0.5–N2 b1.0 Macintyre et al. (1992)
Costa Rica Macintyre et al. (1992),
Punta isolates fr 13 26 2–9 0.94–5.70 Cortés et al. (1994)
Cocos island fr 6 2 3–3.10. 25–0.43 Macintyre et al. (1992)
Cano island fr 11 exc 5 0.5–b1 0.24–1.52 Macintyre et al. (1992)
Panama, fr 12 exc 26 3–N13.4 4.74–5.94 Glynn and Macintyre (1987),
Gulf of Chiriqui Macintyre et al. (1992)
exc=occurrence of cut excavations and trench walls through reef-front, reef-flat or backreef zones.
Reef type: fr=fringing reef; br=barrier reef; pr=platform reef; atl=atoll.
a
The compiled dates from reef coring include conventional 14C and AMS 14C dates, and 230Th/234U dates determined by alpha spectrometry
or by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). All of the ages are expressed in calibrated (calendar) years (1000) BP (cal.ka BP). Dates
obtained from samples collected on surficial reef features are not included.
b
The regional limits within the Great Barrier Reef area are those defined by Maxwell (1968).
1987; Punta Isolates, Costa Rica: Cortés et al., 1994), cavities. From framework, recovery range between
from underwater observations of excavations or 60% and 100%, and, from detrital sediments, recovery
trench walls cut into outer reef slopes (Ryukyu is 1% to 70%.
islands, Japan: Yamano et al., 2003, submitted for Unlike the Caribbean where the anatomy of relic
publication), and from drilling through fore-reef zones reefs has been well documented (Macintyre, 1972;
or direct observations of seacliffs in tectonically Macintyre et al., 1981; Fairbanks, 1989; Blanchon and
uplifted areas (Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea: Shaw, 1995; Blanchon et al., 2002), there is little
Ota and Chappell, 1999; Vanuatu: Cabioch et al., information about the internal structure of Indo-
1998). Pacific reefs submerged during the deglacial sea-level
The drilled sequences range between less than 1 m rise, even though some of these features have been
to up to 87 m in thickness, averaging 10–15 m. About identified in both oceans in the early 20th century
75% of the drillholes have penetrated the uncon- (Davis, 1928: Papua New Guinea, Fidji; Tayama,
formity at the base of the deglacial sequence into the 1952: Caroline islands, Palau; Madagascar: Guilcher,
antecedent foundation. Recovery rates have depended 1954). Afterwards, research into the location and
upon the type of material penetrated and abundance of origin of relic reefs occurring on shelf edges and
foreslopes has been carried out throughout the Indo- conducted to ensure consistensy in the description
Pacific: Madagascar (Pichon, 1978); Seychelles, of community composition and of facies type. Core
Chagos (Stoddart, 1971); Maldives (Purdy and selection was based on the following criteria: (1) the
Bertram, 1993); Western Indian shelf (Vora et al., lithology, nature of components and the dominant
1996); Eastern Australia (Carter and Johnson, 1986; growth forms of corals have clearly been defined by
Harris and Davies, 1989); Johnson atoll, Central the authors; (2) in a given section, radiometric dates
Pacific (Keating, 1985); Hawaii (Moore et al., 1990; numerically are sufficient for accretion history to be
Fletcher and Sherman, 1995; Webster et al., 2003); reconstructed; (3) for each drilling site, patterns of
Marquesas, French Polynesia (Cabioch et al., 2003b). modern coral community composition and distribu-
However, there have been few comprehensive studies tion are accessible from the literature. Identification
on these submerged features (see Table 2). The of the fossil coral assemblages from core descrip-
database include results from echo-sounding, seismic tions was attempted on the basis of coral growth
profiling, side-scan sonar imaging and bottom pho- shapes and by comparison with present-day coral
tography, combined with dredging, direct submersible zonations and ecologies. With this aim, various
observations or Remotely Operated Vehicule (ROV) regional and general monographs on the taxonomy
operations. These have revealed a variety of reef types and/or the distributional patterns of living corals
(mounds, fringing reefs, linear barrier reefs, isolated were compiled: Western Indian Ocean (Rosen,
pinnacles) at depths of 20 to 160 m. Ages derived 1971a,b; Pichon, 1978; Faure, 1982), Central and
from surface coral samples indicate that the sub- Eastern Indian Ocean (Scheer, 1971; Pillai, 1971;
merged reefs were active between 20 and 8.5 ka BP Pillai and Scheer, 1976), Japan (Takahashi et al.,
To my knowledge, no drilling has been conducted 1985; Nakamori, 1986; Veron, 1992; Iryu et al.,
until now through drowned reefs along the foreslopes 1995), Eastern Australia (Done, 1982; Veron, 1986),
of Indo-Pacific shelves. This is due to the fact that New Caledonia (Chevalier, 1971, 1975), Central
collection of coral sections at present submerged have Pacific (Wells, 1954; Chevalier, 1979; Faure and
proven difficult. In addition, the value of such a Laboute, 1984; Maragos and Jokiel, 1986; Maragos,
material for reconstructing Glacial to Holocene reef 1974), Eastern Pacific (Glynn and Ault, 2000), Indo-
growth history is questionable. As emphasized by Pacific (Veron, 1993, 2000; Wallace, 1999). The
Harris and Davies (1989) and Fletcher and Sherman coral assemblages so recognized were named after
(1995), in most areas, submerged reefs are not characteristic dominant forms. The cores presented in
typically simple structures developed during the last Figs. 2–4 are considered to provide clear pictures of
23 ka; they may predate the LGM and be features of the internal structure and growth histories of the reef
Pleistocene age, capped by only a thin coralgal veneer site from which they were extracted. Given the
deposited during a brief episode of recolonization in variation in the quality of the core record and
the deglacial times. descriptions, it would be unrealistic to use these
Figs. 2–4 present a set of 53 core descriptions out data to make definitive statements on the history of
of the 684 available, that are grouped according to Indo-Pacific reef development.
the reef zones where the corresponding cores came In other respects, in order to investigate the nature
from, i.e. exposed, semi-exposed to sheltered reef and topography of the pre-Holocene foundations
crest/flat zones, backreef zones. Most of the original beneath modern reefs or the stratal patterns within
descriptions of core sedimentology generally lacked the Holocene sedimentary sequences, drilling inves-
sufficient detail to be used directly in this review. In tigations have locally been combined with seismic
particular, the coral material recovered in the cored surveying. Unfortunately, seismic stratigraphy has
sections was identified by the authors, either only on been used in a limited number of Indo-Pacific sites
the basis of gross colony shape or at a variety of (Mayotte: Zinke et al., 2001; Central Red Sea: Dullo
taxonomic levels, from order to species. Given that a and Montaggioni, 1998; Maldives: Purdy and Ber-
comparison of reef facies successions from different tram, 1993; Great Barrier Reef: Harvey, 1986; Tasman
locations requires standardization of core logs, care- Sea: Woodroffe et al., 2004; Mururoa: Guille et al.,
ful re-analysis of the published core data was 1996).
Table 2
Depths of occurrence, morphology and ages of positively identified Postglacial submerged reefs in the Indo-Pacific province
Location Present depth Height Radiometric ages Reef type Expected agesa Source
(in m) (in m) (in 1000 cal. (1000 years BP)
years BP)
Mayotteb, 55–65 NA NA mounds Colonna et al. (1996),
Comoro islands Dullo et al. (1998)
90 N3 10.10 mounds
100–112 N3 13.60 mounds
118 NA 16.90–18.20
152 NA 18.40
Western Indian shelf 70 NA 8.82–9.82 NA Vora et al. (1996),
Rao et al. (2003)
85–100 8–15 12.75–12.89 barriers, pinnacles
105–110 1–6 13.68–15.41 barriers, pinnacles
120–136 2–6 NA pinnacles
Eastern Australian shelf 25–30 2–15 pinnacles 9–10 Carter and Johnson (1986),
Harris and Davies (1989),
Hopley et al. (1997)
40–45 b10 barriers, pinnacles 10–11
50–64 2–15 modern–0.66c barriers, pinnacles 12
70–75 2–35 barriers, pinnacles 15
90–100 b5 pinnacles 17
120–130 NA pinnacles 18
175 NA 13.60–17.00 pinnacles Veeh and Veevers (1970)
Hawaiian islands
Maui, Lanai 18 N10 pinnacles 8 Grigg et al. (2002)
37 4–12 pinnacles 10
63 NA pinnacles 12
82 NA 14
120 NA 21
Hawaiid 150–160 NA 13.90 NA Moore et al. (1990)
207 NA 15.80 NA
100–150 N15–N30 14.70–15.20 barrier reef Webster et al. (2004)
Molokai 17.7 N1.50 N7.96 fringing reef Engels et al. (2004)
21 N1 N8.14 fringing reef Engels et al. (2004)
French Polynesia
Marquesas 90–100 NA 20.00 fringing reef Cabioch et al. (2000, 2003b)
Mururoa 167 NA 17.50 NA Camoin et al. (2001)
a
The expected ages are speculative, based on estimates of paleosea-level position during the Postglacial sea level rise (from sea level curves
by Fairbanks, 1989; Edwards et al., 1993; Bard et al., 1996).
b
Subsiding island at a rate of 0.25 mm year 1.
c
Dates obtained from rubble on submerged reefs.
d
Subsiding island at a rate of 2.5 mm year 1.
2.2. Accuracy of radiometric dates sections has been mainly determined by radiocarbon
dating. Less than 80 cores out of the 684 compiled
Recent to Late Pleistocene corals can be dated by were dated using U-series analyses. Prior to the 1980s,
14
radiocarbon and uranium-series disequilibrium meth- C ages reported in the literature corresponded to
ods (alpha spectrometry and thermal ionization mass conventional ages calculated with the conventional
spectrometry—TIMS). Samples that have remained 5568-year half-life and were uncorrected for the
bathed in seawater up until the time of drilling metabolic fractionation of 12C/13C ratios and for
generally give consistent results (Quinn and Tudhope, secular atmospheric variations in 14C. To consistently
2000). The chronology of most of the Postglacial reef compare age datasets based on radiocarbon and U-
Fig. 2. Bio-lithologs of selected shallow-water cores from exposed reef crest/flat zones in the Indo-Pacific reef province. Each core is identified by the hole number, the name of the
reef site and the relevant geographical area given in the literature (MAD=Madagascar; COM=Comoro islands; SEY=Seychelles; RYU=Ryukyu islands; WAU=Western Australia;
NG=New Guinea; MAR=Mariana islands; NAU=Northern Australia; EAU (GBR)=Eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef); NC=New Caledonia; VAN=Vanuatu islands; KIR=Kiribati
islands; COOK=Cook islands; HAW=Hawaii islands; FP=French Polynesia. The data are extracted from Montaggioni et al. (1997b), Camoin et al. (2004) (Toliana, Madagascar),
Camoin et al. (1997) (Mayotte, Comoros), Braithwaite et al. (2000) (Seychelles), Webster et al. (1998) (Kikai-Jima island, Ryukyus, Japan), Collins et al. (1993) (Abrolhos,
Southwest Australia), Chappell and Polach (1991) (Kambu, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea), Kayanne et al. (1993) (Guam, Mariana Islands), Woodroffe et al. (2000) (Torres Strait,
Northern Australia), Davies and Hopley (1983) (Ribbon 5 and Boulder reefs, Central Great Barrier Reef), Webster and Davies (2003) (Ribbon 5), Marshall and Davies (1982) (One
Tree Reef, Southern Great Barrier Reef), Laurenti (1995) (Yonge Reef), Cabioch et al. (1995) (Mamié-Ounia reef, New Caledonia), Cabioch et al. (1998) (Tasmaloun, Spiritu Santo,
Vanuatu), Marshall and Jacobsen (1985) (Tarawa island, Kiribati), Yonekura et al. (1988) (Mangaia, Cook islands), Easton and Olson (1976) (Hanauma reef, Oahu, Hawaii), Engels et
al. (2004) (Molakai island, Hawaii), Montaggioni (1988) (Moorea, Society islands), Montaggioni et al. (1997a) (Tahiti, Society islands), Ebren (1996) (Mururoa atoll, Tuamotus). The
11
number at the base of each core log refers to the time of reef initiation in the considered site (ages in calendar years1000 BP) (ka).
12
SEMI-EXPOSED TO SHELTERED REEF CREST/FLAT
WEST EAST
EAU (GBR) FP
WIO THAI WAU RYU One Tree TAS NC PAL Tahiti Moorea CR PAN COCOS
Mayotte Réunion Mauritius Pukhet Abrolhos Tonoshiro Kume Fantome Orpheus inner Hayman Lord Howe Poum Koror Fringing Fringing Punta Uva
C4 FRE S2 RC6 4 Tr-B1-1 Tr-B1-5 1 4 5 R2 LH5 PL-1 m3 1
0
0.45
1 4.4
5 >4.5
7.7
1.5
7.0

10 7.8
5.7 6.0
7.9 8.1 ?
2.6
Depth in metres
7.3
15 8.3
6.7
7.8
?
7.3
20
9.5
3.2
25 9.8
? ?
30
Fig. 3. Bio-lithologs of selected shallow-water cores from semi-exposed to sheltered reef crest/flat zones in the Indo-Pacific reef province. Each core is identified by the hole
number, the reef site and the relevant geographical area given in the literature. WIO=Western Indian Ocean; THAI=Thailand; WAU=Western Australia; RYU=Ryukyu islands;
EAU (GBR)=Eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef); TAS=Tasman Sea; NC=New Caledonia; PAL=Palau islands; FP=French Polynesia; CR=Costa Rica; PAN=Panama;
COCOS=Cocos islands. The data are extracted from Zinke et al., (2003a,b) (Mayotte island), Montaggioni (1977) (Réunion island), Montaggioni and Faure (1997) (Mauritius
island), Tudhope and Scoffin (1994) (Pukhet, South Thailand), Collins et al. (1993) (Abrolhos, Southwest Australia), Yamano et al. (2003) (Tonoshiro, Ishigaki island, Ryukyus),
Takahashi et al. (1988) (Kume Island, Ryukyus, Japan), Hopley et al. (1978) (Hayman Island, Central Great Barrier Reef), Hopley et al. (1983) (Orpheus island, Central Great
Barrier Reef), Johnson and Risk (1987) (Fantome island, Central Great Barrier Reef), Marshall and Davies (1982) (One Tree Reef, Southern Great Barrier Reef), Kennedy and
Woodroffe (2000) (Lord Howe island, Tasman Sea), Cabioch et al. (1995) (Poum reef, New Caledonia), Kayanne et al. (2002) (Koror islet, Palau islands), Hein et al. (1997)
(Aitutaki, Cook islands), Montaggioni (1988) (Tahiti and Moorea, Society islands), Cortés et al. (1994) (Punta islotes, Costa Rica), Glynn and Macintyre (1987) (Uva island,
Panama), Macintyre et al. (1992) (Cocos island, Eastern Pacific). The number at the base of each core log refers to the time of reef initiation in the considered site (ages in
calendar ka). See Fig. 2 for symbols.
BACKREEF ZONE
WIO CIO RYU EAU (GBR) TAS CHES NC COOK PF HAW PF

WEST Mayotte Mauritius Keeling Ishigaki Heron Stanley One tree Boulder Hayman Rattelsnake Lord Howe Tenia Pukapuka Huahine Tahiti Hanauna Mataiva EAST
KL28 KL26 KL03 S3 CV1 M500 B4 H18 S4 1 R10 LH/LV13 CH 24 3P S2 ETM-d2 9 27C
(-34m) (-56m) (-44m) (-1.5m) (-1m) (-1.5m) (-0,5m) (-3m) (-2m) (+1m) (-2m) (-2.6m) (+1.5m) (-1.5m) (-4.5m) (+1m) (-4.5m) (-3.8m) (-5m) (-1m) (-1m)
0
2.7
9.6
? 5.0 6.0
5
10.9
6.0
? 6.4
?
7.0 5.7
6.5 7.0

10
8.0
7.2
6.0 7.5
Depth in metres
15 >4.2 7.8
20 4.5
9.0 ?
25 8.5
30 35
35
? 6.2 40
Fig. 4. Bio-lithologs of selected shallow-water cores from backreef zones in the Indo-Pacific reef province. Each core is identified by the hole number, the reef site and the relevant
geographical area. WIO=Western Indian Ocean; CIO=Central Indian Ocean; RYU=Ryukyu islands; EAU (GBR)=Eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef); TAS=Tasman Sea;
CHES=Chesterfield islands; NC=New Caledonia; COOK=Cook islands; PF=French Polynesia; HAW=Hawaiian islands. The data are extracted from Zinke et al. (2003a,b) (Mayotte
island), Montaggioni and Faure (1997) (Mauritius island), Woodroffe et al. (1999) (Cocos-Keeling islands), Yamano et al. (2001a) (Ishigaki Island, Ryukyus, Japan), Smith et al.
(1998) (Heron island, Southern Great Barrier Reef), Davies et al. (1985) (Stanley reef, Central Great Barrier Reef), Marshall and Davies (1982) (one tree Reef, Central Great Barrier
Reef), Webster (1999) (Boulder reef, Central Great Barrier Reef), Hopley et al. (1978) (Hayman and Rattelsnake islands, Central Great Barrier Reef), Kennedy and Woodroffe (2000)
(Lord Howe island, Tasman Sea), Degauge-Michalski (1993) (Chesterfield islands), Coudray (1976) (Tenia islet, New Caledonia), Gray et al. (1992) (Pukapuka atoll, Cook islands),
Montaggioni, unpublished (Huanine, Society islands), Montaggioni (1988) (Tahiti, Society islands), Easton and Olson (1976) (Oahu island, Hawaii), Pirazzoli and Montaggioni
(1986) (Mataiva atoll, Tuamotus). The number at the base of each core log indicates the time of reef initiation in the considered site (ages in calendar ka). The values (in m) within
brackets refer to water depth at each core site. See Fig. 2 for symbols.
13
series methods, respectively, all of the 14C dates used binding in-place or reworked corals. These crusts can
in this review (Tables 1 and 2) were reconverted into reach 1 to up to 2 m in total thickness (Easton and
calibrated calendar years (cal. years BP) using the Olson, 1976; Marshall and Davies, 1982; Marshall
CALIB-4 software programme (Stuiver et al., 1998). and Jacobsen, 1985; Takahashi et al., 1985; Kleypas
This calibration protocole assumes that the mean and Hopley, 1993; Collins et al., 1993; Macintyre,
marine global 14C reservoir age has remained constant 1997; Montaggioni et al., 1997a; Grigg, 1998;
through time (ocean reservoir value: 402 years). This Kayanne et al., 2002; Yamano et al., 2003; Grossman
assumption has recently been questioned (Sikes et al., and Fletcher, 2004). In cores extracted from more
2000); compared to modern values, surface-reservoir sheltered areas (i.e. inner reef flats, backreef patch
ages at 11.9 ka radiocarbon age BP, ranged around reefs), coralline algae have generally developed as
800 years and during the LGM, reached 2000 years. branching veneers on corals. Irrespective of their
Calendar calibration at present extend through the thickness, the coralline crusts have mainly been
Holocene to 20.4 14C-years BP (equivalent to 24 cal. formed by Hydrolithon onkodes, Neogoniolithon
years BP in CALIB 4) (Mix et al., 2001). The spp., Mesophyllum sp. and Lithophyllum sp., associ-
calibrated ages are 0 to 500 years older than the ated with encrusting foraminifers, vermetid gastro-
conventional radiocarbon ages within the 4–8 cal. ka pods and serpulids. During the rise of sea level,
BP range, and about 1 to 3.5 years older within the 9– conditions favourable for the growth of thick coralline
24 cal. ka BP interval. Although the accuracy of the crusts operated mainly during bkeep-upQ stages of reef
older radiocarbon data remains uncertain, the cali- accretion and particularly in the final growth phase
brated ages can be directly compared with those after sea-level stabilized. During bcatch-upQ growth
determined by U-series methods, since the U–Th phases, corallines have grown in the form of milli-
dates require no reservoir or calendar corrections. In metre-thick crusts over corals and skeletal debris,
addition, U–Th TIMS dating provides high-precision irrespective of the environmental setting (Marshall
values that range from 2 years in a 100-year-old and Davies, 1982; Macintyre, 1997; Cabioch et al.,
sample to less than 100 years in a 23,000-year-old 1999a,b; Yamano et al., 2003). However, in this case,
sample. because of the low core volume occupied (less than
5% of the recovered material), these cannot be
interpreted as a differentiated facies.
3. Reef development patterns
3.1.2. Robust-branching coral facies
3.1. Reef facies Previously referred to as branching, stout-branch-
ing, stubby-branching, and even coral limestone, this
The analysis of the core dataset allowed 10 major facies originally forms an open to cavernous inter-
facies to be delineated, including 7 varieties of growth locking framework of thick-branched, wave-resistant
framework and 3 detrital facies. These facies are corals dominated by acroporids (A. robusta group;
named after the nature and the growth shapes of the Acropora palifera; Acropora humilis group) and
dominant builders. Their interpretation is based on pocilloporids (P. damicornis, P. verrucosa, Stylo-
comparisons of the biolithologic components of the phora pistillata), with associated domal poritids
cores with those found in the modern reef zones (Porites spp.), faviids (Goniastrea, Favia, Platygyra)
(Fig. 5A,B). and siderastreids (Psammocora stellata). The corals in
this assemblage commonly are thickly encrusted by
3.1.1. Coralline algal facies crustose corallines (mainly Hydrolithon cf. onkodes)
This facies is largely restricted to cores coming and arborescent foraminifers (Homotremids, Victor-
from windward reef crests and reef flats, and from iellids and/or Acervulinids). The framework is usually
lagoonal patches that just face passes trenching reef extensively bored by molluscs (vermetids and
rims. In these zones, calcareous algae form centi- sponges). Cavities up to 0.10 m high are widespread
metre- to decimetre-thick laminated crusts building a within the framework. The larger ones are filled
dense and homogenous framework, or thinner crusts mainly by rubble derived from acroporid and pocillo-
A HIGH - ENERGY REEFS
Reef crest
OUTER SLOPE REEF FLAT BACKREEF ZONE
Inner
slope
10
metres
20
OCCURRENCE
abundant
30 Coral patches
occasional
CALG
ROBR
DOMA
TABR
ARBR
FOLIA
ENCR
B LOW TO MODERATE ENERGY REEFS

Reef crest
OUTER SLOPE REEF FLAT BACKREEF ZONE

(forereef) Inner
slope
10
metres
20
OCCURRENCE
abundant
30 occasional Coral patches
ROBR
DOMA
TABR
ARBR
FOLIA
ENCR
Fig. 5. Schematic summary of distribution of the dominant reef-building coral (and coralline algal) forms and assemblages in the Indo-Pacific
tropics, from deeper outer slopes to backreef zones in relation to water energy and water depth. (A) Distribution in reef systems subject to higher
hydrodynamic energy (outer shelf settings). (B) Distribution in reef systems subject to lower hydrodynamic energy (protected, open and mid- to
inner-shelf settings). Assemblages and facies : CALG=coralline algal; ROBR=robust-branching coral; DOMA=domal coral; TABR=tabular-
branching; ARBR=arborescent coral; FOLIA=foliaceous coral; ENCR=encrusting coral.
porid colonies in a sandy matrix. The latter is Carpenteria), green algal Halimeda plates and frag-
composed generally of tests of benthic free-living ments of corals, molluscs and corallines. Lithified
foraminifers (Amphistegina, Calcarina and/or Bacu- micritic crusts within framework cavities were
logypsina), encrusting foraminifers (Homotrema, observed in various Indo-Pacific sites (Camoin et al.,
1999; Marshall and Davies, 1982); they have mark- This community is encountered as a distinct zone
edly reduced intraskeletal porosity. Successive boring on modern windward reef crests, proximal reef fronts
events, repeated sediment infilling and cementation and, less commonly, reef flat environments in water
have produced a heterogeneous rock. depths of less than 6 m in most of the Indo-Pacific
There is little geographic variations in this facies. areas: Red Sea (Riegl and Piller, 2000), Western
In cores from the Western Indian Ocean, the dominant Indian Ocean (Rosen, 1971a,b; Scheer, 1971; Pichon,
builders belong to the groups of A. robusta and A. 1978; Faure, 1982; Montaggioni and Faure, 1980,
humilis (Cabioch et al., 1999b; Camoin et al., 2004). 1997), Eastern Australia (Done, 1982; Veron, 1986;
In the Western Pacific, A. palifera locally has been Van Woesik and Done, 1997), Ryukyu islands
one of the main framework components, particularly (Nakamori, 1986; Iryu et al., 1995), Palau islands
in the Northern Great Barrier Reef of Australia (Kayanne et al., 2002), Papua New Guinea (Nakamori
(Webster and Davies, 2003), in New Caledonia et al., 1995), Central Pacific (Chevalier, 1979;
(Cabioch et al., 1995) and in Papua New Guinea Maragos, 1977; Bouchon, 1985; Faure and Laboute,
(Ota and Chappell, 1999). In the Ryukyus, Acropora 1984; Faure, 1986; Maragos and Jokiel, 1986;
gemmifera and Pocillopora verrucosa are the most Cabioch et al., 1999a). The diversity of the robust-
abundant species (Sugihara et al., 2003). In Western branching coral assemblage drastically decreases
Pacific oceanic islands, the dominant framework eastward (Glynn and Macintyre, 1987; Cortés et al.,
producers have been A. gr. humilis (Kayanne et al., 1994; Glynn and Ault, 2000). Thus, the paleoenviron-
2002). The framework in Tahiti island principally ment of the robust-branching coral facies is regarded
comprises A. gr. robusta, associated with P. dam- as high-energy, very shallow (0–6 m deep), diagnostic
icornis (Pirazzoli and Montaggioni, 1988; Montag- of windward margins (upper forereef to outer reef flat
gioni and Camoin, 1993; Cabioch et al., 1999a,b) and zones).
in Mururoa atoll, Tuamotus as well (Perrin, 1989;
Camoin et al., 2001). By contrast, in Hawaii islands, 3.1.3. Domal coral facies
the acroporid forms seem not to have contributed to Previously known as coral head or massive, this
framework growth; the dominant robust-branching facies has been identified in cores on the basis of the
corals are represented by Pocillopora sp. (Easton and dominance of dome-shaped poritids (P. lutea, P. lobata,
Olson, 1976), P.meandrina (Grigg, 1998) and Porites Porites sp., Goniopora spp., Cyphastrea spp.), faviids
compressa (Engels et al., 2004). A similar scheme (Favia speciosa, F. stelligera, Favia spp., G. retiformis,
was found in the Eastern Pacific; Glynn and Macin- Goniastrea spp., Platygyra sinensis, P. daedala,
tyre (1987) and Cortés et al. (1994) pointed out that Diploastrea heliopora, Favites spp.), acroporids
the robust-branching coral facies from Panama and (Astreopora listeri) and/or mussids (Symphillia). The
Costa Rica reefs has been made up of P. damicornis. subordinate forms can be branching Galaxea fascicu-
This facies is the fossil counterpart of the coral laris and encrusting Montipora capitata, Montipora
community including dominant acroporids (A. gr. sp. These corals are locally mixed with debris of
robusta: A. robusta, A. danai, A. abrotanoides, A. various acroporids. Two subfacies can be differentiated
palmerae; Acropora (Isopora) palifera; A. gr. humilis: from the degree of development of associated coralline
A. humilis, A. digitifera, A. gemmifera; Acropora algal crusts. A robust encrusted subfacies with coralline
latistella) and pocilloporids (P. damicornis, P. eydouxi, crusts 1–10 cm thick is found in cores taken from
P. verrucosa, P. meandrina, S. pistillata, S. mordax). windward reef flats (Easton and Olson, 1976; Marshall
Subordinate associated corals are domal (Porites lutea, and Davies, 1982; Yonekura et al., 1998; Cabioch et al.,
P. lobata, Leptoria phrygia, Platygyra daedala, 1995, 1999a,b; Cabioch, 2003). A thin- or non-
Goniastrea retiformis, Goniastrea favulus, Favia encrusted subfacies in which coralline crusts are about
stelligera, Favia pallida, Favia flexuosa, Psammocora 1 mm thick or absent appears in cores extracted from
sp., Astreopora sp., Montipora sp.), platy (Millepora sheltered reef flats, patch reefs and backreef zones,
platyphylla), tabular (A. hyacinthus), columnar (Por- peculiarly those subjected to turbid waters (Hopley
ites annae) and encrusting (Montipora tuberculosa, et al., 1983; Buigues, 1985; Johnson and Risk, 1987;
Echinopora gemmacea). Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994; Kleypas, 1996; Montag-
gioni and Faure, 1997; Braithwaite et al., 2000; branching (A. gr. robusta and humilis, A. palifera,
Woodroffe et al., 2000; Kayanne et al., 2002; Zinke A. bruggemanni, S. pistillata). The relevant corals
et al., 2003a,b; Camoin et al., 2004; Grossman and are usually bound postmortem by thick coralline
Fletcher, 2004). Thus, the facies relates either to a crusts.
dense framestone composed of coral heads separated In less agitated or deeper waters, coral forms
by composite crusts of corallines with vermetids, include domal (P. lobata, Pseudosiderastrea tayamai,
serpulids and arborescent foraminifers or to in-situ, Moseleya latistellata), tabular (A. gr. hyacinthus),
scattered massive colonies entombed in a porous delicate branching (Acropora divaricata, A. splen-
matrix of skeletal sand and silt. Corals usually are dida, A. muricata, Seriatopora hystrix) and/or folia-
bored by bivalves, sponges and polychaetes. The ceous (M. capitata, M. aequituberculata), laminar
matrix is composed of a variety of bioclasts among (Montipora verrucosa) and columnar colonies (Por-
which alcyonarian spicules, large benthic foraminifers ites nigrescens). Encrusting coralline algae are poorly
(amphisteginids, calcarinids) and Halimeda plates developed.
predominate. Cemented mud is present occasionally Although the present-day poritid/faviid commun-
within large voids. ities are widely distributed, they tend to occupy lower
This coral assemblage displays a low regional energy reef settings, from surface to depths of around
variability throughout the Indo-Pacific province, 10–15 m (Rosen, 1971b; Done, 1982; Faure, 1982;
except in environments subjected to extreme con- Cabioch et al., 1999b; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004).
ditions (low temperature, high mud input). In this This strongly suggests that the domal coral facies has
case, the coral fauna is severely depauperate; a few formed in a semi-exposed to sheltered, relatively
species only have participated in reef building deeper paleoenvironment.
(Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994; Yamano et al.,
2001a,b). In the far eastern Pacific, the domal coral 3.1.4. Tabular-branching coral facies
facies has resulted from the growth of the species Previously referred to as table, platy, tabulate
Porites lobata or Pavona gigantea (Macintyre et al., coral, this facies was encountered in cores either as a
1992; Cortés et al., 1994). loose open or a rigid structural framework, entombed
In the Indo-Pacific modern reefs, the distribution in a porous matrix of gravels, sands and silts. The
of coral communities dominated by massive poritids corals include plate-shaped acroporids (A. gr. hya-
and faviids is widespread. The latter occur within the cinthus), associated with a variety of other branching
0–25-m depth range, on semi-exposed to sheltered, forms (A. gr. humilis, Acropora spp., P. verrucosa,
windward to leeward reef slopes and reef flats in Pocillopora spp.), massive or digitate poritids, and
both outer and inner shelf settings and in backreef domal faviids. According to the state of preservation
slopes and bottoms. The dominant corals may of the original coral assemblages, this facies can be
include the poritids P. lutea, P. lobata, P. cylindrica, subdivided into two subfacies: (1) an in-situ tabular
the faviids Favia favus, F. stelligera, F. speciosa, subfacies, identified owing to the presence of pieces
Favites abdita, Cyphastrea spp., Goniastrea pecti- of colonies the concave surfaces of which are
nata, G. edwardsi, D. heliopora, Montastrea curta, orientated upwards; these corals are weakly affected
the acroporid A. listeri, with associated mussids by boring and abrasion, but separated by lithified
(Symphillia recta), merulinids (Hydnophora micro- bioclasts. Locally coralline algae form crusts less
conos) and acroporids (A. listeri, Acropora spp.) than 5 mm thick over coral elements. (2) A reworked
(Rosen, 1971a,b; Scheer, 1971; Chevalier, 1979; tabular subfacies, exhibiting rubble of platy acrop-
Done, 1982; Faure, 1982; Bouchon, 1985; Veron, orids, abraded and intensively bored that are mixed
1986; Montaggioni and Faure, 1997; Cabioch et al., with unconsolidated or firmly cemented silty sands.
1999b; Riegl and Piller, 2000). Locally these occur In both subfacies, the matrix is poorly sorted and
with a variety of other corals reflecting differing may be composed of coral, molluscan, echinoid and
water agitation. In shallow, higher wave-energy Halimeda grains, with free-living foraminiferal tests
areas, the communities are composed largely of P. (amphisteginids, calcarinids, baculogypsinids) and
lobata (Grigg, 1998) or augmented by robust- debris of branched corallines.
The tabular-branching facies is widely distributed 3.1.5. Arborescent coral facies

all the way from the western Indian Ocean to the Also previously called bstaghorn-likeQ, ramose,
Central Pacific. It pre-eminently constitutes the frame- thin-branched, delicate or gracile branching, this
work of reef-front, reef-flat and reef-patch structures facies appears in cores either as a framework of
in windward to leeward, low to moderate wave-energy upright, thin branched (less than 20 mm in diameter),
settings (Hopley et al., 1983; Marshall and Davies, locally coralline-encrusted or as fresh angular frag-
1982; Yonekura et al., 1988; Collins et al., 1993, ments and portions of branches. In this case,
2003; Montaggioni and Faure, 1997; Cabioch et al., fragmentation and reworking of the relevant colonies
1995, 1999a,b; Yamano et al., 2001a; Kayanne et al., can be clearly recognized as resulting from rotational
2002; Cabioch, 2003). There is no significant change drilling. Coralline algae play the same role as in the
in the facies composition from site to site. The A. tabular-branching coral facies; they have developed in
hyacinthus group remains the major facies contrib- the form of millimetre-thick coats over coral clasts, in
utor. By contrast, this facies has not been encountered association with sessile foraminifers. The dominant
in the Eastern Pacific reefs (Glynn and Macintyre, scleractinians are A. gr. muricata, Acropora gr.
1987; Macintyre et al., 1992); this is certainly due to aspera, A. gr. divaricata and P. compressa. Other
the absence of coral species giving tabular growth contributors include domal and digitate poritids (P.
forms in this region (Glynn and Wellington, 1983; nigrescens), a variety of branching forms (A. gr.
Glynn and Ault, 2000). While species of the A. hyacinthus, Pocillopora spp.) and a few foliaceous
hyacinthus group were reported from modern reefs species. The coral material recovered may be loose or
surrounding these islands (Wallace, 1999), the Hol- partly lithified; it is mixed with a porous matrix of
ocene reef sequences drilled in the Hawaiian islands unconsolidated to poorly cemented bioclastic sands
(Easton and Olson, 1976) and the southeastern and silts. These grains are derived mainly from corals,
Tuamotus (Perrin, 1989; Camoin et al., 2001) did molluscs, articulated corallines (Amphiroa, Coral-
not reveal the occurrence of tabular corals, probably lina), Halimeda particles and foraminiferal tests
because of the scarcity of the relevant species. (miliolids, soritids, calcarinids). The arborescent coral
The tabular-branching coral facies is the analog of facies was found in drill holes penetrating modern
the present-day acroporid-dominated community that inner reef flats and adjacent backreef slopes, in both
consists of A. gr. hyacinthus (A. hyacinthus, A. outer- and mid-shelf settings and reef-front slopes in
cytherea, A. subulata), associated with a variety of inner-shelf areas.
other acroporids (A. splendida, A. intermedia, A. This facies shows little variations throughout the
humilis, A. digitifera, A. nobilis, A. squarrosa, province. In the Western Indian Ocean, the framework
Montipora digitata, S. pistillata), pocilloporids (P. components are A. gr. muricata, A. gr. aspera,
verrucosa, P. damicornis, P. eydouxi) and poritids (P. associated with A. gr. hyacinthus (Montaggioni,
nigrescens, P. lutea). Subordinate forms include 1977; Camoin et al., 1997). Similar assemblages were
domal Lepastrea and Platygyra, columnar Alveopora identified in the Holocene sections from different
and laminar Echinophyllia and Echinopora. This sites: Ryukyus (Yamano et al., 2001a,b, submitted for
community occurs in semi-exposed or sheltered, publication); Palau (Kayanne et al., 2002); inner-shelf
upper and mid-forereef zones, reef flats and adjacent reefs, Northeast Australia (Hopley and Barnes, 1985;
backreef slopes and patches, usually in mid-shelf Kleypas, 1996), Lord Howe (Kennedy and Wood-
situations. It is growing intertidally or subtidally at roffe, 2000), Chesterfield Islands (Degauge-Michal-
depths not exceeding 20 m; however, in most cases, ski, 1993), Society Islands (Montaggioni, 1988),
this coral assemblage occupies the 2–15-m depth Tuamotus (Pirazzoli and Montaggioni, 1986; Perrin,
interval (Scheer, 1971; Pichon, 1978; Done, 1982; 1989). The facies in question seems to be restricted to
Faure, 1982; Faure and Laboute, 1984). Thus, in the delicate branching P. compressa framestones in the
fossil record, the tabular-branching coral facies is Holocene sequences in the Hawaiian Islands (Grigg,
thought to represent an open marine, moderate wave- 1998; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004). It is missing
energy environment at depths not exceeding 15 m from the eastern Pacific sites (Glynn and Macintyre,
(Cabioch et al., 1999b). 1987; Macintyre et al., 1992).
The aborescent coral facies is the counterpart of encrustation and bioerosion as observed in cores from
present-day branching coral communities that house inner self settings (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000). In
lower to middle parts of fore-reef zones, inner reef most cores taken from other reef zones, foliaceous
flats and nearby backreef slopes in semi-exposed to coral pieces and clasts are encrusted by corallines and
sheltered environments. Along fore-reef slopes, the have been affected by severe erosion by microborers
arborescent coral community may predominantly (Montaggioni and Faure, 1997).
include A. gr. divaricata (A. divaricata, A. clathrata), The foliaceous coral facies is encountered in cores
A. aculeus, A. valenciennesi, A. tenuis, S. hystrix, and from sheltered habitats, in particular, those subjected
S. pistillata. On reef-flat and backreef zones, the coral to high turbidity conditions (Takahashi et al., 1988;
community may be dominated by large thickets of A. Kleypas, 1996; Montaggioni and Faure, 1997). It
gr. muricata (A. muricata, A. grandis), A. gr. aspera shows marked variations in composition according to
(A. aspera, A. pulchra), A. cerealis, A. valida, A. latitude. In the Western Indian Ocean, the coral
tortuosa, A. austera, A. intermedia, A. micro- assemblages are dominated by agariciids (Pavona
phthalma, A. gr. lovelli, S. hystrix, S. pistillata, P. spp.) and acroporids (Montipora foliosa) (Montag-
damicornis, Echinopora horrida. In both types of gioni and Faure, 1997). Similar associations were
habitat, the subordinate forms may consist of A. gr. reported from the Holocene reef sections in the
hyacinthus, G. pectinata, Acropora squarrosa, P. Ryukyus (Kan et al., 1995; Webster et al., 1998).
lutea (Scheer, 1971; Chevalier, 1979; Done, 1982; On the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, the dominant
Faure, 1982, 1986; Bouchon, 1985; Delesalle, 1985; bleafQ builders are dendrophylliids (Turbinaria spp.)
Nakamori, 1986; Veron, 1986, 1992; Wallace, 1999). (Kleypas, 1996). While, in the cores retrieved from
Given there is not significant pattern of differences Vanuatu reefs, the dominant foliaceous coral is
between the two modern arborescent coral commun- Pachyseris rugosa (Cabioch, 2003). The facies has
ities, distinction from cored material is quite difficult; not yet been documented from drilled Holocene
thus, the fossil relevant facies is interpreted simply as sequences in the Central Pacific (Marshall and
reflecting reef growth in sheltered settings at paleo- Jacobsen, 1985; Perrin, 1989; Camoin et al., 2001),
depths between 0 and 20 m. in contrast with the wide occurrence of relevant
communities in the modern environments (Veron,
3.1.6. Foliaceous coral facies 1986, 2000). The absence of this facies from the
Also known as lamellar platy, or tabular coral, this eastern Pacific can be attributed to paleobiogeo-
facies is composed mainly of loose bifacial fronds graphical constraints (Glynn and Ault, 2000).
and elements derived from bleafQ Pavona (Pavona The foliaceous coral facies is the counterpart of
cactus, P. decussata, P. varians), or Pachyseris (P. modern communities dominated by agariciids, den-
rugosa) colonies, and from flat platy and whorled drophylliids and some platy acroporids, and inhabit-
colonies of Montipora (M. foliosa) and Turbinaria ing protected zones usually subjected to suspended
spp. The subordinate constructors may include sediment loadings (i.e. lower irradiance). Along reef
massive faviids, poritids and Hydnophora sp., deli- slopes in mid- to inner-shelf settings, the communities
cate branching acroporids and a variety of encrusting are composed chiefly of Montipora aequituberculata,
forms (Pachyseris, Echinopora). These components Montipora spp., Pachyseris speciosa, P. rugosa,
can be bgrain-supportedQ or embedded in unconsoli- Turbinaria mesenterina, T. reniformis, T. frondens,
dated muddy to fine sands; the sand fraction consists Merulina ampliata, in association with frondose
of debris of corals, gastropods, bivalves, branched pectiniids (Pectinia alcicornis), domal faviids (Favia
and articulated corallines, echinoids and free-living spp., Favites spp., G. pectinata, Goniastrea spp.,
foraminifers (Miliolids, calcarinids, discorbids, textu- Cyphastrea sp.), poritids (Porites solida) and mer-
lariids, nummulitids). ulinids (H. microconos), branching pocilloporids (S.
The preservation state of the coral material varies hystrix, S. pistillata, P. damicornis) and acroporids
from site to site. In areas where postmortem burying (Acropora splendida). They occur at depths from 0 to
of colonies has rapidly operated owing to heavy about 15 m and often occupy the upper parts of the
sediment supply, corals may be well preserved from habitats colonized by the arborescent coral commun-
ities (Done, 1982; Faure, 1982; Van Woesik and (Perrin, 1989). The principal framework support is
Done, 1997; Yamano et al., 2001b). On inner reef flats made up of encrusting foraminifers (Acervulina
and in shallow backreef zones, the foliaceous coral inhaerens), red algae (Peyssonnelia) and, to a lesser
communities are typified by the abundance of platy extent, serpulid polychaetes; they form coatings
Montipora colonies (M. tuberculosa, M. verrucosa, centimetre-thick or more over corals.
M. danae) and Pavona (P. cactus, P. decussata, P. The resulting rock is extensively bored by sponges
varians). The subordinate corals may be massive (P. and polychaetes. Cavities between individual coral-
lobata, P.solida; F. pallida, F. speciosa; F. abdita; gal–foraminiferal sheets contain carbonate sandy
Plesiastrea versipora; Lentastrea purpurea, L. trans- mud, with fine to coarse sand-sized debris or tests
versa; Cyphastrea ocellina, C. seraila, Astreopora of foraminifers (acervulinids, soritids, globigerinids)
myriophthalma) or branched (P. verrucosa, P. pau- and fragments of bryozoans, serpulids, corals and
cistellata; Psammocora contigua; S. pistillata; A. sponge spicules.
muricata, A. valida) (Scheer, 1971; Maragos, 1974; Given the scarcity of outer-reef drillholes data, no
Pichon, 1978; Faure, 1982, 1986; Delesalle, 1985; statement can be made about geographic variation in
Maragos and Jokiel, 1986; Faure and Laboute, 1984; the composition of the encrusting coral subfacies.
Veron, 2000). However, both seem to be absent from the Eastern
By reference to the zonation of its modern analogs, Pacific reefs (Macintyre et al., 1992).
this facies is thought to have formed in sheltered, The encrusting coral facies are the counterparts of
outer to backreef environments in less than 15 m of coral communities that have been observed in a
water depth. variety of reef environments subject to low light
levels and/or strong water agitation. High-energy reef
3.1.7. Encrusting coral facies crests, outer and inner slopes of ocean-facing
Also referred to as lamellar coral, this facies has fringing reefs, mid- to inner-shelf reefs are occupied
been encountered in cores taken from reef crests and locally by dominantly crustose corals, at depths from
slopes. Grossman and Fletcher (2004) described about surface to 10 m. According to the region
bindstones composed of in-situ encrusting P. lobata, considered, these may include the acroporids Mon-
Montipora patula, M. capitata from a windward tipora monasteriata, M. capitata, M. undata, M.
Hawaiian reef crest. Yamano et al. (2001b, 2003) patula, M. danae, the agariciids Leptoseris myceto-
reported the occurrence of such a facies type beneath seroides, P. speciosa, the pectiniid Echinophyllia
the outer slopes of inner-shelf fringing reefs in the aspera, the faviids Leptastrea purpurea, Echinopora
Ryukyus, subject to turbid waters. From continuous lamellosa, E. gemmacea, Cyphastrea serailia, C.
boreholes 300 m in length with seaward inclination microphthalma, C. ocellina, the poritid Alveopora
of 30 to 458, Perrin (1989) and Ebren (1996) daedala, the merulinid M. ampliata; these encrusting
identified an encrusting coral facies along the deep forms may be mixed with dome-shaped species
fore-reef zone at Mururoa atoll. Two subfacies were belonging to faviids (F. pallida, F. speciosa, Oulo-
identified. In sheltered, inner reef settings, the phyllia crispa), acroporids (A. myriophthalma, A.
framework comprises encrusting faviids (Cyphastrea ocellata, Astreopora spp.), poritids (P. lutea, P.
sp.) and pectiniids (Echinophyllia sp.), mixed with lobata, Goniopora lobata, G. columna), mussids
ofther faviids (F. speciosa, Favia sp.) and merulinids (Lobophyllia corumbosa, L. hemprichii, Acanthastrea
(Hydnophora sp.); the coral components are con- echinata), with finely branching (Acropora echinata,
tained in a matrix of carbonate and terrigenous sandy S. hystrix) or with meandroid forms (Plerogyra
mud. In ocean-facing, deep slopes, the facies consists sinuosa). Free-living corals (Fungia spp., Halomitra
of cemented pieces of lamellar colonies and coral sp., Herpolitha sp.) locally are present (Wells, 1954;
clasts derived from Montipora spp., Pachyseris sp., Chevalier, 1975; Maragos, 1977; Done, 1982; Faure,
Cyphastrea sp., Goniastrea sp., Astreopora sp., 1982, 1986; Veron, 1993; Van Woesik and Done,
and Porites lichen. The subordinate coral species 1997).
include P. daedala, Pocillopora eydouxi, F. speciosa, The deep outer shelf-reef slopes, from about 20
F. stelligera and Pseudocolumnastrea maldivensis deep downwards, are colonized usually by commun-
ities typified by the predominance of Montipora, foliaceous corals (Montipora, Pavona mainly) are the
Pachyseris, Leptoseris and/or Echinophyllia (Wells, major contributors to rubble deposition. Skeletal
1954; Barnes et al., 1971; Maragos, 1974; Cheva- pieces range between 0.5 and up to 3 cm in size;
lier, 1975; Pichon, 1978; Maragos and Jokiel, 1986; they can be either totally non-encrusted or heavily
Faure, 1982, 1986; Faure and Laboute, 1984; encrusted by coralline algae, associated with arbor-
Bouchon, 1985). Along steepwalls, these coral escent foraminifers and bryozoans, thus forming
associations can extend upwards to around 8 m of incipient rhodolites locally. These clasts may be
water depth as a result of a drastic decrease in light severely bored by macrofauna (sponges, mytilid
supply. The dominant species in the communities may bivalves) and a variety of micro-organisms. Lithified,
be M. aequituberculata, M. verrucosa, P. speciosa, thick, laminar to columnar micrite crusts may locally
Leptoseris incrustans, L. hawaiiensis, L. scabra, L. encapsulate skeletal gravels, thus forming a solid
mycetoseroides, E. aspera, E. echinata, Oulophillia framework and reducing initial porosity (Montaggioni
crispa, in association with P. lobata, P. lutea, Oxypora and Camoin, 1993; Engels et al., 2004).
lacera, Pectinia lactuca, Horastrea indica, Blasto- The gravel material generally is unconsolidated
mussa merleti, Gardinoseris planulata, Lobophyllia and may be supported by sandy and/or muddy
costata, P. stellata, G. pectinata, G. palauensis, L. matrix. In cores extracted from high-energy settings
purpurea, P. maldivensis, Cyphastrea microphthalma, (i.e. exposed reef fronts and flats), when present,
H. microconos, Goniopora sp., E. gemmacea and D. matrix is chiefly fine- to coarse-sand sized foramini-
heliopora. The subordinate species include F. pallida, feral tests, micro-molluscs, debris of branched coral-
F. speciosa, F. abdita, Lobophyllia hemprichii, P. lines, Halimeda plates, alcyonarian spicules, echinoid
damicornis and P. eydouxi. detritus and, possibly, brachiopods. The sediment
Owing to similarities in the taxonomic composition bulk is of rudstone texture. In cores retrieved from
of the encrusting coral communities, the distinction low-energy areas (i.e. inner reef flats to backreef
between the relevant two subfacies in cores is not easy zones), the interclast matrix is composed of fine sand
and has to be based on the texture and composition of and locally mud. The mud content ranges from 1% to
matrices and the nature of secondary encrusters. The 80% of the total sediment (Johnson and Risk, 1987;
subfacies rich in terrigenous mud is considered to Adjas et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1998; Kennedy and
form at less than 10 m deep in protected environ- Woodroffe, 2000). The resulting facies varies from
ments, while the coralgal–foraminiferal subfacies is muddy sandy gravels to gravelly muds (unconsoli-
thought to deposit on deep fore-reef zones at depths dated floatstones). The mud fraction is either purely
greater than 20 m. carbonate or mixed carbonate–terrigenous. Purely
carbonate mud derives from disintegration of the
3.1.8. Skeletal rubble facies skeletons of reef-dwelling organisms; it is mainly
Also known as coral rubble, coral gravel, skeletal found on lagoonal platform reefs in mid-shelf
rubble and coral rudstone, this facies is composed of a situations (Smith et al., 1998) and within atoll
mixture of unsorted, angular to rounded clasts of lagoons (Adjas et al., 1990; Yamano et al., 2002).
corals, bivalves and coralline algae. It forms a Mixed siliciclastic–carbonate mud sedimentation is
prominent feature of most cored reef sections, restricted to nearshore reefs in inner shelf situations
irrespective of ambient water-energy conditions and (Johnson and Risk, 1987; Hopley, 1982; Tudhope
morphological zones. The facies may occupy up to and Scoffin, 1994; Woolfe and Larcombe, 1998) and
60% of the total core volume in situations ranging in mid-oceanic volcanic islands (Montaggioni and
from exposed reef margins to innermost backreef Faure, 1980; Cabioch et al., 1999a; Zinke et al.,
zones (Davies and Hopley, 1983; Johnson et al., 1984; 2001; Engels et al., 2004).
Montaggioni, 1988; Tudhope, 1989; Kennedy and The skeletal rubble facies is the equivalent of
Woodroffe, 2000; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004). intertidal to subtidal storm-generated gravel sheets
Since disintegration of coral framework is greatly deposited at the surface of reef flats and prograding
influenced by the original shapes of coral colonies, into backreef zones (Montaggioni and Faure, 1980;
branching acroporids, poritids and pocilloporids, and Hopley, 1982; Davies and Hopley, 1983).
3.1.9. Carbonate sand facies The dominant components are scleractinians, coral-
Also known as skeletal, detrital, biogenic or line algae, molluscs, benthic foraminifers and green
bioclastic sand, this facies consists of gravelly algae (Halimeda). The subordinate producers are
(rudstones, grainstones) to muddy (packstones) sands alcyonarians, ostracods, echinoderms, bryozoans,
derived from the disintegration of reef-dwelling crustaceans and planktic foraminifers. Mineralogi-
organisms. Few works have been devoted to the cally, the relevant sands are largely composed of
biological composition of sand deposits collected by aragonite (50 to 80% of the total sand fraction) and
reef drilling; less than 10% of the Indo-Pacific core magnesian calcite. The following biofacies can be
dataset available are documented from the viewpoint distinguished in sandy sections on the basis of the
of total bioclastic components. This may be due to major skeletal components and textural characteristics.
the low recovery rates associated with sand beds (1–
30%; average: about 10%). Present in all cores, this – coral–coralline algal (coralgal) rudstones/grain-
facies is volumetrically one of the most significant to stones/packstones; they are ubiquitous, but occur
such a point that Hubbard et al. (1998) questioned chiefly in higher abundance (up to 50% of the total
the actual role of in-place framework in Holocene sand fraction) in the cores penetrating windward to
reef building. Indeed, even in cores retrieved from leeward reef crests and outer reef flats. Associated
ocean-facing reef crests, sand intervals up to 5 m bioclastic types derive mainly from benthic fora-
were penetrated (Webster et al., 1998; Cabioch et al., minifers and molluscs. Foraminiferal taxa are
1999a, 2003a,b; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004; dominated by encrusting (Acervulinids, homotre-
Woodroffe et al., 2004). mids, victoriellinids) and hyaline forms (Amphis-
The sand facies is widespread beneath a variety of teginids, calcarinids and/or baculogypsinids)
reef zones. Drillholes dominated by sand accumu- (Montaggioni, 1977; Webster et al., 1998; Kayanne
lations have clearly sampled inner reef flat and et al., 2002; Cabioch, 2003; Yamano et al., 2003;
backreef sites in which sands may occupy more than Grossman and Fletcher, 2004).
80% of the total core volume (Figs. 3 and 4) – coral–molluscan grainstones/packstones; they are
(Marshall and Davies, 1982; Davies and Hopley, restricted mainly to cores from inner reef flats and
1983; Marshall and Jacobsen, 1985; Montaggioni, adjacent shallower backreef zones. The subordinate
1988; Gray et al., 1992; McLean and Woodroffe, biogenic particles come from corals, corallines,
1994; Cabioch et al., 1995, 1999a; Zinke et al., free-living benthic foraminifers (Amphisteginids,
2001). Conversely, sand beds range between 10% calcarinids, soritids, miliolids), alcyonarians and
and about 50% in total volume beneath reef crests echinids (Johnson and Risk, 1987; Smith et al.,
and outer reef flats (Fig. 2) (Easton and Olson, 1976; 1998; Braithwaite et al., 2000; Kayanne et al.,
Marshall and Davies, 1982; Cabioch, 1988; Hopley, 2002; Yamano et al., 2002). Sand-sized debris of
1994; Montaggioni and Faure, 1997; Montaggioni corals and molluscs may contribute to proximal
et al., 1997a,b). fore-reef deposition in siliciclastic muddy sands
Sands can be unconsolidated to firmly lithified. (Cortés et al., 1994).
Loose material mainly occurs in cores from leeward, – molluscan–foraminiferal grainstones/packstones;
protected areas. By contrast, densely cemented skel- they are dominating in the cored material from
etal sands can be found in cores taken from windward mid-to distal lagoonal areas, on barrier reefs and
reef margins and occasionally, from large coral atolls. Amounts of molluscs (cerithid shells,
patches irrespective of their location. These common fragments of ostreids and tridacnes) can exceed
features in all reef sites may be explained by the fact 35% of the total bioclasts; tests of free-living
that the most favourable conditions for intergranular foraminifers (Nummulitids, miliolids, textulariids)
cementation seem to be strong water agitation, represent 5–10% on average. The other carbonate
stabilization of sediments and occurrence of enclosed, producers are Halimeda, echinoderms, crusta-
intraframework micro-environments supersaturated ceans, ostracods and occasional planktic foramini-
with respect to calcium carbonate (Macintyre and fers (Perrin, 1989; Cabioch et al., 1999a; Zinke
Marshall, 1988). et al., 2003a).
– Halimeda grainstones/packstones; they occur in fringing reef flat (Seychelles), Braithwaite et al.
cores from a variety of reef zones. The algal (2000) described a 26-m-thick sand-dominated
segments can concentrate in some sections, sequence, changing upward from a medium- to fine-
representing up to 35% of the total components sized, coral–molluscan–alcyonarian grainstone, with
beneath inner reef flats (Marshall and Davies, nummulitids into a coarse sized coral grainstone/
1982; Engels et al., 2004) and backreef zones rudstone, rich in homotremids, victoriellinids and
(Kayanne et al., 2002; Degauge-Michalski, 1993). amphisteginids. Similarly, through a windward, mid-
However, Halimeda particles have been mixed shelf reef flat (Australian Great Barrier Reef),
usually with other skeletal material during reef Marshall and Davies (1982) drilled a 11-m-thick,
accretion. Sequences from semi-exposed to shel- upward fining succession, typified at base by Hal-
tered fringing reefs may display a coralline algal– imeda grainstones and at top by coralgal packstones.
Halimeda packstone facies (Cabioch, 1988). In The backreef environments also exhibit vertical
core sections from West to Central Pacific atolls, changes in sand texture and composition. For
three successive Halimeda-dominated sand facies instance, the core set extracted from Mayotte lagoon
were identified in lagoonal settings, from the showed that Holocene deposits consist of upward
proximal, shallower to the distal, deeper parts: coarsening, molluscan to molluscan–foraminiferal
coral–Halimeda grainstones, Halimeda–foramini- (nummulitids, amphisteginids) sands in shallower
feral (Nummulitids, miliolids) and Halimeda– areas and, of upward fining, molluscan to mollus-
molluscan packstones, respectively (Yamano can–ostracod sandy muds rich in nummulitids and
et al., 2002). miliolids in deeper settings (Zinke et al., 2003a).
Differences in Holocene bioclastic associations exist
Low-extent skeletal sand types were reported in between the Indo-Pacific regions. These differences
sections from various reef environments: alcyonarian chiefly concern the distribution of Halimeda algae
(spiculite) grainstones beneath reef flats and shallower and benthic foraminiferal forms. Halimeda detritus
backreef sites (Montaggioni, 1980; Konishi, 1981; seems not to have formed a distinctive sand facies
Johnson and Risk, 1987; Braithwaite et al., 2000); during Holocene reef development in the islands from
coralline algal–molluscan packstones from shallower Western Indian Ocean (Montaggioni, 1977; Camoin
lagoon areas (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000); mol- et al., 1997; Braithwaite et al., 2000; Zinke et al.,
luscan–ostracod packstone/wackestone in deeper 2003a) and the Tuamotu archipelago (Pirazzoli and
lagoons (Zinke et al., 2003a,b). Montaggioni, 1986; Perrin, 1989). By contrast, the
The distributional patterns of the carbonate sand Halimeda facies is a common feature of the sediments
facies are distinctive, despite the significant overlaps accumulated in semi-exposed to sheltered reef flats
in the skeletal associations. The many facets of pattern and backreef areas from the Western Pacific (Marshall
result undoubtedly from biogeographic and hydro- and Davies, 1982; Degauge-Michalski, 1993; Hopley,
dynamic mechanisms as well. The present analysis of 1994; Chevillon, 1996; Kayanne et al., 2002; Yamano
sand facies zonation in cores allows two spatial scales et al., 2002) and Hawaiian islands (Engels et al.,
of pattern to be coming out: a within-reef-zone scale 2004). Regarding the foraminiferal assemblages
and a between-region scale. Within a given reef zone, present in the cored sand beds, there are marked
sand accumulations may be compositionally and variations from ocean to ocean and between the
texturally similar throughout the Holocene time Pacific regions. In the Indian Ocean, the reef flat
interval. Particularly, in higher water-energy settings sequences are characterized by the dominance of a
(i.e. windward reef margins), sand beds commonly are Homotrema–Amphistegina–Calcarina subfacies, and
strictly composed of coralgal grainstones (Montag- the backreef sections by a Miliolid (Triloculina–
gioni, 1977; Camoin et al., 1997; Webster et al., 1998; Quinqueloculina)–Textularia subfacies (Montaggioni,
Cabioch, 2003; Yamano et al., 2003, submitted for 1978; Colonna, 1994; Braithwaite et al., 2000). Cores
publication). However, in most cases, there is broad collected from reef flat zones in the Western Pacific
constituent and grain-size variation over core length. exhibit a Calcarina–Baculogypsina–Soritid subfacies
For example, in a moderate water-energy, outer (Baccaert, 1987; Cabioch, 1988; Yamano et al.,
2001a, 2002; Kayanne et al., 2002). The latter seems rarely exceeding 10 m. Contrary to the coralgal, in the
to be missing in the central Pacific, where it is coralline algal–molluscan facies, calcifying algae are
replaced by an Acervulina–Amphistegina association represented mainly by branched and articulated forms:
(Perrin, 1989). On the contrary, the backreef sections this facies occupies the same reef zone as the coral–
studied would present similar foraminiferal subfacies molluscan one. The molluscan–foraminiferal facies,
throughout the Pacific, namely a nummulitid (Hetero- rich in Heterostegina and/or Operculina, Quinquelo-
stegina and/or Operculina)–miliolid (Quinquelocu- culina, Triloculina and Spiroloculina is extending
lina, Triloculina, Spiroloculina) association (Yamano over the deeper backreef bottoms; it can be over-
et al., 2002; Perrin, 1989). lapped locally by the Halimeda facies. The mollus-
All of the skeletal sand facies described are the can–ostracod assemblage appears to signify restricted,
fossil counterparts of present-day reefal deposits. The deeper lagoonal settings. The four mollusc-rich sand
patterns in the distribution of the biogenic component types are interpreted as lower energy facies. The
associations are relatively well documented from the alcyonarian spiculite facies, that results from the
Indo-Pacific (Lewis, 1967; Masse, 1970; Montag- decay of octocorallian tissus after death, occurs in-
gioni, 1978; Flood and Scoffin, 1978; Gabrié and situ deposition, commonly on shallow subtidal, soft
Montaggioni, 1982a,b; Montaggioni et al., 1986; sedimentary bottoms (less than 10 m deep) (Mon-
Delesalle, 1985; Adjas, 1988; Cabioch, 1988; Che- taggioni, 1980; Konishi, 1981); it is indicative of
villon, 1992; Piller, 1994; Zinke et al., 2001). moderate agitation in shallow-water areas.
Generally, in high-energy environments, the com-
position of the sand fractions deposited only partially 3.1.10. Carbonate mud facies
reflects the structure of the nearby carbonate-produc- Also referred to as lime mud, carbonate mudstone,
ing communities, since large-scale transport of sedi- this facies consists of fine-grained, carbonate-domi-
ments operate across the reef system. By contrast, in nated sediment (grain sizeb63 Am). It is encountered
low-energy settings, the boundaries of the different in cores from a variety of reef zones as either
sand facies coincide broadly with those of the unconsolidated silt–mud deposits or lithified, micro-
communities (Montaggioni et al., 1986; Piller, sparitic to micritic limestones (in the sense of Bath-
1994). Similarly, numerous studies were focused in urst, 1971).
particular on reef biozonation based on the presence Cores from sheltered, inner reef flats and backreef
or absence of dominating larger foraminifers within zones generally contain loose fine-grained matrix that
surface sand material (Todd, 1960; Montaggioni, frequently encases isolated coral colonies or gravels
1981; Debenay, 1985; Hallock and Glenn, 1986; (floatstones) and/or skeletal sands (wackestones). The
Montaggioni et al., 1986; Venec-Peyré, 1991; Bicchi relationships between water agitation and amounts of
et al., 2002; Yamano et al., 2002; Langer and Lipps, fine carbonates in cores remain relatively constant
2003). These indicate that the thanatocoenoses from throughout the sediment piles. Beneath reef flats, the
reef margins, flats and shallower backreef sites are a sediment is composed of less than 10% carbonate
mixture of allochthonous and in-place tests, while the mud (Johnson and Risk, 1987; Yamano et al., 2001a;
deeper parts of lagoons mainly contain autochthonous Braithwaite et al., 2000; Kennedy and Woodroffe,
microfaunal associations. As a consequence, these 2000). Higher contents of mud (50% to 98% of total
facies can be used as paleoenvironmental indicators. sediment) are found generally in cores from the
The coralgal facies, plus the foraminiferal subfacies deeper parts of barriers and atolls (Smith et al.,
dominated by encrusting forms, amphisteginids and/ 1998; Zinke et al., 2001). During infilling of inner reef
or calcarinids, are typical of windward reef margins zones, there have been abrupt changes in the volume
and outer reef flats; they are diagnostic of the of fine-grained material deposited that tends to
shallowest and highest energy settings. The coral– regularly increase up the cores (transition from float-
molluscan sand type, in association with the amphis- stone–wackestone to mudstone textures) (Johnson and
tiginid–calcarinid or the baculogypsinid–calcarinid– Risk, 1987; Zinke et al., 2001), probably as a result of
soritid variants is transitional; it is found mainly along the rapid vertical accretion of outer reef crests that
inner reef flats and adjacent lagoonal areas at depths thus have protected the adjacent inner reef zones and
prevented the potential skeletal material to be 1992), models of reef development are possible to
exported. be defined on the basis of the distributional patterns of
The origins of unconsolidated carbonate oozes in the facies both vertically and laterally through the reef
Holocene reef sequences are poorly documented. This system pile. The reconstructions of reef anatomy
relates presumably to the difficulty of both recovering herein are largely based on core-transects.
fine-grained fractions even by vibrocoring and recog- Drilling showed that the internal structure of reef
nizing the initial nature of a material highly susceptible margins is typified by three types of facies associ-
to syndepositional alteration. The respective influence ation. The first type relates to sequences that
of the two basic mechanisms invoked for explaining comprise famework facies of uniform composition
the origin of the lime mud in reefs (Bathurst, 1971) is from base to top. These sequences are encountered
not known in the case of the Indo-Pacific sequences: generally beneath exposed to sheltered reef crest/flat
has the mud been mostly inorganically precipitated or zones that started to accumulate not prior to 10–9 ka
mostly derived from the breakdown of skeletal BP. Single framework facies dominate in protected
material? The only way of addressing this question is inshore areas. This model is illustrated by fringing
to investigate the composition of surficial, present-day reefs in South Thailand (Tudhope and Scoffin,
fine-grained carbonates. 1994), Fantome island (Johnson and Risk, 1987)
It appears that in the Indo-Pacific reefs, silt and (Fig. 6F) and Punta Islotes (Cortés et al., 1994) (Fig.
mud are dominantly skeletal in origin (Scoffin and 6L). In turbulent offshore waters, facies of homoge-
Tudhope, 1985; Tudhope and Scoffin, 1986; Ellis and neous composition are found locally. For instance,
Milliman, 1985; Adjas et al., 1990; Zinke et al., the high-energy reef flat sequence at Toliara (Fig. 2)
2001). Low amounts of mud may be chemogenic, is totally composed of a single robust-branching
deposited as aragonite or magnesian calcite cristallites Acropora facies, associated with beds of unconsoli-
in restricted lagoonal environments seasonally dated sand and rubble mainly derived from acroporid
affected by carbonate supersaturation (Adjas et al., branches (Camoin et al., 2004). Similarly, on Lord
1990) or in arid, subtidal to intertidal, backreef flats Howe island, beneath the relatively protected reef
(Purser, 1973). crest, the sediment pile consists of an arborescent
Lithified lime mud is found mainly in cores from Acropora framework locally mixed with detritus
high-energy settings (i.e. windward reef margins, dominated by pieces of acroporid branches (Kennedy
outer reef flats) where early marine cementation is and Woodroffe, 2000) (Fig. 6G). Fringing reef flats at
widely operating in cavity-infilling deposits within Réunion, Ishigaki, Poum, Orpheus, Molokai and
reef framework; the densely lithified framework Cocos are additional examples of this first type of
sections form bpavement limestonesQ (Macintyre and facies succession.
Marshall, 1988). Apart from the clearly identified silt- The second type relates to the stacking-up of two
sized bioclasts, the origin of the other components distinct framework facies in a given core. In most
present in the carbonate microsparites and micrites cases, a bed of deeper water, lower energy coral
still remains controversial (Macintyre and Marshall, community is overlain by a shallower, higher energy
1988). In a number of Postglacial sections from the coral (or coralgal) assemblage. From the margins
Indo-Pacific, the laminar to columnar micritic crusts subjected to exposed or semi-exposed conditions, e.g.
observed within reef framework were interpreted as Mayotte, Mahé as Indian Ocean examples, and Palau,
microbially induced (stromatolite-like structures) Guam, Mangaia,Yonge, windward margin of One
(Camoin et al., 1999) rather than a physico-chemically Tree, Mamié, Moorea barrier, Mururoa as Pacific
deposited product. examples (Figs. 2, 3 and 6D,E), the base of the
sequences consists of domal poritid/faviid, arbores-
3.2. Reef anatomy cent or tabular acroporid frameworks that represent
former buildups started at depths of around 10 m if
3.2.1. Facies association considering the present thickness of the sequences.
Although reefs are considered generally to be The overtopping unit is composed of robust acrop-
complex mosaics of facies (James and Bourque, orid/pocilloporid assemblages encrusted by coralline
FORE REEF RC BACKREEF

msl
A 0
depth (in metres)
?
5
2 ?
10 3
?
15 4
5
20 ?
6 100
m
25
POINTE-AU-SABLE REEF, MAURITIUS
FR REEF FLAT BACKREEF

B msl
0
depth (in metres)
2
1
3 4 2
5 3
? 5
6 5 4 100
m
KABIRA REEF, ISHIGAKI ISLAND, RYUKYU
C FR REEF CREST REEF FLAT
5
msl 4 ?
0
5.5
? 6
6.5 100 m
5 ? 7
8
10
NISHIMEZAKI REEF, KUME ISLAND, RYUKYU
Encrusting coralline algal Tabular branching coral Rubble
Arborescent coral Foliaceous coral Sand and/or muddy

sand
Robust branching coral Domal coral Basement
Encrusting coral 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)

D FR REEF CREST REEF FLAT LAGOON

msl Patch
0
2 2
depth (in metres)
4
5
10 4
5
6 6
8 7
20 ? 7
?
200 m
30
KOROR BARRIER REEF, PALAU ISLANDS
E FR WRF LAGOON LRF LRS

0 P msl
depth (in metres)
2
5 6 2
4
5 3 4
5
10 6 7
7 6
6 7
15 500
m
ONE TREE REEF, AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF
FR FRINGING REEF FLAT

F msl
0
depth (in metres)
5 5
4
2 3
10
100
m
FANTOME ISLAND, AUSTRALIAN GREAT BARRIER REEF
algae (Hydrolithon mainly) or by algal pavements, The third type of facies association is observed
both representing the shallowest and highest energy mainly from the reef crest sites that recorded the
facies. Within the cores from more protected reef rims longest development history, i.e. the last 14 to 23 ka.
(Abrolhos, Kume, inner margin of One Tree, fringing At Kwambu, Tasmaloun and Tahiti (Fig. 2), the
reefs at Moorea and Oahu) (Figs. 3 and 6E), the lower stratigraphic pattern is characterized by recurrent
sections are composed of arborescent acroporid or alternations of shallower, higher-energy and deeper,
poritids, or of foliaceous montiporid/agariciid/dendro- lower-energy frameworks. For example, the reef crest
phylliid assemblages that relate to the lowest energy pile from the Tahitian barrier is made up of 1–10 m
and/or deepest facies, initially settled at depths not thick, alternating beds of shallower A. gr. robusta and
exceeding 15 m. The upper sections are dominated by deeper tabular A. gr. cytherea, arborescent A.cla-
domal poritid/faviid or tabular acroporid facies. thrata, domal Porites spp, encrusting P. lichen and
depth (in metres)

1 msl
0
4
5
? ? ?
5.5
5
6
100
m
CENTRAL AREA, LORD HOWE ISLAND
REEF
H FOREREEF FLAT BACKREEF
Patch msl
0 6
7
depth (in metres)
? 8
2
9 4
? 10 6
50
11 ?
?
?
12 en t s
13 t erri g en o u s sed i m
100 100
m
PAPEETE, TAHITI ISLAND, FRENCH POLYNESIA
I FORE ALGAL REEF FLAT LAGOON

REEF CREST msl
0 3
6 5
6 3
4
depth (in metres)
5 8
8 6
10 100 m
15
20
MURUROA ATOLL, TUAMOTUS, FRENCH POLYNESIA
arborescent P. nigrescens (Cabioch et al., 1999a) (Fig. relevant shallowing-upward sequences start with a
6H). This type of facies transition is also exemplified subtidal unit consisting of in situ-produced coral
by fringing reefs, at Mauritius (Fig. 6A) and Kume rudstones, overlain by skeletal floatstones/wacke-
(Fig. 6C). stones in which sorting, mean grain size and amount
Facies transitions are observed also within the of reef flat constituents increase near the sea surface;
backreef sediment piles. Scoffin and Tudhope (1988) the upper part of the sequences is an intertidal to
established a predictive model of complete lagoonal supratidal unit presenting a clear differentiation
sedimentation from their study on a small-size, according to exposure to water energy: coral shingle
enclosed lagoonal platform reef system (Davies Reef, rudstones to windward, grainstones to leeward.
mid-shelf Great Barrier Reef). They showed that the Similar subtidal sequences composed of fining-
J FR REEF FLAT BACKREEF

0 msl
1 2
3 2
? 3
4
depth (in metres)
5
5
6
?
10
? 7 30 m
15
HANAUMA REEF, OAHU, HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
K
msl msl
0
depth (in metres)
10 5
6 ?
15 ?
7 ?
20 8 100 m
?
25
HALE O LONO REEF, MOLOKAI, HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
L FORE REEF REEF FLAT BACKREEF

msl
0
1
2
depth (in metres)
4
5
150 m
10 4
1 2
FRINGING REEF, PUNTA ISLOTES, COSTA RICA
Fig. 6. Facies and anatomy patterns of selected Indo-Pacific reef systems: (A) fringing reef, La Pointe-au-Sable, Mauritius island, Indian ocean
(Montaggioni and Faure, 1997); (B) fringing reef, Kabira Ishigaki island, Ryukyus, Western Pacific (Yamano et al., 2001b); (C) fringing reef,
Nishimezaki, Kume island, Ryukys (Takahashi et al., 1988); (D) barrier reef system, west off Koror islet, Palau island, Western Pacific (Kayanne
et al., 2002); (E) mid-shelf platform reef, One Tree, Central Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Davies, 1982); (F) inner-shelf fringing reef,
Fantome islet, Central Great Barrier Reef (Johnson and Risk, 1987); (G) fringing reef, Central area, Lord Howe island, Tasman Sea, Western
Pacific (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000); (H) barrier reef system, Tahiti island, Central Pacific (modified from Cabioch et al., 1999a); (I) outer
reef margin, Mururoa atoll, Tuamotu archipelago, Central Pacific (Ebren, 1996); (J) fringing reef, Hanauma Bay, Oahu island, Hawaii
archipelago, Central Pacific (Easton and Olson, 1976); (K) fringing reef, Hale O Lono, Molokai island, Hawaii archipelago, Central Pacific
(Engels et al., 2004); (L) fringing reef, Punta islotes, Costa Rica, Eastern Pacific (Cortés et al., 1994).
upward sediments separated by in-situ low-energy The rise of sea level resulted in a progressive
corals and possibly grading into coarser-grained increase in water depth and change in wave power
material closer to sea level, were described from on the inundated substrates. The local capacity of
different mid-shelf reef platforms on the Great Barrier reef growth to compensate for the increase in
Reef (Marshall and Davies, 1982; Davies and Hopley, accommodation and to resist to water-energy space
1983; Smith et al., 1998; Webster, 1999). Although was determined by the structure of coral commun-
the facial and textural characteristics of backreef ities. Faster-growing, branching assemblages were
sediment piles still remain poorly documented, the generally able to keep pace or to prograde, while
core data available seem to indicate that this pattern of slower-growing, domal and laminar populations
lagoonal deposition is a common feature in different commonly retrograde or drowned. Thus, the vertical
reef system types, at least regarding the subtidal beds, distribution of primary framework within reef rim
and irrespective of the size and area of the back reef piles reflects the response of communities to changes
environments (Fig. 4): fringing reefs (for instance in rates of sea-level rise and hydrodynamic energy
Mauritius, Ishigaki, Rattelsnake, Lord Howe), oceanic through changes in depositional processes and/or
atolls and platforms (Chesterfield, Mataiva). An growth styles. Homogeneous composition of frame-
alternative model of lagoonal sedimentation was work facies within a given sequence may indicate
reported by Zinke et al. (2003a) from the study of the persistence of ambient conditions from the earlier
the large lagoon of Mayotte island. The facies stages of coral colonization to coral growth at the
successions show significant lateral variability stillstand. In particular, in sheltered inner-shelf
(Fig. 7). Three depositional sequences were identified settings where inimical conditions are operating
on the basis of different environmental settings. In the (e.g. high terrigenous input, abnormal salinities),
proximal lagoonal setting (10–35 m deep), the only the most tolerant coral assemblages, such as
sequence includes a basal terrigenous, mollusc-rich those dominated by poritids, faviids or pocilloporids,
mud overlain by mixed terrigenous/carbonate foramol can survive. By contrast, the repeated abrupt facies
wackestones, then carbonate coral–foramol pack- replacements are interpreted as reflecting lateral
stones/rudstones. In the deeper, mid-lagoonal areas displacements of coral communities across the drill-
(40–65 m deep), the succession is as follows from ing sites. The overlapping of robust acroporid-
base upward: terrigenous mud/wackstones rich in dominated framework by a deeper coral assemblage
molluscs and ostracods, mixed terrigenous/carbonate relates probably to a retrograding event, while the
molluscan–echinoidal wackestones, carbonate fora- seaward displacement of the robust acroporids over
mol packstones. From the distal lagoonal areas (10–45 deeper water corals express progradation. This
m deep), the sequence consists of foramol mudstones/ suggests that rapid changes in environmental param-
packstones capped by coral packstones/rudstones. eters have disturbed reef aggradation during the
deglacial transgression. In particular, any decrease in
3.2.2. Reef anatomy versus structure of coral the rate of sea-level rise has resulted in progradation
communities of shallowest corals and, conversely any acceleration
From the foregoing, it is clear that the reef anatomy has favoured retrogradation of deeper corals. Such
of Indo-Pacific reef systems reflects complex histories low-amplitude, high-frequency sea-level pulses may
of accretion during the rise of sea level. Reef have controlled reef aggradation through successive
development expresses two distinct episodes in terms keep-up/catch-up cycles. Finally, in so-called keep-
of major depositional processes: a transgressive up reefs, the cycles have been encapsulated as an
episode from 19 to about 7 ka BP, and a stillstand overall keep-up signature.
episode for the past 7–3 ka (Davies and Montaggioni, In sequences from semi-exposed to sheltered mid-
1985; Montaggioni, 2000). The transgressive succes- shelf and inner-shelf settings, domal, arborescent and
sions are the products of a series of dominantly tabular-branching coral assemblages dominate over
aggrading, shallowing-up sequences. The still-stand other coral communities and may locally form uni-
interval was characterized rather by lateral reef- form facies. They generally indicate aggradation
margin accretion and backreef infilling. controlled by a catch-up growth mode.
proximal lagoon middle lagoon distal lagoon
1 km
fringing reef
0
Holocene barrier reef 3
7

10
patch reefs 8
intralagoonal volcanic high 9
20
2
30
4
10
40
6
50 8
downlap 8
surfaces 4 10
8
60 10
onlap
70 surfaces
deep valley
mbpsl deep valley
In-situ corals (framework) Mud 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)
Rubble and Sand Basement
Fig. 7. Generalized seismic-based cross-section of the barrier reef system at Mayotte island, Western Indian Ocean. Basal unconformity, depositional systems and sequences
boundaries of Postglacial age are indicated (from Zinke et al., 2001).
31
There is evidence of a link between the structures of total framework facies (primary and secondary) may
coral communities and the degree of reef develop- comprise more than 60% of the cored material. In the
ment. The attributes of the community, species lowest energy settings, that may or not be subject to
composition and abundance, colony size frequency hurricanes and tropical storms, reefs can best be
distribution, individual life expectancy and succes- described as detrital piles trapping only scattered
sion, all influence reef accretion, either within the in- corals (Davies and Hopley, 1983; Montaggioni, 1988;
situ framework or in detrital deposits (Davies, 1983; Kleypas and Hopley, 1993; Cabioch et al., 1995;
Kleypas, 1996; Van Woesik and Done, 1997). In the Braithwaite et al., 2000; Yamano et al., 2001a). Coral
southern Great Barrier Reef, non-reefal coral com- colonies typically comprise less than 20% of the total
munities (in the sense of Buddemeier and Hopley, core. Thus, in the Indo-Pacific, reef anatomy appears
1988) and incipient reefs that are submerged and lack to be partly dependent on the interplay between
a defined reef flat (Hopley et al., 1989), are dominated fairweather hydrodynamic conditions and extreme
by encrusting and foliaceous growth forms. The main storm events. It can be related to end-members of a
reef-builders (branching and large massive forms) and hydrodynamic-controlled spectrum ranging from
the major rubble producers (branching corals) are rare framework to detritus.
or absent. If the living community provides an In addition to controlling the large-scale architec-
adequate guide to coral palaeoassemblages and palae- ture of reef systems, hydrodynamic energy may
oenvironmental conditions throughout the Holocene, provide small-scale constraints on reef geometry
it should not be surprising that reefs have not through framework composition. Operating in parallel
developed. High population turnover, low settlement with sea-level change, wave agitation may be respon-
densities and high rates of skeletal breakdown sible for limiting reef growth and, as a consequence,
combined with high turbidity prevented substantial for controlling the thickness of reef sequences. In the
accretion. These structures, interpreted as bturned offQ high Hawaiian Islands, Grigg (1998) observed that
are largely composed of detritus. By contrast, fringing Holocene reefs 10–15 m thick and dominated by
reefs with a well-defined reef flat are regarded as domal Porites occur only in wave-sheltered locations.
bturned onQ (Kleypas, 1996). These consist predom- In wave-exposed settings, accretion is represented by
inantly of branching acroporids that have provided less than 1 m of living corals overlying a variety of
framework and rubble. If maintained throughout the antecedent foundations.
Holocene such conditions, reflecting high recruitment
densities and long colony life expectancies, would 3.2.3. Reef anatomy versus depositional patterns
have promoted substantial net growth. Kennedy and Woodroffe (2002) defined six models
Furthermore, the results from drilling underline the of Holocene fringing reef development based on the
dominance of growth framework in exposed, ocean- use of isochrons to reconstruct the successive stages
facing reef margins, contrasting with those in shel- of accretion. Revisited on the basis of dominant
tered, inner-shelf tracts. This gross facies distribution, depositional patterns, this classification can be wid-
where the relative proportions of framework and ened to the different reef morphologies known in the
detritus are related to hydrodynamic energy, seems Indo-Pacific domain (i.e. fringing and barrier reefs,
to reflect a general rule. In areas subject permanently platform reefs and atolls). All of them can be
to wave energy, the margins of outer and mid-shelf accommodated to the following main four anatomy
reefs and ocean-facing fringing reef fronts consist of a types of reef systems (Fig. 8).
an in-situ, interlocking, primary growth frame, in the In the first type, deposition within lagoons operated
sense of Hubbard et al. (1998, 2001). The framework at rates close to those of the adjacent reef rim allowing
forms 40–50% of the total core volume (Montaggioni, the different parts of the system to reach sea level at
2001). In the highest water-energy situations, partic- the same time (Fig 8A). There was a fine balance
ularly within hurricane-swept regions, reef margins between reef rim growth through aggradation and
consist mainly of a secondary framework (in the sense backreef accumulation through onlapping. The dom-
of Hubbard et al., 1998), reflecting redeposition and inant process refers to balanced aggradation/onlap-
algal encrustation of displaced corals. In these, the ping (model A in the sense of Kennedy and
FORE REEF REEF FLAT BACKREEF msl FORE REEF REEF FLAT msl
3
5
4 4
3 3
5 2
1
2 6
8
Balanced aggrading / onlapping Seaward prograding

A B
msl
FORE REEF REEF FLAT
5
6
7
9 8
Backward retrograding
C (backstepping)
FORE REEF OUTER REEF (FLAT) BACKREEF
coral patch msl
4 3 2 1
5 3 2
4
7 6
5
8 2
7 3
4 3 4
6 4
5
6
D Unbalanced aggrading / downlapping

supratidal
WINDWARD BACKREEF sandy LEEWARD
REEF coral patch cay REEF
FLAT FLAT
4
5 5 4
6 2 1 5 2 5
4 6 4 6
7 6
5 5
8 8
8 8 6
6
8
Unbalanced aggrading / onlapping

E
In-situ corals (framework) Sand Basement
Rubble Mud 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)
Fig. 8. Generalized models of reef system anatomy defined on the basis of dominant depositional processes. (A) balanced aggrading-onlapping
model; (B) seaward prograding model; (C) back-stepping model; (D) unbalanced aggrading/downlapping model; (E) unbalanced aggrading-
onlapping model (revisited from Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2002).
Woodroffe, 2002). Fringing reefs at Mauritius (Mon- The second type relates to reef systems that
taggioni and Faure, 1997), Kume (Takahashi et al., developed seaward by lateral accretion of the forereef.
1988), Lord Howe (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000), They started to grow in settings where vertical
Hanauma and Kailua Bays (Easton and Olson, 1976; accommodation space was limited or missing. Such
Grossman and Fletcher, 2004) are examples of this Holocene reefs mostly developed close to the shore
model (Fig. 6A,C,G,J). when sea level was around its present-day position
(Fig. 8B). Referring to models B and C recognized by the course of sea level. During the earlier times of
Kennedy and Woodroffe (2002), they are common in inundation, the backreef zones probably were open
inner shelf sites. Fringing reefs at Phuket (Tudhope systems in which sediment accumulation was con-
and Scoffin, 1994), Fantome (Johnson and Risk, tinuously disrupted by water circulation. Except in
1987) (Fig. 6F) and Orpheus islands (Hopley et al., the deepest depressions incising the inner floors, the
1983), and at Hikauhi, Molokai island (Engels et al., current regime promoted coral settlement and win-
2004) are typical of seaward prograding systems. nowing of finer grains and, as a result, deposition of
Lateral backward accretion can occur episodically; in coral gravel. As the reef margins developed verti-
this case, the reef develops through coalescing of cally, water agitation within the backreef areas
offshore patches onto the forereef zone from frame- decreased progressively and the sedimentation style
work growth and/or sediment infill (model D of changed. This resulted in the grading of sediments
Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2002). Such a pattern of into sand and/or muddy sand. After the transgressive
progradation was reported from fringing reefs at phase ended around 7 ka BP, most of reef rims that
Mahé, Seychelles (Lewis, 1968; Braithwaite et al., developed through keeping pace with sea level,
2000) and from barrier reefs at Toliara, Madagascar formed protecting barriers, thus favouring trapping
(Weydert, 1973). of sediments within backreef environments. The fact
In the third type of reef anatomy (Fig. 8C), reef that each individual backreef zone responded with
initiation occurred below modern sea level at depths different growth styles and sedimentation rates to
where the rates of reef aggradation during the early local environmental constraints, such as size, depth
Holocene times were not efficient enough to fill up and topography of the antecedent buckets or basins,
available accommodation space. The entire reef body proximity to sediment source areas, suggests lagoo-
therefore caught up to sea level through successive nal deposits encapsulate local rather than global
accretion centres stepping backward; it finally com- events. This explains why the main phase of back-
prises a series of superimposed retrograding units. The reef infilled started at around 7.6 ka BP (Marshall
fringing reef at Hale O Lono, Molokai island (Engels and Davies, 1982; Davies et al., 1985; Pirazzoli and
et al., 2004) (Fig. 6K) is an example of this Montaggioni, 1986; Smith et al., 1998; Cabioch et al.,
architecture. The landward migration of the accretion 1999a; Yamano et al., 2001a; Kennedy and Wood-
centres is assumed to result from the specific roffe, 2002) (Fig. 6E,H). Two distinct patterns of bed
adaptation of coral communities to local environ- termination in backreef settings can be inferred on
mental changes. Changes in the rate of the rising sea the base of isochron distribution or seismic profiles.
level would have contributed to the termination of Sediment sheets can have accumulated as down-
former accretion centres by progressively modifying lapping clinoforms (Fig. 8D) at the inflection of
the local current regime and, thus, causing the slope between the rim-lagoon transitional slope and
reduction of wave sheltering at the reef site. Coral the lagoon floor settings. The isochrons delineate a
communities would be forced to displace landward to series of talus cones deposited by by-passing of
find habitat suitable for sustained growth (Engels sediments from the windward margins or inshore
et al., 2004). terrigenous environments towards the centre and the
The fourth type of reef anatomy relates to reefs distal parts of the lagoons or along the outer slopes
that comprise a well-developed, outer rim enclosing of leeward reef margins (Figs. 6B,D,E,I, 7). Backreef
a depressed backreef area forming through multiple deposition can also occur through onlapping beds
depositional processes. In backreef settings, the caused by termination of gently dipping to subhor-
differences observed between the stratigraphic col- izontal sheets against steeply dipping antecedent
umns express the existence of local depositional substrate or flanks of intralagoonal coral patches;
modes, irrespective of the nature of sediment sources the isochrons are parallel to the lagoon floor surface
(carbonate or terrigenous). As pointed out by Smith (Figs. 6H,I, 7, 8E). Correlative to backreef infilling,
et al. (1998), these differences are dictated probably vertical accretion of the reef margins occurred until
by the timing of reef rim growth and its relationships the margin top reached present sea-level position;
across the reef system to sea-level position during then, the former prograded backward over early
deposited backreef sediment beds (Figs. 6D,E,I; rates requires that reworking and displacement of
8D,E). According to their initial depth and width sediments have not severely disturbed the original
and the sedimentation rates, the backreef bottoms depositional fabric. In other respects, Blanchon and
either remained under subtidal conditions, filled up Blakeway (2003) considered that the rates of vertical
completely or passed through intertidal to supratidal accretion could be overestimated as a consequence of
deposits (Fig. 8D,E). As a whole, the backreef zones artefacts of reef coring. Accretion rates calculated
of fringing and narrow barrier reefs (less than 2 km from dating therefore should represent approximate
wide), small-sized reef platforms and atolls (less than values (Fig. 9).
50 km2 in area) that initiated from antecedent In framework-dominated reefs, the total variation
substrate at depths of about 20–25 m below present in vertical accretion rates ranges between 1 to up to
sea level are in process of complete infilling through 30 mm year 1, with a modal rate of 6–7 mm year 1
backward progradation and onlapping. This status is (Table 3). High rates of aggradation have been
observed on fringing reefs at Mahé (Braithwaite recorded from both robust-branching and domal
et al., 2000), Ningaloo (Collins et al., 2003), Kabira coral communities. For instance, the vertical accre-
(Yamano et al., 2001a; Fig. 6C), Torres Strait tion rates of high-energy, robust-coral facies may
(Woodroffe et al., 2000), on mid-shelf platforms have reached 15 mm year 1 in Mauritius (Mon-
(Marshall and Davies, 1982; Scoffin and Tudhope, taggioni and Faure, 1997) and 14 mm year 1 in
1988; Smith et al., 1998). It may be inferred in the Panama (Glynn and Macintyre, 1987). Similarly,
case of the barrier reef at Moorea (Montaggioni, lower energy, domal poritid assemblages grew upward
1988) and some atolls, e.g. Kayangel (Yamano et al., at approaching rates of up to 13 mm year 1 at Tahiti
2002), Mataiva (Pirazzoli and Montaggioni, 1986), and Molokai island (Engels et al., 2004), and at rates
Rakahanga (Gray et al., 1992). On reef platforms, greater than 16 mm year 1 in Lord Howe Island
barriers and atolls overlying deeper antecedent (Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000). However, it is
substrate, the lagoons commonly, particularly those noteworthy that the highest rates measured in the
nearly enclosed to enclosed, are partially filled by Indo-Pacific (up to 20 mm year 1) coincide with the
sediments and display a typical basin topography as development of higher porosity framework laid down
emphasized by Zinke et al. (2003a,b). The main by tabular and arborescent acroporid communities;
operating depositional process has been downlap- rates of 20 to 30 mm year 1 have been reported from
ping. This occurs in the majority of barriers and gracile acroporid-rich sections beneath both the
atolls, for instance, at Mayotte (Zinke et al., 2001), barrier reef flat drilled in Tahiti (Montaggioni et al.,
Palau (Kayanne et al., 2002), Middleton (Woodroffe 1997a,b) and in Palau (Kayanne et al., 2002). Lower
et al., 2004), Enewetak (Tracey and Ladd, 1974), rates have been produced by foliaceous and, presum-
Tarawa (Marshall and Jacobsen, 1985), Tahiti (Cab- ably, encrusting coral frameworks (maximum rate: 6
ioch et al., 1999a), Mururoa (Perrin, 1989) and in mm year 1) and by coralline algal facies (maximum
outer-shelf ribbon reefs (Davies and Hopley, 1983). rate: 3 mm year 1). Accretion rates may be highly
variable within a single coral assemblage, as illus-
3.3. Rates and modes of reef accretion trated by the robust-branching facies on the semi-
exposed west coast of Mauritius where accumulation
Numerous studies reported measurements of reef rates range from 1 to 15 mm year 1 (Montaggioni and
accretion through the Holocene (Tables 3–7). Esti- Faure, 1997).
mates of linear accumulation rates were made using It has commonly been suggested that the nature of
radiometric dating of cores (Davies, 1983). These framework facies controls accretion rates, but this idea
consist of measuring the thickness of deposited has proved controversial (for instance, see Davies and
carbonates (i.e. in-situ coralgal assemblages, frame- Hopley, 1983; Davies et al., 1985; Davies and
work and detrital material) vertically and laterally, Montaggioni, 1985; Cabioch et al., 1995; Montag-
divided by the time interval over which these sedi- gioni and Faure, 1997; Hopley and Davies, submitted
ments have deposited as determined by dating. As for publication). Furthermore, the data presented
pointed out by Davies (1983), calculating accretion herein indicate that the rates of vertical accretion of
36
Table 3
Summary of vertical accumulation rates of framework and detrital facies, Holocene, Indo-Pacific coral reefs
Facies Reef type Reef pile zone Water-energy Rates (mm year 1) Source
Min Max Mean
Framework
Coralline algal atoll crest high 0.1 2 1 Kayanne, 1992
barrier, platform crest, pavement high V1 3 2 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Kayanne, 1992;
Collins et al., 1993
fringing pavement high/medium V1 3 2 Easton and Olson, 1976; Grigg, 1998;

Engels et al., 2004
Robust-branching coral barrier outer flat high V1 14 8 Camoin et al., 1997, 2004;
Montaggioni et al., 1997a,b;
Cabioch et al., 1999a;
Webster, 1999; Kayanne et al., 2002
platform outer flat high 1 12 6 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Collins et al., 1993
fringing outer flat forereef high/medium V1 15 8 Glynn and Macintyre, 1987;
Takahashi et al., 1988;
Kayanne et al., 1993; Cortés et al., 1994;
Montaggioni and Faure, 1997;
Cabioch et al., 1998;
Cabioch, 2003; Engels et al., 2004;
Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Domal coral atoll inner flat medium NA 8 4.5 Marshall and Jacobsen, 1985;
Ohde et al., 2002
barrier, platform outer/inner flats high/medium 2 N13 4 Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Cabioch et al., 1999a; Webster, 1999;
Kayanne et al., 2002
ocean-facing fr outer/inner flats high/medium 0.6 N16 5 Yonekura et al., 1988; Cortés et al., 1994;
Cabioch et al., 1995;
Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000;
Kayanne et al., 1993; Cabioch et al., 1998;
Cabioch, 2003; Yamano et al.,
submitted for publication; Collins et al., 2003;
Grigg, 1998; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004;
Engels et al., 2004
patch reef lagoon low 1 10 4 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
Davies and Hopley, 1983;
inshore fringing reef flat low 1 10 4 Hopley et al., 1983; Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Yamano et al., 2001a,b, 2003; Kleypas, 1996
Tabular-branching coral barrier, platform outer flat high 3 30 7.5 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
Davies and Hopley, 1983; Montaggioni, 1988;
Cabioch et al., 1999a; Kayanne et al., 2002
platform inner flat/leeward medium 3 9 5 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
Davies and Hopley, 1983
ocean-facing fr outer/inner flats high/medium 2 8.8 5 Kan et al., 1995; Kayanne et al., 1993;
Yonekura et al., 1994;
Yamano et al., 2001a,b,
submitted for publication;
Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2002
inshore fringing outer/inner flats low 1 3 2 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Hopley et al., 1983

Arborescent coral barrier, platform inner flat medium 2 30 10 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Webster, 1999;
patch reef lagoon low 2 10 6 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
ocean-facing fr inner flat medium 1 25 9 Montaggioni, 1977; Takahashi et al., 1988;
Collins et al., 1993; Yamano et al., 2001a,b,
submitted for publication; Engels et al., 2004
inshore fringing outer/inner flats low 1 5.5 3 Hopley et al., 1983; Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Kleypas, 1996
Foliaceous coral fringing forereef/backreef low b1 6 3 Takahashi et al., 1988;
Montaggioni and Faure, 1997
Detrital
Rubble atoll inner flat/shallower medium/low b1 NA 3 Marshall and Jacobsen, 1985;
lagoon Szabo et al., 1985; Ebren, 1996
barrier, platform outer flat high 3 18 10 Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Woodroffe et al., 2000; Ohde et al., 2002
barrier, platform inner flat/backreef medium/low 1 N10 5 Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Cabioch et al., 1999a;
Woodroffe et al., 2000; Kayanne et al., 2002;
Montaggioni, unpublished
ocean-facing fr fore reef/outer flat high 1.5 18 10 Yamano et al., submitted for publication;
Engels et al., 2004
ocean-facing fr inner flat/backreef medium/low 1 21 10 Glynn and Macintyre, 1987;
Yamano et al., submitted for publication;
inshore fringing flat/backreef low 1 N20 8 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Hopley et al., 1983;
Johnson and Risk, 1987; Kleypas, 1996;
Zinke et al., 2003a,b
(continued on next page)
37
38
Table 3 (continued)
Facies Reef type Reef pile zone Water-energy Rates (mm year 1) Source
Min Max Mean

Carbonate sand atoll inner flat/shallower medium 0.2 1 N1 Tracey and Ladd, 1974; Smithers et al., 1992
lagoon
barrier, platform outer flat high 2 N20 10 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
Davies and Hopley, 1983
barrier, platform inner flat medium b1 N10 4 Davies and Hopley, 1983;
Woodroffe et al., 2000, 2004
barrier, platform shallower lagoon low b1 4 2 Marshall and Davies, 1982;
Davies and Hopley, 1983; Smith et al., 1998
ocean-facing fr forereef medium NA NA 1.6 Cortés et al., 1994
inshore reefs flat/backreef low 0.1 12 3 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Hopley et al., 1983;
Kleypas, 1996; Zinke et al., 2001
Mixed rubble and sand barrier, platform flat/shallower lagoon high/medium b1 12 6 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Smith et al., 1998;
Woodroffe et al., 2000; Kayanne et al., 2002
ocean-facing fr flat/backreef high/medium 1 N30 13 Cabioch et al., 1995; Yamano et al., 2001a,b,
submitted for publication
inshore fringing flat/backreef low 1 N40 15 Davies and Hopley, 1983; Montaggioni, 1988;
Kleypas, 1996; Zinke et al., 2001
Carbonate mud atoll lagoon low NA NA 1 Pirazzoli and Montaggioni, 1986
barrier, platform lagoon low 0.3 2.1 1 Smith et al., 1998; Zinke et al., 2003a,b
fringing backreef low b1 5 2 Johnson and Risk, 1987;
fr=fringing.
Table 4
Summary of vertical accumulation rates of backreef (lagoon) deposits, Indo-Pacific reef systems
Region Site location Reef type Zone Accumulation rate (mm year 1)a Source
Min Max Mean
Indian Ocean Mauritius fr moat 1.3 3.7 2 Montaggioni and Faure, 1997
Mayotte fr moat NA NA 4.63 Zinke et al., 2003a,b
Mayotte br central deeper 0.2 4.39 2 Zinke et al., 2001
lagoon
Mayotte br proximal lagoon 0.1 1.9 0.5 Zinke et al., 2001
Cocos-keeling atl shallower lagoon 0.25 1 0.75 Smithers et al., 1992
Pacific Ocean
Ryukyus Kabira fr moat 1 3 1.3 Yamano et al., 2001a,b
Great Barrier Reef Stanley pr shallower lagoon 2.6 5 3 Davies et al., 1985
One Tree pr shallower lagoon 0.5 1.7 1 Davies, 1983
Heron pr central lagoon 0.7 2.1 1.4 Smith et al., 1998
Boulder pr shallower lagoon NA NA 1.9 Webster, 1999
Davies pr shallower lagoon 1.4 3.4 2 Tudhope, 1989
Tasman Sea Lord Howe fr moat 1 11 5.3 Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000
New Caledonia South–West area br central lagoon 0.9 3.2 2 Ambatsian et al., 1997
Chesterfield island Mouillage atl shallower lagoon 1.5 4.7 4.3 Degauge-Michalski, 1993
Marshall island Majuro atl deeper lagoon NA NA 0.65 Yamano et al., 2002
Hawaiian island Oahu fr moat 0.2 4 2 Easton and Olson, 1976
Cook island Pukapuka atl shallower lagoon 1 11.7 2.8 Gray et al., 1992
Rakahanga atl shallower lagoon 0.6 3.7 2 Gray et al., 1992
Aitutaki br shallower lagoon 0.8 5.3 1.6 Gray (pers. com.)
Society island Tahiti br shallower lagoon 1.2 15 5.7 Cabioch et al., 1999a
Moorea br backreef flat NA NA 4.3 Montaggioni, 1988
Huahine br shallower lagoon NA NA 6.9 Montaggioni, unpublished
Tuamotu island Mataiva atl shallower lagoon NA NA 1 Pirazzoli and Montaggioni, 1986
Moat=backreef area of fringing reefs not exceeding 2 m deep; shallower lagoon=area of barrier reef and atoll systems close to the innermost
parts of reef margins, not exceeding 10 m deep; deeper lagoon=area of barrier reef and atoll systems at depths greater than 10 m; proximal
lagoon=area close to the inner-shelf fringing reefs; central lagoon=area situated at a distance from adjacent reef margins.
a
The rates of vertical accumulation were estimated from the thickness of the deposits, measured perpendicular to the surface of the backreef
floor.
coral assemblages do not appear to be controlled decrease in aggradation rates recorded from the outer
directly by the coral growth habits. However, barrier pile corresponds to the change in facies from
although there is no clear variation in growth rates the relatively loose structure of arborescent acroporids
between branching and domal frameworks, the higher (30 mm year 1) to the rigid, robust acroporid frame-
modal rates are recorded generally in cores containing work (less than 3 mm year 1) as the reef top
a greater proportion of branching forms. Domal approached sea level within the 5-m depth interval
frameworks are normally characterized by growth (Kayanne et al., 2002). Similarly, beneath the leeward
rates of less than 7 mm year 1 whereas those of coral flat of the outer shelf reef Ribbon 5 (Great
branching habits are typically higher. Barrier Reef), the increase of vertical accumulation
Abrupt variations in framework aggradation rates rates upward (3.3 to 12 mm year 1) coincides with a
within a given cored sequence may relate to changes change from domal to mixed domal/arborescent
in the composition of the coral assemblage. This frameworks (Webster, 1999), as the result of the
results from the response of the upward-growing reef enhanced protecting effect by aggradation of the
pile to changes in environmental conditions. It is windward margin through time.
expressed in the replacement of a given coral In detritus-dominated reef sections, the total
community by one better adapted to the new variation in vertical accumulation rates is within the
conditions. For example, in Koror island (Palau), the range of 0.2 to about 40 mm year 1 (Table 3). The
Table 5
Summary of vertical accretion rates of exposed reef-margin piles, Indo-Pacific province
Region Site location Reef Reef-margin Vertical expansion rate (mm year 1)a Source
type zone Min Max Mean
Western Indian
Madagascar Toliara br reef flat 1.9 5.4 2.3 Camoin et al., 2003
Mayotte br outer reef flat 4.3 8.3 6 Camoin et al., 1997
Seychelles island Mahé fr outer reef flat 2.3 8.8 3.5 Braithwaite et al., 2000
Eastern Indian Ningaloo fr upper fore reef NA NA 1.5 Collins et al., 2003
Abrolhos pr outer reef flat b1 7 3 Collins et al., 1993;
Eisenhauer et al., 1993
Western Pacific
Ryukyus Ishikagi-Jima
Kabira fr reef flat 0.2 5.8 2.9 Yamano et al., 2001a,b
Yoron-tou fr reef crest 1 3.2 2 Yonekura et al., 1994
Yoron-tou fr upper fore reef 5 8 12 Yonekura et al., 1994
Kuma-Jima fr reef flat 0.2 4.5 2 Takahashi et al., 1988
Kikai-Jima fr reef flat 2.2 5.8 3 Webster et al., 1998
Great Barrier Reef
Australia Yonge lbr inner reef flat 1.8 20 6.5 Laurenti, 1995
Ribbon 5 lbr inner reef flat 1.3 14 7 Davies et al., 1985
One Tree pr outer reef flat 0.6 12 4 Marshall and Davies, 1982
Boulder pr outer reef flat NA NA 5.5 Davies et al., 1985
Stanley pr reef flat N5 10.2 8 Davies et al., 1985
Torres Straits Yam pr reef flat 1.9 6.1 4 Woodroffe et al., 2000
Warraber pr reef flat 1 9.8 7.3 Woodroffe et al., 2000
Chesterfield island Bellona atl reef flat 0.8 5 3 Degauge-Michalski, 1993
New Caledonia Mamié fr reef crest 1.2 2.1 1.6 Cabioch et al., 1995
Papua New Guinea Huon fr reef crest 4.6 14 7 Ota and Chappell, 1999
Vanuatu island Espiritu Santo fr reef flat 1 5.8 2.5 Cabioch et al., 2003a,b;
Cabioch, 2003
Mariana island Rota fr reef crest 0.6 14 5.7 Kayanne et al., 1993
Guam fr reef crest 0.9 6.9 3 Kayanne et al., 1993
Marshall island Enewetak atl reef flat 0.3 10 5 Tracey and Ladd, 1974;
Szabo et al., 1985
Kiribati island Tarawa atl reef flat 1 8.2 5.4 Marshall and
Jacobsen, 1985
Tuvalu island Funafuti atl reef flat b1 4.6 3.2 Ohde et al., 2002
Central Pacific
Hawaiian island Oahu (Sunset) fr fore reef 0.17 0.5 0.25 Grigg, 1998
Oahu (Kailua) fr reef flat 0.25 6 2.5 Harney and Fletcher, 2003;
Grossman and
Fletcher, 2004
Oahu (Hanauma) fr outer reef flat 1 3 2 Easton and Olson, 1976
Molokai fr fore-reef 2 23 7.5 Engels et al., 2004
(Hale O Lono)
Molokai (Hikauhi) fr fore reef 2.1 5.2 4 Engels et al., 2004
Cook island Mangaia fr reef flat 1 5 3.5 Yonekura et al., 1988
Society island Tahiti br reef crest 0.9 20.6 6.5 Montaggioni et al., 1997a,b
Moorea br outer reef flat 3.3 6.7 5 Montaggioni, 1988
Tuamotu island Mururoa atl reef flat 1 2 1.8 Ebren, 1996
Exposed reef-margin environments refer to fore reefs, reef crests and reef flats facing to ocean and subjected to prevailing winds and currents, i .e.
situated in high fairweather water-energy settings (irrespective of the possible occurrence of storms).
Reef type: fr=fringing reef; br=barrier reef; lbr=linear barrier reef; pr=platform reef; atl=atoll.
a
The rates of vertical expansion were estimated from the distance separating the starting (basal) accretion centre from the surface of the reef
margin. The distance was measured perpendicularly to the reef surface.
Table 6
Summary of vertical accretion rates of semi-exposed to sheltered reef-margin piles, Indo-Pacific province
Region Site location Reef Reef-margin Water- Vertical expansion rate Source
type zone energy (mm year 1)
Min Max Mean
Western Indian Mayotte ifr outer flat low 1 1.3 0.8 Zinke et al., 2003a
Réunion fr inner flat medium 1 6 3 Montaggioni, 1977; Camoin et al., 1997
Mauritius fr outer flat medium 1 4.7 3 Camoin et al., 1997;
Montaggioni and Faure, 1997
Eastern Indian Thailand, ifr outer flat low 20 30 25 Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994
Pukhet
Abrolhos pr leeward flat low 3.3 10.2 7 Collins et al., 1993;
Eisenhauer et al., 1993
Western Pacific
Ryukyus Iki fr reef flat low NA NA 2.3 Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Okierabu-Jima fr reef flat medium 0.3 8.8 6 Kan et al., 1995
Ishigaki-Jima
Tonoshiro fr reef flat medium 1.7 17.5 6.4 Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Kabira fr reef flat high 1.3 6.4 3 Yamano et al., 2001a,b
Minna-Jima fr reef flat medium 1.3 N3 2 Kan and Hori, 1993;
Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Tonaki-Jima fr reef flat medium 2.8 9.2 5.9 Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Kuma-Jima fr reef flat medium 0.9 4 6.8 Takahashi et al., 1985
Okinawa- fr reef flat medium b1 12.7 7.7 Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Hontou
Sekisei fr reef flat medium 2.4 11.1 7 Yamano et al., submitted for publication
Palau island Koror br reef crest medium 2.2 30 6 Kayanne et al., 2002
fr reef flat low 4 15 7 Kayanne et al., 2002
Great Barrier One Tree pr leeward flat medium 1 15 6 Marshall and Davies, 1982
Reef, Australia Stanley pr leeward flat medium 2.6 12 7 Davies et al., 1985
Cape ifr reef flat low 3.5 5.1 4 Partain and Hopley, 1989
Tribulation
Fantome ifr reef flat low 2 23 7 Johnson and Risk, 1987
Hayman fr reef flat low 3 5 3.5 Hopley et al., 1983
Orpheus fr reef flat low 1.3 6.8 4.7 Hopley et al., 1983
Rattlesnake fr reef flat low 2 6.7 4 Hopley et al., 1983
Penrith fr reef flat low 3.6 67 10.3 Kleypas, 1996
Cockermouth fr reef flat low b1 16 4 Kleypas, 1996
High Peak fr reef flat low 1.3 9.2 3.6 Kleypas, 1996
Tasman Sea Lord Howe fr reef crest medium 2.1 4.3 3 Kennedy and Woodroffe, 2000
New Caledonia East coast fr reef flat medium 1.2 12.5 7.3 Cabioch et al., 1995
West coast fr reef flat low 0.7 N30 5 Cabioch et al., 1995
Tenia islet br inner flat medium – – 1.2 Coudray, 1976
Central Pacific
Society island Tahiti ifr reef flat low NA NA 36 Montaggioni, 1988
Moorea ifr reef flat low 1.6 N30 N10 Montaggioni, 1988
Eastern Pacific
Costa Rica Punta island fr forereef medium 0.9 8.3 3.8 Cortés et al., 1994
Punta island fr reef flat medium 1.6 2.4 1.9 Cortés et al., 1994
Panama Uva island fr reef flat medium 1.1 4.8 3 Macintyre and Glynn, 1976
Secas study fr forereef medium 0.5 20.8 7.4 Macintyre and Glynn, 1976
Saboga island fr reef flat medium 1.2 1.4 1.3 Macintyre and Glynn, 1976
Semi-exposed to sheltered reef-margins zones refer to reef flats facing the ocean, but not directly subjected to breaking waves (i.e. the innermost
parts or the leeward side of open reef margins protected from prevailing currents are categorized as medium-energy reef environments) and to
reef fronts, reef crests and reef flats not facing the ocean and situated in inner-shelf settings (inshore reefs).
Reef type: fr =fringing reef; ifr =inshore fringing reef; br =barrier reef; lbr =linear barrier reef; pr =platform reef; atl =atoll.
Table 7
Summary of lateral expansion ratesa of Indo-Pacific coral reefs
Region Site Reef Reef Water-energy Rates (mm year 1) Source
location type zone conditions Min Max Mean
Indian ocean Mauritius fr outer margin medium 30 N300 80 Montaggioni and Faure, 1997
Abrolhos pr outer margin high NA NA 300 Eisenhauer et al., 1993
Pukhet fr outer margin low 17 120 80 Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994
Pacific ocean
Ryukyus Ishikagi-Jima
Kabira fr windward margin high 34 149 88 Yamano et al., 2001a, 2003
Tonoshiro fr leeward margin medium 24 76 42 Yamano et al., 2003,
Iki fr outer margin low NA NA 5 Yamano et al., 2001b
Kuma-Jima fr outer margin high NA NA 50 Takahashi et al., 1988
Okierabu fr outer margin medium 63 100 78 Yamano et al.,
Minna fr outer margin medium 29 45 37 Kan and Hori, 1993;
Yamano et al., 2003
Great Barrier One Tree pr windward margin high NA NA 50 Marshall and Davies, 1982
Reef One Tree pr backreef sandy low NA NA 40 Davies, 1983
wedge
Fantome fr outer margin low NA NA 80 Johnson and Risk, 1987
Magnetic fr reef flat low NA NA 84 Chappell et al., 1983
Hayman fr outer margin low 9 124 31 Kan et al., 1997a,b,c;
Yamano et al., 2003
Orpheus fr outer margin low NA 100 46 Hopley et al., 1983
High Peak fr outer margin low 8 40 25 Kleypas, 1996
Cockermouth fr outer margin low NA NA 84 Kleypas, 1996;
Yamano et al., 2003
Torres Straits Yam pr reef flat high NA NA 84 Woodroffe et al., 2000
New Caledonia Ricaudy fr outer margin low NA NA 15 Cabioch, 1988
Mariana island Rota fr outer margin high 5 21 10 Kayanne et al., 1993
Guam fr outer margin high NA NA 40 Kayanne et al., 1993
Palau island Koror br outer margin high NA NA 10 Kayanne et al., 2002
Hawaiian island Oahu fr outer margin medium 15 30 22 Easton and Olson, 1976
Molokai fr fore-reef high 100 220 150 Engels et al., 2004
(Hale O Lono)
Tuamotu island Mururoa atl outer margin high NA NA 24 Ebren, 1996
Costa Rica Punta island fr fore-reef medium NA NA 52 Cortés et al., 1994
Reef type: fr=fringing reef; br=barrier reef; pr=platform reef; atl=atoll.
a
The rates of lateral expansion were estimated from the distance separating the position of the identified starting accumulation centre from
that of its modern counterpart within a considered reef pile. The distance was measured parallel to reef-top surface.
present study largely confirms the pattern of detrital within reef flat and backreef environments under
sedimentation established by Davies and Hopley fairweather conditions; (3) higher modal rates (up to
(1983) in the Great Barrier Reef. Three accumula- 10 mm year 1), implying rapid deposition of sand to
tion-rate populations can be identified throughout the rubble, presumably controlled by winter storms
Indo-Pacific reef province, related to an increasing associated with trade-winds or by hurricane-generated
hydrodynamic-energy gradient: (1) lower modal rates waves. The highest rates of detrital accumulation are
of 1–3 mm year 1 (maximum rates: 11 mm year 1), generally recorded from fringing and narrow platform
representing lagoonal sedimentation of mud-domi- reefs. In such sites, rates of deposition generated by
nated material; (2) modes of 4 to 8 mm year 1, low-frequency, high-energy events are at least 2
reflecting steady accumulation of sand to rubble orders greater than those from large shelf-reef
age cal. Ka B.P. (x1000)

depth (Table 4). Higher rates have been reported from
0 2 4 6 8 10
moats and shallower lagoonal parts (1 to 6.9 mm
2 7 year 1 on average); lower rates relate to the deeper
8 parts of large barrier reefs and atolls (0.65 to 2 mm
4 5
Sea level
year 1). These differences in accumulation rates have
6 16 to be ascribed probably to the nature of depositional
9 processes; whereas the proximal parts of backreef
8
11 12 zones are supplied mainly with allochthonous material
10
4 derived from adjacent reef margins, sedimentation in
12 most deep lagoons results from in-situ carbonate
15 production (Adjas et al., 1990; Yamano et al., 2002).
14 10
below present mean sea level)
13
The accretional efficiency of reef margins seems to
16
1 depend upon exposure to wave agitation. In exposed
(depth in metres
18 2 settings, the mean aggradation rates range between 1.5

20
14 3 and 12 mm year 1, with a mode of 5 mm year 1
?
(Table 5). In semi-exposed to sheltered reef margins,
22
vertical accretion rates average 1 to 25 mm year 1,
24 with a mode of 9 mm year 1 (Table 6). By contrast, in
26 high-energy reef margins, lateral expansion rates vary
6 from 24 to 300 mm year 1, with a mode of 90 mm
28
year 1. Medium- to low-energy margins have devel-
30 oped laterally at rates averaging 15 to 84 mm year 1,
32 with modal rates of about 50 mm year 1 (Table 7; also
see Table 1 in Yamano et al., 2003). Comparison of
34
these data indicate that the rates of aggradation and
36 lateral accretion (progradation mainly) appear to
38 correlate negatively. This pattern probably results
from changes in environmental conditions during reef
40
barriers development. Before sea level has stabilized, the
fringing reefs
42 platforms, atolls dominating accretional process in most Indo-Pacific
44 reefs has been aggradation tending to rapidly balance
1. Toliara 9. One Tree sea-level rise. Two reasons may explain why reef
2. Mayotte-barrier 10. Boulder
3. Mahé 11. Ribbon 5 margins have developed vertically slower under
4. Kikai-Jima 12. Yonge higher energy conditions. Firstly, framework in these
5. Abrolhos 13. Hanauna
6. Kwambu 14. Moorea sites are made up mainly of slower-growing coral
7. Guam 15. Tahiti forms including robust branches and domes, com-
8. Torres 16. Mururoa
pared to faster growing arborescent and tabular forms
Fig. 9. Curves of vertical reef accretion from exposed reef crests/ found mainly in medium- to low-energy sites; the
flats of barriers, fringing tracts, platforms and atolls. (see Fig. 2 for great part of detritus has been washed away and
the list of references from which the curves are extracted). The accumulate in innermost flat and backreef areas.
selected reef piles are regarded as deposited through aggradation
mainly. Sea level curve from the western/central Pacific.
Secondly, once reef tops have been within depths less
than about 5–6 m, high-wave energy may have
depressed framework development (Grigg, 1998;
systems. This may be due to the rapid infilling of the Grossman and Fletcher, 2004). After sea-level stabi-
restricted and shallower inner reef basins, in contra- lization and total infilling of vertical accommodation
distinction with large, widely open reef systems that, space, most reef margins have prograded seawards.
in addition, are washed away by strong currents. Rates The more extensive development of reef margins in
of detrital deposition also vary in backreef areas with higher-energy environments may be related to coral
biology and ecology, i.e. larval settlement, coral framework as well as detritus, in ocean-facing or
metabolism, food and nutrient supply, sediment sheltered reef flats (Figs. 9 and 10). For example, at
removal (Yamano et al., 2003). All of these factors Tahiti, the windward barrier framework as well as
are encouraged in high-energy wind-wave fields, detrital inner fringing reefs developed through a
whereas lower-energy reef margins and, particularly, keep-up mode (Montaggioni, 1988). In Mauritius
from inner-shelf settings, are usually subject to island, in the medium-energy fringing reef of La
extremes in salinity and turbidity. Pointe-au-Sable, only the catch-up growth signa-
Rates of accretion also vary with time. As firstly tures were identified across the entire reef system,
shown by Davies and Marshall (1980), Holocene reef from the reef crest to moat piles (Montaggioni and
accumulation rates may have changed approximately Faure, 1997). Furthermore, growth styles seem not
in the pattern of a sigmoidal curve, with slow rates to depend upon the depth from which individual
during earlier coral colonization of substrates and later reefs initiated within the photic zone. Catch-up
when reef surface approaching sea level. The lower- accretion can have initiated at depths as great as 40
most part of the sigmoidal curve expresses rates less m (Montaggioni, 1988).
than 2 mm year 1, regarded as relating to inimical
ambient conditions during reef initiation. The upper- age cal. Ka B.P. (x1000)
most part reflects reduction in accretion rates (less than 0 2 4 6 8 10
4 mm year 1) as coral framework and algal crusts have 0
5
provided the final capping to the reef in the form of reef 2
Sea level
4
crest (Kayanne, 1992). The bulk part of the curve
4 10
expresses maximum rates of growth of between 5 to up
to 10 mm year 1 for core sections accumulated under 6
14 6
optimal conditions. It seems that the sigmoidal shape of
8
below present mean sea level)
reef growth curves typifies the catch-up growth mode.

9 1
From keep-up reef sequences, the slow start-up growth 10
(depth in metres
event generally is missing, since aggradation main- 15

12 7
tained pace with rising sea level as soon as the
substrates were flooded. The highest rates of vertical 14
accretion usually coincide with one of two events: (1) 11

16
reef initiation, when the development of pioneer
18 2 8
communities tends to keep pace with rising sea level; 3
(2) main growth phase, when, after a jump in sea level, 20
reefs increased aggradation rates to escape drowning.
22
Variations in growth rates therefore appear to be linked
in part to growth styles. 24
12 13
ME
The rates and modes of reef growth vary greatly 26 LE
within the same reef system, according to the 1. Mayotte -fringing 8. Hayman
considered zone (Davies et al., 1985; Montaggioni, 2. Réunion 9. Lord Howe
1988). For example, in the barrier reef complexes 3. Mauritius 10. Poum
4. Abrolhos-leeward 11. Koror
of Tahiti (Montaggioni, 1988; Cabioch et al., 5. Kume 12. Tahiti-fringing
1999a) and Palau (Kayanne et al., 2002), the 6. Orpheus 13. Moorea-fringing
7. One Tree 14. Punta
keep-up mode operated in the windward, outer 15. Uva
margins at mean rates of 6 mm year 1, whereas the
catch-up style controlled aggradation at rates of 3–4 Fig. 10. Curves of vertical reef accretion from semi-exposed to
mm year 1 in the leeward, inner margins and in sheltered reef crests/flats of fringing tracts and platforms (see Fig. 3
for the list of references from which the curves are extracted). The
lagoonal patchreefs. Conversely, growth modes are selected reef piles are regarded as deposited through aggradation
independent of both reef facies, form and setting. mainly. ME=medium energy (semi-exposed); LE=low energy
Both catch-up and keep-up signatures can pertain to (sheltered).
Kayanne (1992) pointed out that a bkeep-upQ mode of growth have been shown to decrease as a linear
reef development is more common in the Caribbean function of increasing latitude, ranging between 11
than in the Pacific, suggesting that it was encouraged and 0.2 mm year 1. During the Late Holocene, reef
by lower rates of sea-level rise in the Atlantic in the growth on Kure and Midway atolls, at the NW end
last 8 ka. This assertion is open to question, because of the chain, was not able to track rising sea level
few data are available from drilling high-energy outer (Grigg, 1982).
reef zones. There is no clear evidence to suggest that In summary, based on maximum rates of vertical
the outer reef margins of Indo-Pacific reefs, domi- accretion, the Indo-Pacific reefs can be classified into
nantly consisting of branching coral framework, three types:
would not have been able to develop from a bkeep-
upQ growth style, particularly in ocean-facing settings. (1) fast-growing reefs, with rates up to 10 mm
Furthermore, Blanchon and Blakeway (2003) ques- year 1. Such rates can be sustained for 3–5 ka
tioned the validity of the conceptual model of reef and may reach up to 20 mm year 1 for periods
growth responses to sea-level rise. They attempted to of about 500 years. They result commonly in
demonstrate that the bcatch-upQ signatures may be expanded sequences up to 25 m thick.
artefacts of drilling and reefs may have grown more (2) moderate-growing reefs, with rates of 5–7 mm
commonly through the bkeep-upQ mode than previ- year 1, generally produce sequences 10–25 m
ously indicated. As mentioned above, the responses of thick.
reefs to sea-level rise are well known to vary greatly (3) slow-growing reefs, with rates of 1–4 mm year 1
within the same system. An entire reef system can commonly form sections less than 10 m thick.
rarely be categorized as a bkeep-upQ or bcatch-upQ
reef. It is clear that any curve of vertical accretion Vertical accretion potential can be converted to net
obtained from a single core strictly records the calcification (Smith, 1983), a measure of carbonate
response of the coral assemblages at the coring site production expressed in kg CaCO3 m 2 year 1, taking
and is not representative of the overall development into account a value for the porosity of the original
history of the reef. framework and detritus fabric (about 50%) and the
Davies and Hopley (1983) noted that there is little density of an aragonite and calcite mixture (about 2.89
variation in growth rates attributable to latitudinal g cm 3). Thus, in these terms, fast-growing reefs
differences. Neither framework growth nor detrital release on average 10 kg CaCO3 m 2 year 1. This is
sedimentation rates are suppressed with increasing close to values recorded from active modern reef crests
latitude. For instance, in the highest-latitude reefs, (Kinsey, 1983). Using the same assumptions, moder-
such as those of Iki Island (Japan), 33848V north, ate-growing reefs are typified by rates of 3–6 kg m 2
aggradation rates of coral framework were up to 8 year 1 while rates for slow-growing range from 1–3
mm year 1 (Yamano et al., 2001b). On Middleton kg m 2 year 1. As accumulation rates changed, so did
and Elizabeth Reefs and Lord Howe Island, situated carbonate production. Ryan et al. (2001) pointed out,
in the Tasman Sea (between 2987V and 33830V from the study of the Holocene growth history of
south), lagoonal deposition operated at mean rates Wistari Reef (southern Great Barrier Reef), that
of 2 to 5 mm year 1 during the mid-Holocene. production of the reef-top surface peaked at about 9
Such rates are as high as any recorded from tropical kg m 2 year 1 between 7 and 4 ka BP and has since
reef frameworks and greater than those calculated decreased linearly to the present day. The implication
for many low-latitude lagoons. Kennedy and Wood- is that mid-Holocene calcification rates must have
roffe (2000) and Woodroffe et al. (2004) concluded been as high as 15 kg m 2 year 1.
that reefal carbonate sedimentation does not seem to
be reduced in areas close to the latitudinal limits of 3.4. Timing of reef initiation and development
reef growth, in spite of the slight decrease in the
rate of modern sedimentation. However, and by For 23 ka, the sea-level history of the tropics has
contrast, in the Hawaiian archipelago stretching been punctuated by phases in which periods of reef
from about 1985V to 2883V north, rates of reef initiation were followed by reef demise. Four gen-
erations of reefs have tentatively been recognized, relevant communities, dominated by tabular acropor-
locally separated by major non-constructional or reef ids (A. gr. hyacinthus), showed an upward accretion at
drowning events (Fig. 11a,b). up to 1 mm year 1, indicating they were true reef
communities rather than simple coral assemblages
3.4.1. Generation RGO (Cabioch et al., 1998, 2003a). This LGM sequence is
Estimates of sea level during the LGM interval are only 2–3 m thick and is found between about 20 and
125F4 m lower than now (Yokoyama et al., 2001; 60 m below present sea level. At Rendova (Solomon
Peltier, 2002). There is still considerable uncertainty islands), drillholes penetrated corals of LGM age
as to how coral growth responded to LGM sea surface about 65 m below present sea level (Taylor et al.,
temperatures (SSTs) (see Growth-controlling factors) 2000). In the Marquesas archipelago (French Poly-
and what the geographical distribution of reefs or at nesia), samples of Acropora 20 ka BP old were
least of coral populations, might have been, princi- dredged from reefal relicts on 125 to 100 m-deep
pally because most of the indicators that are preserved submarine platforms (Cabioch et al., 2000, 2003b). A
are at present submerged. However, RGO bodies have faviid-rich reef of probable glacial age was described
been recorded in both oceans, from submersible from the insular shelf off the Miyako islands in the
diving and dredging on deep forereef slopes and Ryukyu group (Yamano et al., 2001b). There is no
drilling of tectonically emerged reefs. sustained evidence of RGO features along the fore-
On Mayotte (Comoros), as a result of the steepness slopes of the Australian Great Barrier Reef (Carter and
of the foreslope, coral assemblages, dated at around Johnson, 1986; Hopley et al., 1997).
18.4 ka BP and at present at depths of about 150 m, The LGM terminated at around 19 ka BP with a
developed only as thin veneers. They consist of in-situ rise in sea level that was sustained at a rate of about 30
shallow-water scleractinians (A. gr. robusta, and mm year 1 for at least 500 years (Yokoyama et al.,
domal Porites) together with crusts of the coralline 2001). This terminal-LGM meltwater pulse (Lambeck
alga H. onkodes. Downslope, below 180–220 m et al., 2000) marked the rapid decay of the polar ice
present-day water depth, coral material, apparently sheets. Presumably as a result of the limited tolerance
derived from shallow-water, has been dated at 19.7– of the main reef builders to the environmental
19.4 ka BP (Dullo et al., 1998). On the rapidly conditions of the LGM, coral growth was unable to
uplifting island of Espiritu Santo and nearby islets keep up with this rapid rise. For this reason, apart
(Vanuatu), reef growth started at 24.3 to 23 ka BP. The from sites subject to intense tectonic uplift, incipient
Fig. 11. Summary of the major environmental events in the last 23 ka controlling reef growth in the Indo-Pacific province at global to regional
scales (modified from Montaggioni, 2000). The vertical bands indicate the timing of the major meltwater pulses (Terminal-LGM MWP, MWP-
1A and MWP 1-B) identified at 19, 14 and 11.5 ka BP, respectively. (a) Schematic reconstruction of reef evolution, with indication of reef
growth phases (RGO, RGI, RGII, RGIII) and non-constructional or reef drowning (RD) events. (b) Last Glacial to deglacial sea-level curve
showing rates of sea-level rise (5 to about 40 mm year 1) at various stages of the rise (data from Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990; Chappell
and Polach, 1991; Bard et al., 1996; Hanebuth et al., 2000; Yokoyama et al., 2001; Weaver et al., 2003). Note that, from about 10 ka BP, the sea-
level history in the western Indian Ocean and the Pacific, has varied significantly, due to differential redistribution of water masses (see Camoin
et al., 1997 for discussion). Also shown is the curve of changes in shelf substrate availability (between 0- and 200-m depth) between the Last
Glacial Maximum and the present (data from Kleypas, 1997). (c) Curves of sea surfaces temperatures: the SW Pacific curve is based on the Sr/
Ca ratio measured from shallow-water corals colonies (Beck et al., 1997); the curves from South China, South Somalia and Hawaii are based on
the analysis of alkenones in ocean-bottom sediments (data from Steinke et al., 2001; Sonzogni et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2001, respectively); the
curves from the Galapagos region and the West Equatorial Pacific were established on the basis of Mg/Ca ratios in benthic foraminifers (data
from Koutavas et al., 2002; Palmer and Pearson, 2003, respectively). (d) Curve of sea surface salinity from Maldives, Western Indian Ocean
(data from Rostek et al., 1993). (e) Changes in nutrient utilization: distribution of bulk sediments y15N values in the South China Sea (Kienast,
2000, modified by Steinke et al., 2004), in the East Equatorial Pacific (Farrell et al., 1995), in the East Indian Ocean (Muller and Opdyke, 2000)
and in the Arabian Sea (Suthhof et al., 2001), and changes in paleoproductivity: the 231Pa/230Th ratio expresses productivity as a function of
intensity of upwelling-favourable monsoonal winds (MOI=monsoon intensification events) (data from Marcantonio et al., 2001). (f) Changes in
dust supply: fluxes of 232Th in Arabian sea sediments express changes in the accumulation rates of wind-blow dust from the Arabian Peninsula
and Persian Gulf region (YD=Younger Dryas) (data from Marcantonio et al., 2001). (g) Changes in pCO2 from Antarctic Ice-cores: Byrd Station
(Neftel et al., 1988; Blunier et al., 1997), Taylor Dome (Indermühle et al., 1999), and Dome Concordia (Monnin et al., 2001), and from surface
waters in the Western Equatorial Pacific (Palmer and Pearson, 2003).
MELT-WATER PULSES
1-B 1-A Terminal LGM
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
340
Byrd
320 CO2
300
pCO2 (ppmv)
280
g
CO2
260
Taylor +
240 Western Equatorial Concordia
220 Domes
Pacific Ocean
200
232 Th(dpm.cm-2.Ka-1)
180
3
f
Dust Input
2 YD
Humid
Interval
1 Arabian Sea
0
9
δ15N Arabian Sea
e 0.24
XS231Pa/XS 230Th
8 0.22
δ15N (‰ air )
Nutrification
7 0.20
δ15N East Equat.Pacific MOI
0.18
6 MOI
0.16
5 Pa/Th
Arabian Sea 0.14
4 0.12
3 δ15N 0.10
East Indian δ15N South China Sea
0.08
2
2
d
Anomaly (‰)
Sea Surface
1
Salinity
0
-1 Maldives
-2
2 Mg / Ca
c
Anomaly (°C)
Temperature
Sea Surface
UK37Hawaii Galapagos
0
-2 Sr/Ca coral
-4 (SW Pacific) UK37South UK37South
Mg / Ca West China Sea Somalia Coast
-6 Equatorial Pacific
0
Western Indian 10 1.5
b
Total Shelf Area
Depth (metres)
20 Curve 7
(106 Km2)
40 Pacific Curve
25 8
60 Shelf Substrate 1.0
80 availability ≥ 40
100 (0-200m) <5
120 30 0.5
140
RG III RG II RG I RG 0
Events
Reef
RD RD RD RD
a
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Calendar age (Ka B.P.)
buildups formed before 19 ka BP were all drowned. due to a minimal meltwater influx to the oceans
Grigg and Epp (1989) suggested that, in the Pacific, (Lohmann and Schulz, 2000). Relicts of scleractinian
the drowning of many atolls during the last deglaci- assemblages as old as 18–17 ka BP have been
ation was controlled by the elevation of atoll summits sampled at a few sites. On Mayotte, displaced
relative to paleosea level at the end of the LGM. The elements of near-surface coral communities (A. gr.
rapid rise in sea level may have been responsible for robusta and G. fascicularis), dated at 18–16 ka BP,
the demise of about one-third of all Pacific atolls. have been recovered between 118- and 160-m depth
Only those that were sufficiently elevated, now at (Dullo et al., 1998). In the Central Great Barrier Reef,
depths more than 100 m below sea level, were able to specimens of Galaxea clavus with an age of 17 ka BP
track the rising sea level. A similar scenario was have been found as re-deposited detritus 175 m deep
proposed by Purdy and Bertram (1993) for explaining (Veeh and Veevers, 1970). Carter and Johnson (1986)
the existence of drowned banks in the Maldives. Thus, assumed that the onlap of the reef belt on the GBR
most of the submerged coral banks in the North and shelf-edge at 75 m deep relates to a 15-ka-BP-old
Central Pacific (Hawaii, the Marshall islands and shoreline. Bard et al. (1992) obtained an age of 17.6
Tuamotu archipelago) and in the Indian Ocean ka BP from shallow-water corals on the flanks of
(Laccadives, Chagos, and the Amirantes) may have Mururoa atoll (central Pacific), and Rao et al. (2003)
been below the critical depth threshold. reported the occurrence of pinnacles and reef-like
structures at depths of 105–110 m below present sea
3.4.2. Generation RGI level on the outer continental shelf of western India.
Clark and Mix (2000) suggested that the rapid rise These consist of in situ Porites colonies ranging in
in sea level at 19 ka BP was associated with an ocean- age from 15.5 to 14 ka BP.
cooling event. It is difficult to evaluate to what extent The interval from 14.7–14.3 ka BP is characterized
reef colonization may have been perturbed by the by a massive input of meltwater, culminating near 14
combination of these inimical factors. There is no ka BP (MWP-1A pulse of Fairbanks, 1989) related to
evidence in the Solomon and Vanuatu islands, lying the Bblling–Allerbd warm period (Grootes and
within the West Pacific Warm Pool and characterized Stuiver, 1997; Lohmann and Schulz, 2000; Hanebuth
by the warmest sea surface temperatures (z28 8C) in et al., 2000; Kienast et al., 2003). This caused a rise in
the open ocean, of prominent hiatuses in coral reef sea level of about 15 m in less than 500 years, and is
deposition from the LGM termination to about 15 ka well documented in the Pacific (Bard et al., 1996;
BP (Cabioch et al., 1998, 2000, 2003a; Taylor et al., Hanebuth et al., 2000). The rates of sea-level rise,
2000). On Mayotte, reworked coralgal debris at variously estimated at up to 40 mm year 1 (Bard et al.,
depths ranging from 180 to 285 m and dated at 19.1 1990; Blanchon and Shaw, 1995; Weaver et al., 2003)
to 18.0 ka BP was derived from a thriving shallow- exceeded the ability of vertical reef accretion to keep
water reef environment (Dullo et al., 1998). These up and with the exception of areas where the
findings indicate that in many areas, coral commun- transgression was compensated by uplift (Vanuatu:
ities were flourishing during the 19–18 ka BP event. Cabioch et al., 1998) this period is marked by non-
However, along many shelf margins, rapid flooding construction or reef drowning. There is little evidence
may have prevented the early establishment of of submerged reef tracts of Bblling age in the Indo-
significant coral faunas (Great Barrier Reef, New Pacific. Along the deep forereef of the Great Barrier
Caledonia). In these areas, there was a time lag in Reef, reef-like structures have been found at present
colonization that has lasted more than 5 ka after depths of about 90 m (Hopley, 1982; Harris and
flooding (Harris and Davies, 1989; Cabioch et al., Davies, 1989; Hopley et al., 1997) that are thought to
1999c). have drowned during the MWP-1A event. Similar
From about 18.5 to 15 ka BP, although there is a features also occur at 90–100-m depth in the Comoro
critical gap in the data between 17 and 15 ka BP, sea islands (Dullo et al., 1998), and at 150–160 m below
level is interpreted to have risen uniformly at a rate present sea level on Hawaii (Moore et al., 1990).
not exceeding 5 mm year 1 (Fleming et al., 1998), Webster et al. (2004) clearly identified 150-m-deep
probably at about 2.3 mm year 1 (Weaver et al., 2003) reefs dated at 15.2–14.7 ka BP off Hawaii and
interpreted as drowned by rapid sea-level rise asso- discharge at around 11.5 ka BP (MWP-1B pulse of
ciated with MWP-1A. Fairbanks, 1989). The resulting jump in sea level of
significantly smaller magnitude than MWP-1A (Bard
3.4.3. Generation RGII et al., 1996) caused a major break in reef develop-
As the effects of meltwater discharge decreased, ment. However, locally reef margins were able to
between about 13.8 and 11.5 ka BP, sea level in the compensate for the abrupt increase in accommodation.
Central Pacific rose at a rate averaging 7.5 mm year 1 For instance, in Vanuatu, this event seems to be
(Bard et al., 1996), comparable to the rate in the verified by an abrupt change in the composition of
Caribbean (8 mm year 1, Bard et al., 1990) for the coral communities, from a shallower-water, acroporid-
same period. This eustatic rise accompanied a rapid dominated assemblage to a deeper, poritid-dominated
warming (Gagan et al., 2000) that resulted in the one, that occurred between 12.6 and 11.3 ka BP
initiation of a new reef generation (RGII). The latter is (Cabioch et al., 2003a). On the subsiding island of
well documented in the western and central Pacific Tahiti (Cabioch et al., 1999a) and along the rapidly
regions (Chappell and Polach, 1991; Montaggioni uplifting, northeast coast of the Huon Peninsula (Ota
et al., 1997a; Cabioch et al., 1998, 1999a; Taylor et al., and Chappell, 1999), reef crests grew vertically at
2000). On the Huon Peninsula (New Guinea), from rates of up to 10 mm year 1 between 11.5 and 11.3 ka
13.2 to 11.8 ka BP, reef crest and upper forereef zones BP, respectively, and were able to remain close to or to
developed upward at an average rate of 8.7 mm catch up with sea level.
year 1 to a maximum thickness of around 13 m.
Growth of coral communities, dominated by branch- 3.4.4. Generation RGIII
ing acroporids (A. gr. hyacinthus, A. palifera), There was a prominent gap in reef growth at the
pocilloporids, and domal Porites (P. lobata), gener- end of the MWP-1B event. In the Indo-Pacific, sea-
ally kept pace with rising sea level. In Tahiti, shelf level rose at a moderate rate of about 10 mm year 1
inundation occurred around 14 ka BP and reef from 11 to about 7–6.5 ka BP until it stabilized around
colonization probably started at the same time with its present position (Pirazzoli, 1996). Apart from reefs
a robust-branching Acropora framework. that escaped demise and continued to develop, no re-
Contemporaneous, submerged reef-like bodies settlement of reef-building communities seems to
have been described from various continental and have begun before 10 ka BP and most modern reefs
island shelves. Along the western outer shelf margin can be related to this generation. Throughout the Indo-
of India, at depths of about 75 m, Rao et al. (2003) Pacific, they commenced growth within a relatively
reported 4- to 14-m-high coralgal buildups, dated at restricted period (Montaggioni, 1988) and initiation
about 14 ka BP. On Mayotte, coralgal mounds, dated was bracketed between 10 and 7 ka BP. Generally,
at 13.6 to 12 ka BP in age, lie 55–90 m below present when sea level reached a position 30–40 m below the
sea level. These consist of in-situ corals dominated by present datum, coral populations were able to colonize
Porites, and Pocillopora, encrusted by coralline inner shelf substrates and reefs that were still active
algae, vermetid gastropods and foraminifers (Dullo began to flourish in shallow coastal areas (Carter and
et al., 1998). Most reefs that developed within the Johnson, 1986). Recolonization may have been
13.8–11.5 ka BP interval are at present encountered as favoured by improved shelf-water quality during this
relict features and terraces at depths of 50–90 m. period (Davies et al., 1985; Montaggioni, 1988,
Numerous undated reefs within the same depth range 2000). As a consequence, Late Holocene near-surface
are found throughout the Indo-Pacific, with examples reef tracts range from 10 to 30 m thickness. Locally,
on Mauritius (Faure and Montaggioni, 1976); Mada- however, re-settlement seems to have delayed and
gascar (Pichon, 1978); Seychelles (Montaggioni, started more recently. In New Caledonia, Northern
2000); the Great Barrier Reef (Hopley, 1982; Carter Australia and the eastern Pacific, growth pauses were
and Johnson, 1986; Harris and Davies, 1989; Hopley common and reefs formed only thin veneers (1–6 m)
et al., 1997); New Caledonia (Coudray, 1976); and the with a relief locally inherited from non-carbonate
Marquesas (Cabioch et al., 2003b). This reef sub- substrates. These structures range in age from 5.6 ka
mergence event was probably triggered by meltwater BP to modern (Macintyre et al., 1992; Cortés et al.,
1994; Cabioch et al., 1995; Glynn and Ault, 2000; high-frequency pulses, including brief still-stands; or,
Smithers and Larcombe, 2003). A similar pattern is as suggested by Blanchon (1998), reefs survived the
reported locally from the latitudinal limits of reef jumps whose magnitude was not sufficient to displace
growth. In the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), some fringing the corals at the reef crests out of their habitat depth
reefs are probably younger than 4 ka BP (Yamano interval (0–6 m). The MWP-1B and the suspected
et al., 2001b). Such pauses or slowing of reef growth jump at around 7.5 ka BP had much smaller
may have been induced in part by short periods of magnitude than MWP-1A and therefore apparently
rapid sea-level rise between 9 and 7 ka BP. Blanchon did not affect reef development in the same way. The
et al. (2002) reported the possible occurrence of a reefs were able to recover leaving no resolvable
rapid 6-m jump in sea level at around 7.5 ka BP from framework record of the events (Blanchon et al.,
the study of a submerged reef at a depth of about 20 m 2002).
in the Caribbean. In the Indo-Pacific, reef tops commonly reached
the sea surface several millennia ago as sea level
stabilized in the 7–3 ka BP period. This stillstand
4. Growth-controlling factors episode promoted forward progradation of reef
margins locally extending 250 to 1000 m (Johnson
4.1. Sea level and Risk, 1987; Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994; Yamano
et al., 2001a, 2003) and the backward transport and
Global variations in sea level related to the last deposition of detritus leading to the formation of
deglaciation have determined, in conjunction with extensive reef flats (Grossman and Fletcher, 2004).
neotectonics and antecedent topography, the location Middle to late Holocene exposed reef flats lying
and geometry of reefs. As emphasized by Hubbard between about 0.5 and 3 m above present sea level are
(1988), variations in these factors have resulted in usual features in the tropical Pacific Ocean basin
very different sea-level histories reflecting site-spe- (Pirazzoli, 1991; Nunn, 1994; Grossman et al., 1998;
cific reef growth scenarios. Using a hydraulic model Dickinson, 2001). When not overprinted by local
of the water exchange between the Red Sea and the uplift, thermal subsidence or lithospheric flexure, the
world ocean, Siddall et al. (2003) found that sea-level exposure of RGIII reefs is thought to result from mid-
changes of up to 35 m, at rates of up to 20 mm year 1 Holocene eustatic rises in sea level, combined with
have occurred during the last glacial cycle, coincident late Holocene sea-level falls induced by the process of
with abrupt climatic changes. More particularly, the glacial isostatic adjustment (Mitrovica and Milne,
abrupt changes in the rate of sea-level rise at 19, 14 2002). This process, so-called bequatorial ocean
and 11.5 ka BP, commonly caused reef drowning (Fig. syphoningQ (Mitrovica and Peltier, 1991) relates to
11a,b). This helps to explain why there are at least two the migration of meltwater from low-latitude (far-
to three generations of submerged tracts on many field) ocean basins into high-latitude (near-field)
tropical shelf margins (Fig. 12): Madagascar (Jouan- regions in order to fill space vacated by the collapse
nic, 1972), Mayotte (Dullo et al., 1998), New of forebulges at the vicinity of previously ice-covered
Caledonia (Coudray, 1976), the Great Barrier Reef areas. Total melting of ice reservoirs and thus the
(Carter and Johnson, 1986; Harris and Davies, 1989; resulting eustatic sea-level rise were predicted to end
Hopley et al., 1997), the Marquesas (Cabioch et al., at around 4–5 ky BP (Nunn and Peltier, 2001;
2003b). However, reef crests were able to keep pace Mitrovica and Milne, 2002). The effects of the
with the rapidly rising sea level, forming expanded associated sea-level highstands in the Pacific oceanic
Postglacial sequences, in both subsiding (87 m thick islands (e.g. Fiji, Society, Marshall, Caroline, Hawaii)
on Tahiti) and rapidly uplifting areas (up to 60 m thick and continental areas (e.g. South China Sea) are
on the Huon Peninsula and Vanuatu). Two hypotheses recorded by emergent reef structures dated from about
could explain why some Indo-Pacific reefs have been 7.0 to 1.5 ka BP (Grossman et al., 1998; Dickinson,
able to compensate for some sharp and episodic 2001; Nunn and Peltier, 2001; Yu et al., 2004a). By
variations in sea-level rise. Each jump in sea level contrast, as emphasized by Camoin et al. (1997), in
may have been the sum of several low-amplitude, the Western and Central Indian Ocean, recent emer-
TULEAR, MADAGASCAR
W R R E
0
DR
50 55 m
100
CF=0.26
1 Km
MAYOTTE Island (Grand Récif du Nord-Est)
NNE R R SSW
0
DR
50
DR 60 m
100 90 m
CF=0.82
1 Km
SEYCHELLES bank (Mahé island, eastern shelf)
NW R SE
0
DR?
50
CF=0.01
10 Km
MAURITIUS Island (western coast)
NW R SE
0
DR
50 55 m
CF=0.43
200 m
CENTRAL GREAT BARRIER REEF
E R R R W
0
50 DR
60 m
DR 80 m CF=0.21
100
10 Km
St VINCENT BAY, SW NEW CALEDONIA
SW R R R NE
0
DR
50 40 m Hugon islet
DR 65 m CF=0.23
10 Km
TAHITI Island (north-western Coast)

NNW R R R R SSE
0
50
100
CF=0.76
100 m
antecedent topography Postglacial reef systems
R = active reefs DR = drowned reefs
Fig. 12. Topographic profiles of continental and oceanic shelves from the Indo-Pacific province, showing the main morphological features and
the areal distribution of the Postglacial reef systems. Coverage factor (CF) refers to the total shelf area covered by the identified reef systems that
developed during the deglaciation. It is expressed by the ratio between the area covered by the reef systems of that of their shelf foundations.
The more shelf-covering is the reef system, the closer to 1 is the CF. Data from Pichon (1978) (Madagascar); Zinke et al. (2001) (Mayotte);
Montaggioni, unpublished (Seychelles); Montaggioni and Faure (1980) (Mauritius); Maxwell (1968), and Larcombe and Carter (2004) (central
Great Barrier Reef); Coudray (1976) (New Caledonia), Cabioch et al. (1999a) (Tahiti).
gent in-situ reef buildups are missing from the oceanic southwestern section of the New Caledonian barrier
islands (e.g. Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Comoro reef (Cabioch et al., 1996).
islands, the Amirantes, the Maldives), suggesting that In the southern Great Barrier Reef, unusually deep
mid to late Holocene highstands have not occurred pre-Holocene surfaces (N30 m) at some locations may
here. Such discrepancies between the two oceans may be related to active major NE–SW trending faults
be explained by variations in meltwater redistributions affecting the continental shelf (Kleypas and Hopley,
as evidenced by their different sea-level histories since 1993). Movements along these faults are suspected to
the early Holocene (Camoin et al., 1997). When sea have produced uplift of recent reef flats within the last
level was at or slightly above its present position, reef 6 ka.
islands, including sandy cays on platform reefs and In the Red Sea, the location and orientation
conglomeratic ramparts on barrier reefs and atolls, (NNW–SSE) of Miocene to modern fringing, ribbon
accumulated. Episodes of reef-island accretion or atoll reef tracts are clearly an expression of crustal
occurred variably from site to site. rifting and progressive tilting of horsts and grabens
Accordingly, in the Pacific, the surficial morphol- (Braithwaite, 1982a,b; Montaggioni et al., 1986;
ogy of many reef flats could partly be the product of Purser et al., 1993; Dullo and Montaggioni, 1998).
erosional processes, mainly biologically driven and Salt diapirism may also locally provide a control on
acting within the intertidal zone (Trichet, 1969; reef physiography, particularly in the southern Red
Guilcher, 1988). Their ages vary from about 6.5 to Sea where reef crests show circular or semi-circular
less than 0.5 ka BP. Most sandy cays (low reef outlines suggesting ascending salt domes (Dullo and
islands) formed in the period from 3 ka BP to present Montaggioni, 1998).
(Tracey and Ladd, 1974; Stoddart and Steers, 1977; For similar reasons, the locations and depths of
Woodroffe, 1992; Woodroffe et al., 1990, 1999; submerged reef terraces cannot be explained solely as
Richmond, 1992; McLean and Woodroffe, 1994). reflecting the positions of stillstands during the
Postglacial transgression. For instance, Harris and
4.2. Tectonics Davies (1989) noted a lack of correlation from site to
site in the depth/height of submerged reef-like terraces
Contrasting models of reef evolution are widely within the central Great Barrier Reef and suggested
assumed to reflect a response to differences in that the settlement of some reefs may have been
geodynamic setting (Hopley, 1982, pp. 382–384; facilitated by shelf-edge rotational fault scarps.
Scott and Rotondo, 1983; Scoffin and Dixon, 1983). However, on the time scale of the last deglaciation,
The structural development of recent reefs demon- gross reef geometry does not systematically reflect
strates the complex interplay of vertical and horizontal differences in regional tectonic history. This is
displacements. demonstrated by comparing the reef record from the
On passive margins, long-term subsidence explains intraplate basaltic island of Tahiti, with those of the
the differences in depth to the antecedent foundations forearc andesitic island of Espiritu Santo (Vanuatu),
across shelves. Davies (1983) reported a uniform and the Huon Peninsula (Papua-New Guinea) at the
subsidence of 0.05 mm year 1 for the eastern tectonically active junction of the Australian and
Australian continental margin. Over the 10-ka interval Pacific plates. Major large-scale features are common
in which the modern reefs have grown, subsidence of to all three although they are subject to contrasting
the margin has not exceeded 0.5 m and, as a vertical motions. Subsidence of Tahiti is at rates of
consequence, it has had little effect during the some 0.50 mm year 1 (Bard et al., 1996), uplift of
Holocene (Webster, 1999). However, Hopley (1983) Espiritu Santo at 5–6 mm year 1 (Cabioch et al.,
concluded that modern outer reefs in the northern and 1998), and uplift of the Huon Peninsula is at rates of
central areas of the Great Barrier Reef required about 0.4–5 mm year 1 (Chappell et al., 1993). However,
1000 years longer to reach sea surface than those on irrespective of the directions and rates of these
the inner and middle parts of the shelf, due to motions, all three sites exhibit expanded reef sequen-
downwarping of the outer margin. Similar divergent ces; 87 m on Tahiti (Montaggioni et al., 1997a,b), 70
patterns of growth histories can also be shown for the m on Espiritu Santo (Cabioch et al., 1998) and about
70 m on the Huon Peninsula (Chappell and Polach, tributions of the reef tracts supported on them vary
1991). widely from site to site. These variations can be
Because the magnitude and rates of eustatic quantified by a measure of the shelf area covered by
movements between 20 and 7 ka BP were 2 to 50 Postglacial reef systems (reef piles plus reef-derived
times higher than those of local tectonic motions, deposits). The coverage factor (CF) is expressed as the
neotectonic effects were likely to have been over- ratio between the area occupied by a given reef system
whelmed by eustacy and, as a result, do not seem to and that of its shelf basement. The larger the area of
have been a major control of reef growth patterns. In shelf covered by the reef system, the closer CF is to
the past 7 ka, the impact of tectonics relates only to unity (Fig. 12).
surface erosion of reef crests and flats in response to There is no covariance between overall shelf relief
emergence. and patterns of reef accretion. Rates of reef growth are
not directly tied to location; inner shelf fringing reefs
4.3. Antecedent topography may have developed at rates comparable to mid and
outer shelf reefs as in New Caledonia (Cabioch et al.,
The idea that the physiography of modern reefs is 1996) and NE Australia (Davies and Hopley, 1983).
controlled to a large extent by shelf foundations at Small-scale topographic features such as substrate
various scales has provided the framework for recent type, changes in slope and paleochannels were
antecedent basement theories (Steers and Stoddart, probably more important in facilitating or preventing
1977; Hopley, 1982; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Grigg coral settlement than overall shelf architecture
et al., 2002). The formation of Postglacial submerged (Webster, 1999; Grossman and Fletcher, 2004).
reefs at the margins of shelves may have been aided Regional differences in the timing of reef initiation
by the existence of favourable topographic features and in growth patterns can be explained in terms of
formed by erosional or depositional terraces of earlier substrate character. Reefs preferentially colonize
stillstands (Hopley et al., 1997). Large-scale topo- karst surfaces of limestones and rough lava flows,
graphic features such as elevations of shelf breaks while unconsolidated sediments and smooth-surfaced
and atoll summits, the general distribution of topo- metasedimentary outcrops are apparently less suit-
graphic highs, and the overall inclination of shelves, able (Cabioch et al., 1995). The slope of the
are regarded as directly constraining vertical net substrate may have a direct influence on the
accretion rates. Reefs from the outer margins of composition of pioneering coral assemblages (Web-
continental shelves and mid-ocean atolls would ster, 1999). Flat and gently sloping surfaces (b158) are
display maximum accretion rates, whereas those on predominantly covered by fast-growing branching and
topographically uniform inner shelves would experi- domal forms, whereas steeper dipping substrates
ence minimum rates (Kleypas, 1997). However, data (N408) attract mainly laminar and slow-growing
from various reef-bearing shelves in the Indo-Pacific forms. On steeper slopes, a rising sea level will easily
strongly suggest either that the physiography, size overwhelm the ability of slow-growing corals to keep
and accretion rates of Postglacial reefs can have been up. Even if antecedence can be shown to have affected
little influenced by existing topography or that they the early stages of reef growth and to locally
can be entirely independent (Hopley, 1982; Walbran, determine the gross morphology of individual reef
1994; Montaggioni, 2000). Indeed, most modern bodies, it has not strongly influenced Postglacial
reefs in the Indo-Pacific have developed large-scale patterns of reef accretion.
biozonation of their own making during the last 10
ka. Contrary to Longman (1981)’s assertion, they 4.4. Sea surface temperatures (SSTs)
have already reached a mature stage of development
and their anatomy clearly reflects the ability of Sea surface temperatures provide an important
builders to form framework instead of the underlying control on reef growth by influencing the composition
topography. and structure of coral communities and regulating the
Although many shelves offered large surfaces to aragonite saturation state of surface waters (Kleypas,
transgressive waters, the thicknesses and areal dis- 1997). In the Pacific, Grigg (1982) demonstrated that
rates of reef calcification decline as a linear function higher latitudes (Loubere, 2001). Reef-building coral
of increasing latitude, due to the decrease in mean communities are found at present along coasts where
SSTs towards the upper limits of the tropical belt. winter SSTs are less than 18 8C, falling to 13.3 8C and
However, the way in which the tropics have 16 8C in the highest-latitude sites in the Ryukyu
responded climatically to the LGM and deglaciation Islands (Yamano et al., 2001b) and the northern
is still questioned (Fig. 11c). In particular, there is Persian Gulf (Purser, 1973), respectively. These
controversy concerning the record of tropical SSTs communities formed Holocene sequences 8 to 20 m
during the LGM (Mix et al., 2001). In the tropical thick at rates ranging from 2 to 6 mm year 1. As a
Indo-Pacific, the LGM/Late Holocene temperature result, the area occupied by coral reefs during the
contrast derived from Sr/Ca in corals is 4–6 8C (Beck LGM was probably larger than expected, even if SSTs
et al., 1997; Taylor et al., 2000). This conflicts with were depressed by more than 2 8C in comparison with
microfossil-based or modelling reconstructions that the present and seasonal thermal fluctuations were
give a maximum range of 1.2–3 8C (Barrows et al., equivalent to or slightly greater than those seen today.
2000; Hostetler and Clark, 2000; Lea et al., 2000; Lee In the Pacific, the 19 ka BP jump in sea level
et al., 2001; Steinke et al., 2001; De Deckker et al., occurred about 2000 years before the significant
2002; Koutavas et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2002). decline in marine y18O (Clark and Mix, 2000; Mix
Revisiting the question of the temperature, size and et al., 2001). This suggests a decoupling of the timing
variability of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool since the or magnitude (or both) of sea-level and isotope
LGM, Gagan et al. (2004) found that SSTs herein records very early during deglaciation, probably
were 3 8C cooler than at present during the LGM, caused by a deep ocean cooling (1–3 8C relative to
while Barrows and Juggins (in press) observed cool- modern bottom water temperature) associated with the
ing of up to 4 8C in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean. jump. If correct, upwelling deep waters may locally
The warm pool is believed to have regulated low- have cooled coastal waters sufficiently to turn off reef
latitude climate throughout the Pacific during the growth.
LGM; Thunell et al. (1994), and De Deckker et al. From about 20 to 17 ka BP, there was a sharp
(2002) pointed out that SSTs may have varied by less global warming trend. This warming may have
than 2 8C from those of the present. By contrast, in favoured the growth of El-Niño-like events during
enclosed epicontinental seas (e.g. the Japan Sea), the considered time interval (Koutavas et al., 2002;
SSTs during the LGM are considered to have been Palmer and Pearson, 2003). SSTs rose by 1 to 4 8C
about 2 8C higher than the present as a result of above those of the LGM termination (Bard et al.,
heavily stratified surface waters (Ishiwatari et al., 1997; Kienast et al., 2001; Steinke et al., 2001; Visser
2001). Crowley (2000, in Mix et al., 2001) stressed et al., 2003). As pointed out by Weaver et al. (2003),
that a 5 8C-cooling would take the temperature below some of the rise in SSTs may have originated from
the survival limit of most corals and would have reduction in thermohaline circulation and global
restricted the distribution of reef-building corals increase in CO2. This warm event seems to coincide
during the LGM to only about 5% of its modern with the initiation of RGI reefs. The period from 15 to
range. This contention is, however, open to debate. 10 ka BP is marked by high-frequency SST changes,
According to Kleypas (1997), the total area available and more particularly, by the rapid Bblling warming
for reef growth during the LGM was about 20% of the event at 14.8 ka BP (Grootes and Stuiver, 1997; Mix
present area, due principally to a decrease in available et al., 2001).
space (smaller areas on steeper slopes) at the lower sea Between around 14.3 and 13 ka BP, the MWP-1A
stand and secondarily to the fall in SSTs. The discharge and the subsequent jump in sea level were
existence of coral reefs in various Indo-Pacific areas, accompanied with a brief sea surface cooling of 1–2
and particularly in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool 8C compared with the Bblling–Allerbd interval
between 23 and 18 ka BP, provides strong evidence (Sonzogni et al., 1998; Gagan et al., 2000). Even if
for SSTs conducive to reef growth, except maybe in the amplitude of this fall in temperature is correct, it is
regions such as the eastern equatorial Pacific that unlikely that this event was sufficient to have brought
seem to have received colder waters from southern about drowning of the RGI reefs.
As the MWP-1A came to an end, there was a rapid reefs have continued to settle in a variety of areas:
warming that lasted until about 12.7 ka BP (Mix et al., New Caledonia (Cabioch et al., 1995), the Ryukyu
2001; Gagan et al., 2000) and a marked decline in Islands (Yamano et al., 2001a,b), western Asia
seasonality occurred (Koutavas et al., 2002). SSTs (Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994; Yu et al., 2004a),
oscillated around 1 8C below present-day values Australia (Johnson and Risk, 1987), and the eastern
(Sonzogni et al., 1998; Gagan et al., 2000) and this Pacific (Cortés et al., 1994).
warming event coincides with the settlement of RGII
reefs. 4.5. Nutrient levels
From 12.7 to about 11.5 ka BP, SSTs in the Indo-
Pacific were depressed by at least 1 8C relative to Nutrient supply was probably a major factor in
those in the preceding warming event (Sonzogni et al., determining the time of reef settlement during the last
1998; Gagan et al., 2000; Koutavas et al., 2002). The glacial cycle, and in governing the subsequent develop-
cooling probably coincided with the MWP-1B pulse ment or turn-off of reefs (Hallock and Schlager, 1986;
and most RGII reefs were drowned during this period. Buddemeier and Hopley, 1988; Marshall, 1988;
During the Early Holocene, from about 11 to 8.5 ka Montaggioni, 1988; Hopley et al., 1997).
BP, SSTs increased; in the central part of the Indo- Around a number of ocean basins, mainly as a
Pacific Warm Pool, the rapid Postglacial rise in SST result of thermocline shallowing and stronger upwell-
led the deglaciation to produce near-modern SSTs by ing, nitrate supply to surface waters and productivity
about 3000 years (Gagan et al., 2004). This warmer locally increased significantly during the LGM
phase coincided with the start-up of the most active (Herguera and Berger, 1994; Farrell et al., 1995;
reef generation, RGIII. However, during the 7.5–7 ka Pedersen and Bertrand, 2000; Muller and Opdyke,
BP time interval, the winter SSTs were still signifi- 2000). In the western equatorial Pacific, productivity
cantly cooler (2.4–4.5 8C) than at present due to was 1.5 to 2 times higher than at present (Herguera
stronger winter monsoons, at least in southeast Asia and Berger, 1994) and NO3 concentrations would
(Jian et al., 2000). This result there in coral mass have been enhanced by 25% to 60%. By contrast, in
mortality about every 50 years (Yu et al., 2004a). The areas such as the eastern equatorial Pacific (in the
transition to modern SSTs was punctuated by tempo- vicinity of the Galapagos archipelago) and the
rary rapid variations and enhanced seasonal gradients. Arabian Sea, decoupling of surface and subsurface
For instance, high-amplitude SST change (2–3 8C) water chemistry caused a reduction in upwelling, and
occurred around the Arabian Sea during the summer nutrient levels and biogenic productivity were prob-
(upwelling) season on decadal–centennial timescales ably lower than at present (Loubere, 2001; Agnihotri
(Jung et al., 2002). Between 8 and 6 ka BP, the El- et al., 2003).
Nino (ENSO) pattern became reduced or inactive Changes in the oceanic nitrate inventory in the
(Koutavas et al., 2002). The onset of modern ENSO tropical Indo-Pacific over the past 23 ka BP are shown
periodicities seems to have occurred about 6 ka BP in Fig. 11e, and are derived from the 15N/14N ratio
throughout the tropical Pacific region, with an abrupt (y15N) calculated from bulk bottom sediments. In
increase in ENSO intensity about 3 ka BP (Gagan general, mean y15N nitrate values were relatively low
et al., 2004). While most reefs developed normally, (2.7x to 6x) throughout the LGM, indicating a
some at the upper latitudinal growth limits suffered a marked decrease in nitrate reduction at the sediment
slow-down in coral colonization (Cabioch et al., surface and in the overlying water column. The excess
1995). The so-called bHolocene climatic optimumQ nitrate presumably supported an increased output by
(up to 1 8C above present SSTs) recorded in both the intense upward mixing and diffusion of subsurface
Pacific and Indian Oceans (Sonzogni et al., 1998; waters in oligotrophic areas (Pedersen and Bertrand,
Gagan et al., 2000) coincides with the main phase of 2000). During the deglaciation, regional changes in the
sea-level stabilization. Locally the thermal structure of y15N of organic matter deposited in ocean basins and
the ocean water may have been influenced by the sea- on adjacent shelf margins can partly be explained in
level behaviour. Thus, for the past 7 ka, a number of terms of a rapid sea-level rise (Bertrand et al., 2000).
reefs have been able to reach sea surface, while new The transgression caused a progressive reorganization
of ocean circulation and large-scale upwelling that 4.6. Light levels and turbidity
resulted in nutrient enrichment of shelves and adjacent
coastal areas (Marshall, 1988). In areas where the The depth to which light is able to penetrate the
transfer of nutrients from southern high latitudes to the water column varies in relation to latitude and
equator was altered during the LGM, the re-establish- distance from the shore (Kleypas et al., 1999). As
ment of modern thermocline conditions occurred early light intensity decreases, coral zones become more
in the deglaciation (Loubere, 2001). Around 20–18, compressed and the depth at which reefs drown
13.5–13 and 9–7 ka BP, lower y15N values in many decreases (Hallock and Schlager, 1986). However,
Indo-Pacific areas seem to have coincided with the the influence of light penetration on the latitudinal
onset of RGI, RGII and RGIII. By contrast, the periods distribution of Indo-Pacific reefs remains unclear, as
of higher y15N recorded around 14.8–14 and 11.5–11 there seems to be no substantial difference in
ka BP in the Arabian Sea (Stuthhof et al., 2001) (Fig. calcification rates in lower- and higher-latitude sites.
11e) coincided with MWP-1A and MWP-1B pulses. In high-latitude settings close to mainland areas (e.g.
The intensification of denitrification during jumps in Japan, eastern South Africa), the minimum irradiance
sea level is linked to stronger SW Indian Ocean required for hermatypic coral growth (50–250 AE m 2
monsoonal upwelling. This enhanced the flux and s 1) is restricted seasonally to the upper 7–9-m depth.
degradation of organic matter and resulted in an Many coastal reefs at low latitudes also suffer from
increasing oxygen deficiency at intermediate water low light levels, mainly controlled by high turbidity
depths (300–500 m). The combination of enhanced (Thailand, Indonesia, the Great Barrier Reef, New
upwelling and denitrification may have been respon- Caledonia, SW Madagascar, Central America). In the
sible for the demise of RGI and RGII. This is most turbid areas of the Southern Great Barrier Reef,
consistent with the results of Marcantonio et al. for example, corals only extend to depths of 3–4 m
(2001) who used the ratio of 23lPa/230Th, a measure (Van Woesik and Done, 1997). While coral growth
of biogenic particle flux, as a proxy for paleoproduc- can occur at depths as great as 105 m along the outer
tivity. Two periods of abrupt intensification of the SW shelf of the Great Barrier Reef (Hopley, 1994), the
Indian Ocean monsoon were identified, at about 15.3– lower limit of light saturation compatible with the
14.7 and 11.5–10.8 ka BP (Fig. 11e), in which ability of corals to act as reef erectors in mid-shelf
increased wind speeds promoted increasing upwelling. sites is about 20 m (Bosscher and Schlager, 1992). By
Similarly, upwelling-driven surface biological produc- contrast, on open-sea, mid-Pacific atolls, the mini-
tivity was enhanced greatly during the early Holocene mum irradiance level for coral growth extends to 150–
(Agnihotri et al., 2003). There is indirect evidence of 160 m and corals are considered to be able to produce
Postglacial upwelling at a number of reef sites. a vertically accreting relief from 35-m depth.
Brachert and Dullo (1991) suggested that during The influence of turbidity on the distribution of
phases of rapidly rising sea level, sharp increases in corals varies and is related to regional and/or local
nutrient levels are reflected in deposition of laminar fluctuations in turbidity regimes that apparently reflect
micritic microbialites along deep forereef slopes. the distribution of muddy sediments (Larcombe et al.,
Upwelling and nutrient overload have also been used 2001). It seems that in the Central Great Barrier Reef,
to explain the remarkable growth of Halimeda a 5-m-thick coastal muddy wedge deposited during
bioherms at the expense of reef-building corals, at the mid- to late-Holocene is the principal source of
depths of 20–90 m in a variety of Pacific areas sediment in the water column. Wave-driven resuspen-
(Northern Australia, Indonesia) (Roberts and Macin- sion of this sediment is the main turbidity-generating
tyre, 1988). process. The muds accumulated in the last 6 ka at
Biotic disruption and the demise of a number of mean rates of 0.5 to 8 mm year 1 and have prograded
modern Indo-Pacific reefs may have been driven by seawards at up to 1 m year 1 since sea level stabilized
episodic enhancement of suspended sediment and (Larcombe and Woolfe, 1999), rapidly increasing the
nutrient loads from terrestrial runoff or groundwater size of the turbidity reservoir. No living corals are
discharge (Montaggioni et al., 1993; Mc Culloch et al., present on the muddy bed, but they develop imme-
2000). diately seaward of the wedge and are not fundamen-
tally different from those in much less turbid zones Yamano et al., 2001b; Smithers and Larcombe, 2003).
further offshore. Assemblages are dominated by The decline of reefs from Madagascar, Reunion,
columnar G. fascicularis and branching Porites with Mauritius, Indonesia, and the Society Islands, and
the maximum cover up to 50%. Such a high coverage the delay in settlement seen in Thailand, the Ryukyus,
in an apparently adverse environment reflects the and New Caledonia may also be attributed, at least in
existence of active currents that periodically transport part, to turbidity-driven light attenuation and siltation.
turbid waters away from the reef or maintain sediment Little is known of the extent to which the
in suspension (Larcombe et al., 2001). However, very Postglacial to late Holocene reef decline locally
short periods (a few hours) of high rates of redepo- reflects either a reduction in light penetration induced
sition occur as calm conditions re-establish after a by greater sedimentation. The reasons for the termi-
strong turbidity event. Deposition rates in these areas nation of early Holocene reefs also remain problem-
can reach 3 to 4 orders of magnitude greater than the atic. However, in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool region,
mean rates of net sedimentation over the last 6 ka. the beginning of the monsoonal climate conditions at
Such drastic changes in turbidity imply that corals about 14–13 ka BP was accompanied by a substantial
growing in highly turbid zones have adopted one of increase in rainfall and a subsequent supply of
two alternative mechanisms of functioning in terrigenous clays by rivers (De Deckker et al.,
response to turbidity stress. Heterotrophy is favoured 2002). This may have resulted in a significant increase
when turbidity is high, whereas autotrophy is more in turbidity of coastal waters in tropical Australasia.
appropriate under lower turbidity conditions (Anthony Hopley et al. (1997) assumed that, in the Great Barrier
and Fabricius, 2000 cited in Larcombe et al., 2001). Reef, some shelf-edge reefs were buried by clastic
Kleypas (1996) and Van Woesik and Done (1997) sediments derived upslope. Whatever the conditions
suggested an alternative in the southern Great Barrier were, they resulted in the elimination of fast-growing
Reef where strong tidal flows related to high tidal branching and tabulate framework builders in favour
range may generate turbidity and thus account for the of slow-growing mainly massive colonies, and in a
failure of coral communities to establish well-devel- significant decrease in rates of vertical accretion.
oped reefs. High sediment loadings displaced by tidal
flows influence species presence or absence, growth 4.7. Aragonite saturation and atmospheric CO2
forms and growth rates. Major framework builders,
such as branching Acropora and domal Porites, can The rates of calcification of many autotrophic
be replaced by turbidity-tolerant species such as organisms increase as a function of increasing
foliaceous Turbinaria and Pavona forming single- calcium carbonate saturation and decreasing pCO2
sided plates. These have the potential for upright (Broecker et al., 1999; Kleypas et al., 2001). Reefal
growth under low light conditions to form a baffle- communities flourish where aragonite saturation (X-
stone. Kleypas (1996) suggested that the demise event arag) ranges between 4.1 and 3.1 (Kleypas et al.,
that affected the 8–6 ka BP reefs between 5 and 0.1 ka 1999). As a result of temperature dependence, X-
BP in the southern Great Barrier Reef was caused by arag is usually at a minimum in high latitudes (e.g.
an increase in tidal range of at least 1 m. This Lord Howe island and the Abrolhos islands) and in
probably occurred after the outer shelf reefs had upwelling areas (e.g. the Galapagos), where CO2
reached sea level some 4000–5000 years ago, and enriched waters reach the surface. The LGM is
resulted in the reduction of mean low water level (i.e. assumed to have experienced higher X-arag values
the upper limit of coral growth) and an increase in (probably, around 5–6) compared to the present
siltation stress. The Indo-Pacific province includes (Buddemeier et al., 1998). During the deglaciation,
many coral reefs on turbid shallow shelves where they the aragonite saturation of tropical waters declined
interact with terrigenous sediments. The reef builders significantly to 4.4 (modern, pre-industrial value), in
involved usually include massive Porites, various response to an increase in atmospheric pCO2 (190
faviids and/or foliaceous forms such as Pavona versus 280 ppmv) (Gattuso et al., 1998). Thus,
(Johnson and Risk, 1987; Tudhope and Scoffin, variations in atmospheric pCO2 seem to have
1994; Kleypas, 1996; Van Woesik and Done, 1997; remained within the tolerance thresholds for reef
calcification. Laboratory experiments suggest that the five times greater than those in the Holocene
calcification rates of reef-building corals may not (Marcantonio et al., 2001) (Fig. 11f). In this region,
have varied significantly within the range of satu- the cold Younger Dryas interval was also a dustier
ration levels corresponding to the deglacial phase. period. These results are in agreement with assump-
Moreover, it seems that the phases of increase in tions of drier conditions in the Western Pacific during
atmospheric pCO2 may partly have catalyzed reef the LGM (Martinez et al., 1997; De Deckker et al.,
building, as suggested by the apparent synchroneity 2002). By contrast, around 10–9 ka BP, there was a
between the three main reef growth episodes, RGI, slowdown in terrigenous fluxes, reflecting an increas-
RGII and RGIII, and sharp increases in pCO2. This ing rainfall in Africa and Asia, from 10 to 6 ka BP
relation is striking particularly when considering the (Gasse and Campo, 1994, in Marcantonio et al.,
record of pCO2 in the Western Equatorial Pacific 2001). Colder and drier intervals at 24–18.5 and 12.8–
(Palmer and Pearson, 2003) (Fig. 11g). RGI reefs 11.6 ka BP coincided with dusty events when reef
started to develop around 17 ka BP, while pCO2 growth was spatially restricted. The onset of RGIII
increased by about 50–80 ppmv and are coincident appears to be coeval with a marked decrease in dust
with the steepest rise in atmospheric CO2 levels supply (Fig. 11f). Even if transPacific and transIndian
(about 330 ppmv) that occurred between 15.6 and dust transport during glacial and Postglacial periods
13.8 ka BP. RGII is synchronous with the CO2 was not one of the major factors controlling reef
excursion of 30–40 ppmv between 12.5 and 11.5 ka growth, it probably enhanced the effects of inimical
BP. The highest rate of reefal carbonate deposition parameters such as nutrification.
(RGIII) occurred after 10 ka BP, in the Indo-Pacific
province as pCO2 increased abruptly by about 100 4.9. Sea-surface salinities (SSSs)
ppmv from 8.2 ka BP Conversely, the episodes of
reef growth cessation or of reduced development, In the Indo-Pacific, sea-surface salinities of coastal
respectively, identified between around 14.7 to 13 tropical seas at present average 34.3x to 35.3x
and 11.5 and 10 ka BP seem to match the sharp (Kleypas et al., 1999). Little is known of the salinity
declines in pCO2 of 50 to 70 ppm that were recorded range in the last 23 ka. Rostek et al. (1993) pointed
at about 13.3–12.8 and 10.7–10 ka BP. These out that in the equatorial Indian Ocean, SSSs were
observations support the coral reef hypothesis of 0.5x to 1x higher than the present, during the LGM
Opdyke and Walker (1992) that assumes that higher and up to about 15 ka BP (Fig. 11d). However, in the
rates of shelf carbonate precipitation favoured in- eastern equatorial Pacific, as a result of increased
crease in atmospheric pCO2. precipitation and stronger trade winds, SSSs were
probably lower (Loubere, 2001). Salinities declined
4.8. Dust input by up to 2x from around 14 ka BP, probably as a
result of events leading to the intensification of the
Shinn et al. (2000) pointed out that the decline in SW Indian monsoon at the same time (Marcantonio
reef vitality, and in particular the widespread mortal- et al., 2001). Similarly, the Japan Sea would have
ities of major reef builders such as Acropora, in the experienced a substantial drop in SSSs from the LGM
last 25 years in the Caribbean, coincides with to 17.5 ka BP (Oba et al., 1991). Present-day values
maximum fluxes of dust from African deserts. Mainly appear as early as 4 ka BP, as the SW monsoon
composed of various metals and nutrients, the dust decreased in intensity. Results obtained in the Western
also serves as a substrate for disease-promoting Pacific Warm Pool (Martinez et al., 1997; De Deckker
microorganisms. Present-day photoplankton blooms et al., 2002) accord with those of Rostek et al. (1993),
in Hawaii are also regarded as the result of increasing at least for the LGM; SSSs were more than 1x higher
desertification promoting large dust storms in Asia than those today, implying that evaporation minus
(Chadwick et al., 1999). Similar conditions probably precipitation was higher over the region. Due to the
also applied during the LGM that was typified by a relative tolerance of reefs to minimum changes in
drier climate and larger dust input, particularly in the salinity values, and accepting a paleosalinity anomaly
SW Indian Ocean, where dust-fluxes were three to of F2x relative to present, SSS changes since the
LGM cannot be regarded as a factor limiting reef positive effect, enhancing rates of accumulation
growth. through the replacement of slow-growing by fast-
growing corals and binstantaneouslyQ incorporating
4.10. Hydrodynamic energy coarse sediments into the reef pile. In addition, storms
by providing episodic nutrient replenishment could
Hydrodynamic energy is regarded as a major partly contribute to coralgal reef development (Lar-
control on Holocene reef accretion (Bourrouilh and combe and Carter, 2004). High rates of deposition, up
Talandier, 1985; Scoffin, 1993; Blanchon and Jones, to 37 mm year 1 are reported from a variety of Indo-
1997; Grigg, 1998; Larcombe and Carter, 2004; Pacific fringing reefs, and are interpreted as resulting
Grossman and Fletcher, 2004). In areas subject to from rare severe hurricane events (Montaggioni,
destructive open-ocean swell or hurricanes, coral 1988; Cabioch et al., 1995).
recruitment and subsequent reef building are poor The hurricane-control hypothesis has important
and are restricted below storm-wave base. Reefs are implications for reef anatomy and ecology. From a
unable to catch-up with sea level. Accretion is study of bioclastic storm ridge sequences along the
generally limited to a veneer no more than 1 m thick Great Barrier Reef, Nott and Hayne (2001) concluded
or to sparse patches of corals and coralline algae that extreme-intensity hurricanes (central pressures
clinging to the antecedent substrate. Growth rates are less than 920 hPa) occurred every 200–300 years over
usually less than 1 mm year 1, i.e. below the critical at least the past 6.3 ka. In the southern China Sea, Yu
threshold for reefs to accrete normally. Once the reef et al. (2004b) pointed out that, during the last 1000
top reaches the storm-accretion limit, at maximum years, strong storms operated with an average 160
depths of up to 15 m, the reef can only accrete year-cycle. Such events caused large-scale damage to
laterally. At the LGM, hurricanes may have probably coral reefs, modifying their structures by placing
been less common and less severe than now in the constraints on the longevity of individual colonies,
Indo-Pacific, as a result of colder temperatures. and changing coral communities. Although reef
During the deglaciation, with the increase in their growth models traditionally emphasize the role of
frequency and severity, storms may have prevented in-place, interlocking, primary framework in the
reefs from keeping-up or catching-up with the rising development of wave-resistant structure, drilling
sea level, favouring reef drowning. This may help to results indicate that such a framework is rare in the
explain the lack of mature fringing and barrier reefs Postglacial record. Reefs composed of relocated and
along wave-exposed coasts of many relatively stable, recemented coral blocks (i.e. secondary framework) or
oceanic islands (the Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, the skeletal detritus are more representative worldwide
Marianas, Tahiti, Hawaii, and the Marquesas). The (Blanchon et al., 1997; Hubbard et al., 1998;
incapacity of various Postglacial reefs, that are Braithwaite et al., 2000; Smithers and Larcombe,
currently submerged, to track sea-level rise may also 2003). Internal reef structure varies as a function of
have been due simply to the dominance of destructive swell strength and/or hurricane frequency (Fig. 13). In
forces, bioerosion, sediment transport, and storm- hurricane-free regions, primary-framework reefs are
wave damage (Hopley et al., 1997). For instance, in able to survive in both high and low-hydrodynamic
South Africa, the development of modern coral energy settings. By contrast, in hurricane-swept areas,
framework is prevented by annually recurring high reef cores are principally the products of reworking
wave energy events (Riegl, 2001). In addition, and re-deposition of coral debris. In other respects,
hurricanes can stimulate phytoplankton blooms Larcombe and Carter (2004) proposed to explain the
through stirring up deeper, nutrient-rich waters, thus prominent gap in reef growth, that occurred between
affecting the ecology of tropical, shallow-water the flooding of antecedent foundations and the coral
benthic communities (Babin et al., 2004). Since settlement at around 10–7 ka BP, in terms of
stronger hurricanes appear to cause larger blooms, paleocyclonic activity. In many cores throughout the
they may have contributed to biologically disturb Indo-Pacific, the material atop reef foundations are
coral growth during the deglaciation. However, long- composed often of coral gravel and rubble, while
term, severe storm activity may locally also have a coral framework facies are found rather at the upper
Lower fairweather energy Higher fairweather energy
SECONDARY
FRAMEWORK
dominating
PRIMARY
Increasing Storm Severity
FRAMEWORK
dominating
DETRITUS
dominating
Area of coral
Robust branching corals Domal corals
framework
Reworked coral colonies Rubble Sand
Isochrons
Fig. 13. Generalized models of reef development and internal structure defined on the basis of hydrodynamic energy (modified from Braithwaite
et al., 2000).
parts of cored sections. The initial coral growth would rapid winnowing of finer particles from paleosols and
have been disturbed by intense reworking in a so- terrigenous sediments deposited on inner shelves and
called bcyclone corridorQ that would have been coastal zones. It may have limited periods of high
traversing shoreward across the location of the turbidity that disturbed reef colonization along many
modern reef systems as sea level was rising. outer shelf margins (the central Great Barrier Reef,
The intensity, frequency and locations of hurri- New Caledonia, the Seychelles Bank, Madagascar,
canes are expected to respond to climate warming Tahiti, and the Marquesas). From 6 ka BP, the window
induced by the greenhouse effect (Knutson et al., progressively closed as reef tops reached a sea level
1998). Simulations suggest that a sea surface temper- stabilized around its present position and reef flats
ature increase of about 2 8C will result in a 5–12% became sufficiently extended laterally.
enhancement of hurricane activity. If correct, extrap- Strong tidal currents have also been considered to
olation implies that tropical storm activity may have be a prime determinant of reef architecture. Jones
increased by 10–20% since the LGM, making (1995) pointed out that in the Torres Strait (North
hurricanes more effective in modifying Postglacial Australia), reefs developed since about 6 ka BP form
reef growth. However, Hayne and Chappell (2001) 5–10 m thick, elongate detritus-dominated bodies.
pointed out that cyclone frequency was statistically These developed on previously uncolonized substrate
constant over the past 5 ka BP in the central Great and are aligned to strong regional tidal currents
Barrier Reef while SSTs have increased by 1 8C. induced by the topographic restriction of the strait.
The concept of a high-energy window, introduced
by Neumann (1972) and revisited by Hopley (1984), 4.11. Substrate availability and coral recruitment
is helpful in explaining some reef growth patterns. It
suggests that, in the mid-Holocene, in areas where the The patterns and timing of coral recruitment after
rate of sea-level rise outstripped the ability of newly substrate flooding have important implications for
settled coral communities to grow vertically, a phase Postglacial reef history (Davies et al., 1985; Mon-
of higher wave energy may have occurred before a taggioni, 1988). Reefs become well developed as a
reefal barrier has formed. The window may have result of high recruitment densities and the longevity
remained open from the first complete submergence of individual colonies, optimizing the persistence of
of the antecedent foundations until the moment at large colonies on site (Chappell et al., 1983). They fail
which modern reef flats began to develop, between to accrete or to progress beyond the stage of simple
about 8 and 6 ka BP. The most likely locations of such coral community or incipient reef, if settlement
high-energy environments were those on deeper densities and/or longevities are too low to counteract
antecedent platforms (N20 m). Because waves over destructional losses (Van Woesik and Done, 1997).
incipient reefs would have required depths of N5 m to The attenuation of coral species diversity eastward
be effective, shallower substrates would have been across the Pacific is primarily controlled by substrate
excluded. Hopley (1984) added that, in reef sites availability (Veron, 1995) but, probably also, by the
where sea level rose rapidly to its present position (the survival and dispersal capacity of recruits. In the Indo-
eastern Indian Ocean and western and central Pacific), Pacific province, most of the main reef-building corals
at rates of around 10 mm year 1 between 8 and 6 ka are spawners, releasing sperm and eggs simultane-
BP, the high-energy window may have had more ously. The exceptions are the dominant pocilloporid
effect than in areas where the rate of sea-level rise species releasing fertilized larvae (Hughes et al.,
systematically declined from 7 to 1.5 mm year 1, 1999). Patterns of recruitment differ among the two
between 8 and 3 ka BP. The energy-window effect ecologically distinct groups and species, depending
was surely enhanced during the super-cyclone events upon stock size, larval survival and settlement
reported by Nott and Hayne (2001) and owing to the behaviour. These disparities may have accounted for
sediment pumping effect of cyclones, particularly differences in rates of substrate recolonization during
along the cyclone corridors (Larcombe and Carter, transgression, because, as stressed by Hughes et al.
2004). Higher hydrodynamic energy, during fair- (1999), reef areas can be sources or sinks for a given
weather or cyclonic periods, may have helped in the coral group. For this reason the inhibition of reef
settlement presumably reflects the absence or limi- deglaciation on the scale of the Indo-Pacific prov-
tation of suitable nurseries for particular scleractinian ince. The proposed scheme is based on significant
families during lowstands. Shelf edges, banks and advances in the understanding of the Postglacial
seamount summits were the best candidates to serve evolution of reefs, mainly as a result of borehole
as refuge sites and centres of dispersal of coral larvae. studies over the past 25 years and of recent efforts to
During the LGM, these potential habitats formed reconstruct paleoclimate and paleoceanography of
dislandsT separated by thousands of kilometres of the tropics during the last glacial cycle. It appears
unsuitable, non-reef niches. The isolation and spatial that reef growth responded differentially to rapid
limitation of most refuge sites (the Red Sea, Western global and local changes in environmental conditions
Indian islands, Maldives, the Ryukyus, and Central related to the deglaciation. This is expressed through
Pacific) were incompatible with the maintenance of a a variety of depositional modes (i.e. aggradation,
high diversity biota. progradation, retrogradation, downlapping, onlap-
Recolonization during the transgression required ping) that have generated marked variations in the
the establishment of patterns of oceanic circulation nature and composition of reef facies, in reef
suitable for larval transport. The large-scale circulation anatomy and in their mutual relationships. The
regime in mid-oceanic settings such as high volcanic occurrence of alternating or recurrent coral frame-
islands and atolls probably changed little at first, even work facies within most reef-margin piles suggests
if the east to west equatorial current regime was less that rapid changes in bathymetry and water agitation
active than to-day. This resulted in the relative were the principal large-scale forcings in controlling
impoverishment of coral assemblages in the Central coral population dynamics and reef architecture.
Pacific in particular (Rosen, 1984). By contrast, However, no single phenomenon can satisfactorily
current patterns near continental shelves were locally explain changes in reef growth patterns on local to
completely modified. As stressed by Hopley (1994), regional scales. Rates of reef accretion were con-
the Torres Straits separating Australia from New trolled by the synergy of a variety of environmental
Guinea closed when sea level was 20 m lower than parameters. The extent to which sea surface temper-
at present, in the period from the LGM to about 9 ka atures contributed to the inhibition of reef initiation
BP. The closure cut off circulation across northern and development is not well known, because it is
Australia between the Indian and Pacific Oceans and difficult to separate the effects of temperature
led to changes in patterns of upwelling. With the changes from those of changes in sea level during
establishment of the modern ocean circulation and the meltwater pulses and in nutrient supply linked to
re-establishment of exchanges of water masses accom- upwelling. Contrary to some previous assertions,
panying, the groups were more easily dispersed. Late Glacial to Postglacial reef building seems not
On scales ranging from local to regional, varia- to have been significantly affected by temperature
bility in coral recruitment is driven by large-scale variability. There is compelling evidence of sub-
hydrodynamic and meteorological factors, including stantial reef building during the coldest periods of
high water residence times (Sammarco et al., 1991) the last glacial cycle. During the LGM, as stressed
and latitudinal gradients in water temperature (Hughes by Kleypas (1997), reef development was probably
et al., 1999). These may differentially affect lateral more extensive than commonly believed and sea
extension rates of reefs. When integrated over surface temperatures locally have promoted coral
Holocene times, local highly successful coral recruit- reef building. By contrast, nutrient supply seems to
ment may favour carbonate accretion at a higher rate have been one of the major controls of reef growth
in a given section of a reef. styles, because dkeep-upT and dcatch-upT growth
requires constant oligotrophy. Hydrodynamic energy,
particularly that reflecting hurricane activity, con-
5. Conclusions trolled both growth styles and anatomy. Severe
high-frequency storms prevented reefs from tracking
This paper is the first attempt to outline a general sea-level rise, finally helping to promote lateral
development scheme for coral reefs since the last accretion. Reef anatomy can be related to end-
members of a hydrodynamically controlled spectrum times. It may reveal the behaviour of sea level at the
ranging from framework-to-detritus. Substrate avail- LGM-deglaciation and during the mid- to late
ability is the most biogeographically limiting of all Holocene, and the impact of increasing storm activity
physical parameters. The distances between avail- on reef structure in response to increasing levels of
able substrates and centres of coral dispersal, and atmospheric CO2. Similarly, undertaking coring inves-
the alteration of circulation regimes on a regional tigations on high-energy outer reef margins and
scale may partly explain variations in the timing of forereef slopes, in spite of logistical difficulty, is
reef settlement and mode of reef growth from one required for helping resolve some of the key goals
region to another. The degree of influence of faced in the reconstruction of reef architecture: what
changes in atmospheric CO2 remains unclear, have been the respective role fo the different
despite the apparent synchroneity between phases depositional processes and growth styles in reef
of rapid increase in pCO2 and active reef-building building? For instance, at what extent has back-
events. This is probably due in part to the fact that upslope retrogradation contributed to reefs keeping
patterns of calcification have not significantly pace with the rising sea level ? Are catch-up
changed since the LGM. signatures real facts or simple artefacts of drilling?
In summary, nutrient levels, hydrodynamic energy, Achieving these objectives will be aided by process-
substrate availability and coral recruitment are the oriented computer simulations and modelling.
most significant factors controlling coral and reef An attempt was made herein to find the best way of
growth. Other influences, including neotectonics, distinguishing categories of coral facies based on the
paleotopography, light levels, dust fluxes, and salinity identification of the dominant coral builders to
acted as modulators of these major controls. Thus, as specific level. Individual scientists are recommended
claimed by Hopley (1994), the concept of a tolerance to evaluate or re-evaluate their core archives in accord
threshold is of prime importance in the analysis of with these facies types. The aim is to standardize
coral reef growth. Beyond a critical limit, a coral biological data in order to facilitate intercomparison
community may rapidly evolve towards a coral reef or between sites. In other respects, a full understanding
conversely, may be disrupted, passing from a climac- of reef growth history will require further analysis of
tic to a regressive structure. detrital material (in particular, sand fractions) from
This synthesis is hoped to provide a starting point cores. Such an analysis was neglected for too long.
for better understanding the processes that set the For example, studies on the changing composition of
sensivity of coral reef systems to environmental foraminiferal assemblages through sediment piles will
changes and for better evaluating reef growth patterns yield additional insights into the environmental
that will be used as monitors to predict future changes. conditions driving reef development.
There are critical needs for data on the nature and Conversion of radiocarbon ages into calendar dates
variability of reef responses to specific environmental is recommended to accurately correlate reef develop-
parameters. Concerted effort has to be made to obtain ment episodes with climatic and oceanographic events
high-quality datasets through reef drilling pro- and to compare reef growth histories between regions
grammes. It is clear that geographic coverage of with rigor.
drilled sites is insufficient for getting meaningful A more detailed geochemical analysis of new and
reconstructions of reef growth history on the Indo- existing cores that sample several centuries of con-
Pacific scale. Gaps in sample coverage are particularly tinuous coral growth may provide answers to ques-
acute in the Red Sea, the central Pacific and tions regarding the variability of tropical climates in
Indonesia. It is, however, difficult to find and sample response to Southern Oscillation events, and changes
thick sequences comparable with those in New in nutrient levels in relation to upwelling patterns in
Guinea, Tahiti and Vanuatu, particularly when they the deglacial interval (see Quinn and Tudhope, 2000,
are submerged. Access to submerged reef piles by for further explanation). However, points of contro-
coring or submersible diving will provide new versy resulting from the use of different geochemical
insights into the distribution of reef building and proxies, such as SST in the tropics during the LGM
growth patterns during the LGM and Late Glacial and the deglaciation have to be resolved. In addition,
particular attention to the possible effects of early Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Fairbanks, R.G., 1990. U–Th ages obtained
marine diagenesis on the geochemical signals is also by mass spectrometry in corals from Barbados: sea-level during
the past 130,000 years. Nature 346, 456 – 458.
warranted. Bard, E., Fairbanks, R.G., Arnold, M., Hamelin, B., 1992.
Finally, a better understanding of Indo-Pacific reef 230
Th/234U and 14C ages obtained by mass spectrometry on
growth patterns over the last deglacial cycle may aid a corals from Barbados (West Indies), Isabela (Galapagos) and
more critical application of recent reef models to the Mururoa (French Polynesia). In: Bard, E., Broecker, W.S.
(Eds.), The Last Deglaciation: Absolute and Radiocarbon
ancient record and a retrospective extension of base-
Chronologies. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 103 – 110.
line data temporally to approach future change issues Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Arnold, M., Montaggioni, L.F., Cabioch, G.,
more efficiently. Faure, G., Rougerie, F., 1996. Deglacial sea-level record from
Tahiti corals and the timing of global meltwater discharge.
Nature 382, 241 – 244.
Acknowledgements Bard, E., Rostek, F., Sonzogni, C., 1997. Interhemispheric
synchrony of the last deglaciation inferred from alkenone
I particularly wish to thank Paul Blanchon, Colin palaeothermometry. Nature 385, 707 – 710.
Braithwaite, David Hopley for reviewing an early Barnes, J., Bellamy, D.J., Jones, D.J., Whitton, B.A., 1971.
Morphology and ecology of the reef front of Aldabra. Symp.
draft of the manuscript. I benefited from fruitful Zool. Soc. London 28, 87 – 114.
discussions with my co-workers on Indian and Pacific Barrows, T.T., Juggins, S., in press. Sea-surface temperatures
reefs (Guy Cabioch, Gilbert Camoin, Gérard Faure, around the Australian margin and Indian Ocean during the Last
Michel Pichon). I also thank Colin Woodroffe for his Glacial maximum. Quat. Sci. Rev.
review of the manuscript. This paper is a contribution Barrows, T.T., Juggins, S., De Deckker, P., Thiede, J., Martinez, J.I.,
2000. Sea-surface temperatures of the Southwest Pacific
to the French National Programme on Coastal
Ocean during the last glacial maximum. Paleoceanography 15,
Environments (PNEC) financially supported by 95 – 109.
CNRS, IRD and IFREMER. Bathurst, R.G.C., 1971. Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis.
Developments in Sedimentology, vol. 12. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
620 pp.
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Lucien F. Montaggioni is a carbonate

sedimentologist and has been studying
coral reefs since 1969. He completed his
DSc degree in Sedimentology and Marine
Geology at the University of Marseilles
(Center for Oceanography). His academic
career began in 1967 as Assistant Professor
at the University of Réunion island (over-
seas French territory, Western Indian
Ocean), where he has developed research
on coral reefs from Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues and Comoro
islands and the Red Sea (Jordan, Saudi Arabia), combining
ecological and geological approaches to identify the depositional
processes controlling reef development and to reconstruct the recent
geological history of reefs. From 1981, his geographic areas of
research included the Society and Tuamotu islands, in French
Polynesia. From 1987 to 1996, his field work has taken him
successively into a sabbatical period to James Cook University of
North Queensland (Australia), contributing to ecological and
geological studies on the central and northern Great Barrier Reef,
into studies on modern and Pleistocene reefs of Egypt, Sudan,
Seychelles and Madagascar, and a participation in the cruise of ODP
Leg 133 (Northern Australian Margin). From 1983 to 1991, he acted
as an Advisory Editor of the journal Coral Reefs (Springer-Verlag),
co-editing a special issue (1991) dealing with the use of coral reefs
as recorders of environmental changes. He was a member of the
organizing Committeee of the Fifth International Coral Reef
Congress at Tahiti (1985). L.F. Montaggioni moved to Marseilles
in 1988. Ever since, he is Professor of Sedimentary Geology at the
University of Provence (Marseilles, France) where, from 1996 to
2003, he has led a research team (Reefs and Carbonate Platforms),
funded by the French National Center for Scientific Research
(CNRS). Presently, he serves as Director of the Department of Earth
and Environmental Sciences at this university. These current
projects are devoted to the development of coral reefs and carbonate
buildups in the Miocene to Recent times, in relation to environ-
mental changes, from a variety of geographic sites (Southeast Asia,
New Caledonia, French Polynesia). He has published up to 120
professional papers and reports in sedimentology. Since 1995, he
belongs to the Editorial board of the International Journal of Earth
Sciences (Springer-Verlag). He served as Council Member of the
International Society for Reef Studies (ISRS) during the last four
years.

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Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1 – 75

History of Indo-Pacific coral reef systems since the last glaciation:

T Fax: +33 04 91 10 85 23.

1. Introduction mental factors of Holocene reefs were still poorly

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

Maldive is. Palau CA Majuro

60° E 120° E 180° W 120° W

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

WIO CIO RYU EAU (GBR) TAS CHES NC COOK PF HAW PF

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

A HIGH - ENERGY REEFS

B LOW TO MODERATE ENERGY REEFS

OUTER SLOPE REEF FLAT BACKREEF ZONE

The tabular-branching facies is widely distributed 3.1.5. Arborescent coral facies

FORE REEF RC BACKREEF

POINTE-AU-SABLE REEF, MAURITIUS

FR REEF FLAT BACKREEF

Encrusting coralline algal Tabular branching coral Rubble

Arborescent coral Foliaceous coral Sand and/or muddy

Encrusting coral 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)

D FR REEF CREST REEF FLAT LAGOON

E FR WRF LAGOON LRF LRS

FR FRINGING REEF FLAT

depth (in metres)

I FORE ALGAL REEF FLAT LAGOON

J FR REEF FLAT BACKREEF

L FORE REEF REEF FLAT BACKREEF

FRINGING REEF, PUNTA ISLOTES, COSTA RICA

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

In-situ corals (framework) Mud 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)

Rubble and Sand Basement

Balanced aggrading / onlapping Seaward prograding

D Unbalanced aggrading / downlapping

Unbalanced aggrading / onlapping

In-situ corals (framework) Sand Basement

Rubble Mud 4 Isochrons (Cal Ka B.P.)

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

L.F. Montaggioni / Earth-Science Reviews 71 (2005) 1–75

age cal. Ka B.P. (x1000)

18 2 settings, the mean aggradation rates range between 1.5

reef growth curves typifies the catch-up growth mode.

event generally is missing, since aggradation main- 15

accretion usually coincide with one of two events: (1) 11

TAHITI Island (north-western Coast)

Lower fairweather energy Higher fairweather energy

Zinke, J., Reijmer, J.G.G., Thomassin, B.A., 2003a. Systems tracts

Lucien F. Montaggioni is a carbonate

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