CRP 301 2021

COURSE CODE: CRP 301
COURSE TITLE: PRODUCTION OF

PERMANENT CROPS
CREDIT UNITS: 2 (THEORY: 15HRS;

PRACTICALS:
45HOURS)
PREPARED BY A.L. NASSIR, PhD

COURSE OUTLINE
• Origin,
• Distribution,
• Soil and climatic requirements,
• Establishment,
• Management,
• Processing,
• Storage,
• Utilization,
• Economics and
• Improvement of tree and plantation crops such as
cocoa, kola, oil palm, rubber, coffee, citrus, coconut,
cashew, sugar cane, banana, plantains and pineapple.
INTRODUCTION
• Permanent crops
 Plants that exist on the field for over two years from
planting (without replanting);
 Flowers and produce fruits yearly (with few
exceptions, Kola);
 Usually produce large tonnage per hectare, and of
commercial significance, hence the name cash crop;
 Comprise ligneous trees and other small statured
plants (pineapple, coffee, sugarcane, banana/plantains,
etc)
Introduction (Contd.)
• Origin: places where the crop first existed,
indicated by profusion of types a faster evolution
(environmental compatibility);
• Distribution: quite diverse, a consequence of
environmental/climatic adaptation, commercial
importance/use(?!), etc.
General Establishment practices
• Site selection: Based on compatibility to rainfall
(moisture), temperature, altitude (Coffea), soil type.
• Other considerations: Pest and disease status of
site; availability of resources (labour, equipment,
etc.), market for sales, ease of transportation, etc.
• Land preparation
Clearing:
Total clearing: complete removal of vegetation
Partial clearing: Strip clearing (Cacao)
• Establishment of legume ground cover:
– Erosion control
– Fertility improvement
– Types: Calopogonium, Mucuna, Vigna, Puereria,
Centrosema, Phaseolus, etc.
• Nursery
– Established 6 to 9 months before field establishment
– Seedlings to be hardened 2- 3 months before transplanting
• Mapping:
– Division into blocks; demarcation of avenues for easy
identification and movement;
– Holing based on size of propagule and plant spacing
• Spacing:
– Initial spacing: closer spacing , large plant population
– Final spacing: involves systematic cutting down/removal
• Transplanting
– Steady rainfall/ adequate soil moisture
– Early morning
– On Block basis
• Maintenance
– Weeding: slashing with tractor operated slasher
– Manual ring weeding around stands
– Fertilizer application
– Mulching at onset of dry season.
Cacao
• Family: Sterculiaceae
• Genus: Theobroma ; Comprises of over 20 members
• Theobroma species produce fruits of commercial value;
• Only T. grandiflorum, T. bicolor, T. angustifolium and T.
cacao are cultivated.
• Theobroma cacao is the only species cultivated on a large
scale.
• Theobroma subincanum: species with the most frequent and
largest distribution, besides cacao.
• T subincanum is considered one of the most ancestral species
of the genus and its natural distribution area covers the whole
Amazon basin.
• Another genus: Herrania is of less significance but also
commonly regarded as Brazilian in origin
Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
Origin and Spread to Africa
• Cacao evolved in the Upper Amazon region of
Latin America.
• 1st discovered by Christopher Columbus and
grown in Mexico.
• First introduced to Africa by the Portuguese
first into Sao Tome and Principe Island where
the West African Amelonados were cultivated.
• Spread later to Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and
Togo.
T. cacao groups
Criollo (T. cacao ssp cacao. Curt.)
• Trees are slender.
• Pods are green or coloured by anthocyanin pigments, warty,
thin and with soft pericarp and lignified mesocarp.
• Beans are plump and embedded in pulpy mucilage and have
white cotyledons.
• On fermentation and drying the cotyledon colour turns light
brown.
• Beans possess excellent flavour.
• Trees do not grow vigorously and are susceptible to diseases
(Phytophthora) and midrib bugs.
• Mostly grown around the centre of origin: Mexico,
Venezuela, Nicaragua Guatemala Colombia.
• (Types include Mexican criollo, Colombian criollo etc).
Trinitario
• Compose of hybrid populations mainly from
Forastero, Amazonian and Criollo.
• Hence, very variable as a result of generations of
segregation.
• Polymorphic and its high level of heterogeneity
conferred a high degree of environmental plastic
adaptability: to climate, disease, soil etc.
• Trees are vigorous.
• Pods are green or pigmented.
• Beans vary from very light to very dark purple.
• Trees are commercially, cultivated in most cacao
growing countries of the world.
Cacao Pods, (colours, texture and shapes,)
Forestero (T. cacao L. ssp Sphaerocarpum Curt.)
• Consists of cultivated, semi wild and wild
populations
• Amelonados and Amazoon populations are the most
extensively planted.
• Amelonado is commonly cultivated in Brazil and
West Africa.
• Pods are light green with smooth ridges with bottle-
neck and pointed though not very pronounced.
• Amelonados have average no of beans per
productive type but slow to come into production by
present day standards.
Climatic and Soil Requirements
• Low-attitude crop. Grows from sea-level to 700m.
• Best crops in West Africa have been recorded within
altitudes of 100 - 300m.
• Purely tropical and can be cultivated between latitudes 200N
and 220s of the equator.
• Trives within a wide range of rainfall between 1000-
3000mm.
• Minimum loss of H20 through evapotranspiration is 100-
125mm per month
• Thus Cacao, sites must enjoy an average of 150mm rainfall
per month.
• Optimal average temperature throughout the year is around
25.50c with a range of not more than 100c.
• Optimum range is between, 21-320C.
Climatic and Soil Requirements (Contd.)
• C. does not tolerate sudden changes in humidity.
• High humidity may serve to ameliorate long periods of drought or
low rainfall.
• Low R.H. may cause premature senescence and defoliation of
(usually with Harmattan winds with air of very low humidity).
• Does not tolerate frost.
• Avoid areas with strong winds to avoid serious damage to the
fragile branches, young leaves and the flowers.
• Roots are superficial thus offering little resistance to strong winds.
• Cacao is tap rooted and requires fertile well-drained deep soils
with a good crumb structure.
• Soil could be sandy loam, loam or clay provided it is well aerated
and has a large water-holding capacity.
• Optimum soil pH is around 6.5.
• Cacao can tolerate shade.
Brief description of cacao
• Cacao is a diploid, 2n = 20. Plants with higher ploidy
levels are being developed.
• C is an under story tree, 6-8m high. Average height of
5-10m has been recorded in its natural habitation.
• It has a straight trunk when raised from seedling and
branches profusely when propagated vegetatively
(particularly when cutting is from the fans).
• Grows to 1.5m and then jorquettes sending out 3-5
plagiotrophic fan branches.
• A chupon arise from beneath the jorquette and
continues the orthotrophic growth.
Cacao trees
Brief description of cacao (contd.)
• The leaves are dark green, leathery (when mature)
and spirally arranged on the chupon; alternately in
two horizontal rows on the fans. (Dimorphic).
• Flowers are produced in clusters from the axils of
very small sessile leaves (cauliflorous).
• Flowers are pollinated by flying insects. It withers,
however, if unfertilized 24-36hours after pollination.
• Fruits (pod) may be green or red, turning yellow or
orange when ripe. The pod contains 20-60seeds.
• Pod matures from 150-180days after fertilization
depending on variety.
• Cacao tree beings to bear fruits when it is 4-5years
old and continues for 50years or more
Cacao pods and flower
Mature/Ripe pod
Immature
pod Flower cushion
Cultivation
• Pre nursery/nursery practices
• Land preparation: An area of land is cleared near a source of
water. The land is fenced with wire netting
• Preparation of nursery bags: Black polythene nursery bags
are filled with rich top soil. A little space is left on top to
prevent water from running off the bag.
• The bags are arranged in the nursery in orderly manner.
• C is cultivated from seed or from cuttings.
• Seeds from ripe healthy pod (not more than 4weeks after
harvesting to retain viability) are planted in nursery between
October and December in rich forest soil either in baskets;
polythene bags which is later perforated or nursery beds.
• Nurseries are kept under shade of interwoven palm leaves or
tall forest. (The flat side of the seed is put on the soil and
covered lightly with soil and watered heavily).
Cacao seedlings in the nursery
Cultivation (contd.)
Vegetative propagation
• Vegetative propagation could be from leaf bud cuttings,
multiple bud cuttings, budding grafting and layering.
• Cuttings should be taken early in the morning and should
not be thicker than the stem of lead pencil. The twigs are
the cut under water(Why?).
• Application of rooting hormones (Indole acetic acid, IAA;
indole butyric acid (IBA) and the gibberellins) is helpful.
• The cut end of the cutting is inserted in the rooting medium
(soil/sawdust).
• The cutting is then watered and cover is provided with thin
colourless polythene sheet.
• The rooted materials is later potted and kept under shade.
Transplanting
• Land preparation is done either by strip clearing or complete
vegetation removal. Banana or plantains are planted to serve as
shade plants.
• Transplanting is done 5-6 months after nursery planting seedlings
are 30-6cm high and the rains are steady (April – June).
• For polybag seedings, the polybag is torn open and seedling
carefully removed with soil, placed in the hole made in the soil and
consolidated with soil preferably with topsoil, subsoil and manure
mixture.
• A week before transplanting seedling from nursery bed should be
carefully dug in situ to stimulate the initiation of new roots prior to
transplanting.
• All seedlings should be sprayed against diseases and pest prior to
transplanting.
• Field spacing: 1.2m x1.2m later thinned to 2.4m x 2.4m as the trees
begin to bear fruits. Spacing of 3m x 3m is also appropriate.
• Maintenance
• Provision of shade is essential for young cacao until the self-
shading or permanent overhead shade has been established. This
can be done by intercropping with plantain cassava pigeon pea or
tree cassava (Manihot glaziovii) (Can you pick similarities among
the intercrop?). (Remove shade gradually).
• Under favourable conditions; fertile, well drained deep soil with
liberal application of fertilizer. To obtain optimum and continuous
high yields, annual dressing with 60-80kg N, 30-40kg P2O5 and
100-200kg K20/ha is recommended.
• Under shade, however, the litter from the fallen leaves provide
considerable amount of nitrogen to the soil and also improve the
physical and chemical conditions of the soil.
• Weed control for the first 4 years is done by manual labour or
through application of herbicides – simazine, paraquat
(Gramozone) and Glyphosate (Roundup). (When not weeded,
competition for nutrient and waters ensues. Weedy plots also
harbour diseases and pests.
• In plantations, row weeding thrice a year and four to six slashing of the
avenues per year is adequate clean weeding is possible on small family
farms, 2ha.
• Young cacao trees should be notched before the onset of the 1st dry
season with grass, leafy materials or polythene sheets. Each plant
should be given a 15cm deep layer of mulch but a small area around the
base of each seedling should be left clear to reduce termite attack.
• Pruning of branches should be done to increase air circulation, ensure
light penetration and avoid early branching. Cut surfaces should be
painted with ordinary paint or tar to prevent ingress of disease ө the
wound.
• Trees may get blown over or damaged by breaking of main branches
during thunderstorms. Dormant buds may give use to chupons. Three
regularly spaced chupons at the base of the trunk should be retained but
only one or two should be allowed eventually.
• Earth should be heaped around the base of new shoot to encourage
growth of an independent root system. When fan branches are 45cm
long, the top should be cut to encourage secondary branching.
• Prevent surrounding trees from choking up the new tree. Dead
seedlings should be removed and supplying of vacant stands should be
done as soon as the rains become regular; usually from April to June.
Harvesting
• Pods are produced throughout the year. Ripening occur 5-
6months after fertilization.
• The main harvest begins at the end of wet season and lasts
from October to January. A minor harvest is obtained in the
rainy season from April to June.
• Fully ripe pods are harvested by cutting the stalk with a
sharp knife and care must be taken that the cushion is not
damaged (Avoid pulling as damage to the cushion stops
further pod bearing at that spot).
• Harvesting is done every 3-4weeks. Harvesting knife
fastened to a long pole is used to cut pods out of arm’s reach
i.e. on the topmost part.
• No climbing of trees to avoid rubbing of cushions).
• Conventionally, harvesting should be effected as soon as the
pod ripens to prevent seed germination and disease incidence.
Fermentation
• Maximum return is obtained only from
properly fermented and clean cocoa.
• Appropriate fermentation will result in proper
taste, colour and flavour, kill embryo and stop
germination, remove mucilage to hasten drying
and loosen the skin from the cotyledon to
ensure easy de-shelling.
• Fermentation T0 should not be allowed to rise
above 500C.
• Fermentation is assumed completed when T0
drops below 350C.
Processing
• Pods are broken by knocking them against blunt
objects such as a thick piece of wood or stone.
• The beans are carefully removed and collected for
fermentation.
• Temperature of 47-500C is monitored during
fermentation for good flavour.
• Cutlass should never be used as it may damage
beans and render them unsuitable for fermentation.
• Germinated, diseased, small, immature and
damaged beans are avoided in the fermentation
process.
Cacao beans with mucilage, fermented/dried (in situ)
Processed cacao, fermented and dried
Cacao black pod disease (Phythopthora palmivora)
Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis)
• Family - Palmae
• Genus - Elaeis
• Specie - Guineensis
• Origin - Tropical rain forest of West Africa
• Brief Description
• Elaeis guineensis is an erect, non-branching tree and grows
to a height of 30m or more.
• It has a stout trunk covered with semi-persistent leaf bases.
• The diameter of the trunk varies from 22-75 cm with
progressive thickening towards the base.
• It terminates in a crown of 40 or more leaves (fronds)
arranged in spiral succession from the apical meristem.
• It is a monocotyledonous and monoecious plant.
Oil Palm Trees in Rows
Description (Contd.)
• Unimproved varieties flower at four to five years or more;
selected and bred palms flower in two to three years.
• Flowers are borne on side branches and the male and female
inflorescences do not appear on the plant at the same time;
period of production of male flowers alternate with periods
of production of female flowers.
• Cross pollination therefore almost always occur.
• Female inflorescence, after fertilization, develops into fruit
bunch of about 200 fruits.
• A bunch may weigh 18-25kg of which 60-65% consists of
fruits.
• Fruit is a drupe and matures 5-9 months after flowering.
They have a leathery, fairly thin exocarp, fleshy mesocarp, a
hard endocarp and a seed.
• Palm oil is obtained from the mesocarp and palm kernel oil
is obtained from the kernel or endosperm.
Varieties
• Three basic varieties:
• Dura: thin mesocarp, thick endocarp with large
kernels. Genetically denoted by DD.
• Tenera: thick mesocarp, thin endocarp with
medium or reasonably sized kernel. It has a dual
purpose for palm oil and kernel oil production.
Heterozygous and denoted by Dd.
• Pisifera: thick mesocarp, with very little oil
content, no endocarp (shell-less) with small kernel.
• Female flowers are often sterile resulting in bunch
failure. It is genetically homozygous and
recessive for shell and designated as dd.
• Grows best in warm, high rainfall, tropical forest.
• It is a lowland crop though can grow well up to
altitude of 900m.
• Requires not less than 1500mm rainfall distributed
evenly throughout the year.
• Can tolerate temporary flooding if the water is not
stagnant.
• High level of insolation is important for growth and
bunch production with the ideal temperature range of
27-320C
• Soil should be fertile, well drained and free from iron
concretions. It can tolerate a fair range of pH though
neutral soils are preferred.
Oil Palm Plantation (Aerial View)
Propagation
• By seed.
• Ripe seeds are collected from mature bunches and
kept in a cool place till the mesocarp softens;
• Kernels are washed clean in cold water and then air-
dried
• Seed Germination: two methods wet heat method
and dry heat method.
• Dry heat method-involves subjecting seeds to heat
treatment at moisture contents too low for
germination to occur. Seeds, however, germinate
when moisture is restored to optimal level.
Propagation (Contd.)
• Procedure: Seven-hundred and fifty (750) seeds at 15%
moisture content (MC) are placed in intact 500 gauge
polythene bags (60x60x120) and secured with rubber bands,
allowing a good air space on top of the seed.
• Bags are then arranged in wooden boxes and placed in a
germinator maintained at 390C - 400c for 75 - 80 days.
• Seeds are thereafter removed and soaked in cold water for
three days.
• The water is changed every 24 hours. The MC will now be
28-30 % for Tenera (21-22% for Dura).
• The seeds are then drained and dried under shade till the
water film adhering to each seed disappears .
• After draining, they are returned to polybags and kept in a
cool place at room temperature.
Propagation (Contd.)
• Seeds are examined every two weeks for drying or
germination.
• If drying is noticed, they are lightly sprayed with water.
• Germinated seeds are picked out for potting. Vigorous
germination normally occurs about 15-21 days after the post
heating soaking.
• About 80% germination is recorded by this method.
• Germinated seeds are potted in 400-500 gauge black
polythene bags (40cm wide x 35cm deep), previously filled
with top soil.
• Bags are placed at 45cm square spacing and are perforated
at the base to drain excess water.
• Mulching with shredded, partially decomposed oil palm
bunch refuse.
Nursery Management
• Seedlings are given 1.5l of water by hand per week.
• Application of 56g of NPK Mg (1:1:1:1)/ plant is done
twice at two and eight months respectively.
• (Fertilizer source (NH4)2 SO4, Kcl, single
superphosphate and magnesium sulphate)
• Disease control is ensured by spraying Dithane M.45 or
0.2% Benlate at fortnightly intervals.
• Polybag nurseries are kept weed face to eliminate
competition for water nutrients and to reduce tension on
the bag by root growth of the weeds.
• Shading is unnecessary but could be provided only at
the very early stages.
• Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-
12 months old.
Transplanting
• Oil palm field, preferably a virgin forest, should be clear
felled and levelled.
• Trash should be gathered and burned.
• The field is blocked and holes are dug at 8.7m triangular
spacing.
• Transplanting is done at the onset of the rains. The Careful
removal of polythene to avoid injuring the roots.
• Seedlings are planted with the entire ball of earth obtained
after the removed of the bag such that the surface of the ball
is level with the surrounding soil.
• Avoid deep planting.
• Young plants are protected from damage by rodents and
grass cutters by erecting a collar of wire netting around each
seedling.
Oil Palm seedlings
Maintenance
• Weed control
• Intercropping oil palm during the establishment stage helps to
control weeds.
• Leguminous cover crop could also be planted otherwise weeding
should be effected four times during the year especially at the
early stage in the plant life.
• Ring weeding around each palm to a radius of 1m.
• Herbicides such as Atrazine, Simazine or Simazine-Paraquat
mixture could be safely used to check weeds.
• Suplying of Vacant stands.
• Each palm is mulched and undecomposed mulch is removed
during the early rain.
• Watering or irrigation of newly planted palms done particularly
during the dry season.
• Fertilizer application – as necessary. Recommemnded:N as
(NH4)2 SO4.; Mg as Mg SO4, K as Kcl
Rehabilitation of Oil Palm Plantations
• Necessitated by factors such as disease infestation, pest
attack, old age and the need to change to a new variety.
• For disease and pest infested farms, old trees as well as their
roots and broken fronds are burnt. A cover crop is
established for one year to further eradicate the disease or
pest. Planting holes are subsequently dug at points
intermediate to old plant stands and new seedlings planted.
• For disease and pest free old farms, young trees are planted
under old ones which are later removed as the young trees
begin to develop.
• Damaged tree are uprooted and new ones are planted in
their places. Fertilizer is applied, plants are mulched and
insect pests and diseases are controlled.
Diseases
• Blast, Pytium splendens and Rhioctonia lamellifera - a root disease
causing wilting and sudden death of nursery seedlings. No effective
control but keeping seedlings adequately watered all the time can reduce
its incidence.
• Brown germ disease, Aspergillus spp. { A. niger, A. flavus, A.fumigatus, A
terrous} and Fusarium solani, Penicillin spp. Brown spots appear on
emerging buttons, spreading and coalescing. Affected tissues become
shiny rotten. The dry heat method of germinating seeds helps to control
the disease. Treat seeds with fungicides before germination.
• Ganoderma wilt- wilting and death of old palm
• Vascular wilt- Fusarium oxysporum - causes wilting and death of the tree.
Plant resistant strain.
• Anthracnose – Botrydiplodia palmarun, (Melanconium elaeidis,
Glomerella cingulata, Corticium solani). Attacks pre nursery and newly
planted nursery seedlings. Brown areas appear on the leaves which may
later die resulting in an extremely weak plant. Control is by avoiding
overcrowding in the nursery. Spray with any good systemic fungicide.
Deficiency Diseases
• Orange frond-lamina of affected leaves becomes orange in
colour. The tree has conspicuous orange appearance. It is
due to Mg deficiency. Control is by application of MgS4 at
15-20g /plant.
• Orange spotting – caused by K deficiency; yellow spots
appear on fronds, coalescing to give them yellow
appearance. In extreme cases the palm dries off and dies.
Control, Apply Kcl
• Pests
• Palm weevils, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Orcytes
owariensis; leaf miners, Coelaenomenodera elaeidis; slug
caterpillars, Parasa viridissima;
• Others include rodents, wild pigs and elephants and weaver
birds (Quela-quela). They nest in swarms on the palm and
defoliate it completely. Spray with Avicide or shoot to scare
them away.
Harvesting
• Inspect palms once every fort night, harvest when
the bunch has just a few loose fruits. Over-ripe
bunches produce lower quality palm oil.
• Ensure minimum damage to leaves during
harvesting.
• Methods of harvesting include Chisel method, Pole-
Knife method and Climbing rope method.
• Yield
• Wild palm of W. Africa yield 1.2-5 tonnes of
bunches per hectare per annum. Estate yields in
Africa vary from 7.5 -15 tonnes/ha annum. Yield of
15-25 tonnes ha-1 annum–1 is obtained in the Far East.
Fruiting Young Oil Palm trees
Oil Palm Bunch and Fruits
Processing of Palm Fruit
• Indigenous method of oil extraction (soft oil) in
Africa involves leaving harvested bunches for
about a week to loosen the fruits.
• Bunches are then beaten; fruits are collected,
cooked and pounded.
• Oil extraction is by flotation after mixing the
pounded fruits with water.
• The oil extraction rate in this case is 4-6% with a
free fatty acid (FFA) of 30 -35%.
• High quality oil contains less than 3% FFA, water
content of <0.1% and dirt content as low as 0.005%.
Processing of Palm Fruit (Contd.)
• High quality (Special) oil is achieved by processing
fruits soon after harvesting.
• This involves: Sterilization – Stripping – Milling –
Separating – Pressing – Clarification – Storage.
• Sterilization (in hand extraction methods)
• Bunches are split longitudinally into 3-4 pieces.
• Steaming over water in a drum for one hour. In large
mills, the whole bunches are steamed.
• Sterilization softens the fruits for stripping; it
disinfects the fruits by killing pathogens and inhibits
the action of lipolytic enzymes.
• Stripping: Removal of fruits from sterilized split
bunches stripped fruits are re-sterilized for about 30-
40minutes before milling.
• Milling
• Pounding of sterilized fruits to separate the
mesocrap from the kernel (de-pulping).
• Pounding is easy when fruits are hot and well
sterilized. Mesocarp is pounded until no streak of
coloured outer skin is distinguishable any more.
• Pressing
• Pounded mass is loaded into a press (hydraulic,
screw, hand press, or centrifugal press).
• Often necessary to add water to the mass to
facilitate oil extraction.
• Efficiency of pressing is highly correlated with the
efficiency of cooking and maceration (milling)
• Clarification
• In the traditional method, the extracted crude oil is clarified
by boiling and skimming.
• Crude oil from modern hydraulic and hand presses contain
too much sludge and thus, clarification is done by using two
specially constructed double jacketed clarification drums.
• Procedure
• The drums are mounted over an open fire and about 45 litres
of water is poured into each of the outer drums and brought to
boil.
• Crude oil is introduced (outer drum). This flows through the
boiling water and deposits the sludge while the oil flows on
top of the waters.
• As more crude oil is added, the refined oil will overflow into
the inner drum. The content of the drum must be kept hot
without causing vigorous boiling throughout the operation.
• Palm kernel: Kernels, after separation from the
mesocarp, are washed, dried in the sun, cracked and
packed for sale.
• Under mechanical processing, kernels on separation
are conveyed into drying chamber where they are dried
and packed into cracker.
• On cracking the shells and kernels are partially
separated. For final separation, the mass is passed into
clay slurry where the kernels float and the shells sink.
• The kernels are collected, cleaned, dried and packed
for sale.
• Palm wine is obtained by tapping the base of
immature inflorescences of oil palm. It has very high
yeast content.
• Improvement
• Breeding for high yielding, early fruiting trees.
• The Tenera type was obtained from a Dura x Pisifera cross. Such
crosses and back crosses are still possible to improve existing
varieties for higher performance.
• Use of biotechnology to generate genetically modified strains should
be explored
• Utilization
• Palm oil for culinary purposes.
• Palm oil and kernel oil- for soaps, margarine, detergents etc.
• Palm kernel meal for livestock feed.
• Palm wine consumed as fresh drinks, also bottled and used too in
traditional medicine.
• Fronds (midrib) for weaving baskets; nursery shed construction,
brooms etc.
• Stem are used in house construction, roofing etc.
• Stem used in making sweeping brushes.
• The ash of burnt bunch refuse is high in K and is used as fertilizer.
TEST 2
• With respect to inflorescence

production, explain why well
maintained Elaeis guineensis
may not produce fruit in a
particular year
KOLA
• Centre of origin - W. Africa (C. nitida, West coast of
Sierra Leone to Rep. of Benin;
• C. acuminata, West coast of Nigeria to Gabon;
Specific centre of origin is S.W. Nigeria.
• Family – Sterculiaceae
• Genus – Cola
• Species: nitida and acuminata
• Economic product: The cotyledons; in both species,
the cotyledon could be white, pink or red in colour.
• Kola contains about 2% caffeine and theobromine
(stimulant alkaloid).
• In both species, the cotyledon could be white, pink or
red in colour.
KOLA Species
1. C. nitida
• The major economic crop;
• Tree is robust, usually from 9 – 12m high but
could reach 24m.
• Foliage is dense & not confined to the tips of
branches
• Pods are winkled.
• Follicle contains up to 10 seeds in two rows.
• The embryo has 2 or occasionally 3
cotyledons.
Cola nitida Cola acuminata
Cola fruits in the follicle
KOLA Species (Contd.)
2. C. acuminata
• Of traditional, social and cultural significance in
southern Nigeria.
• Tree is slender, up to 12m but usually 6 –9m.
• Branches are slender, crooked and markedly
ascends.
• Foliage is often sparse and confined to the tips of
the braches, pods are smooth.
• Up to 14seeds (in a follicle.);
• Each embryo (kola nut) has 3 – 5 or 6 cotyledons.
Soil and Climatic Requirements
• Grows best on fertile well – drained and deep soils
with high organic matter content.
• Tolerant of less fertile soils than Cacao.
• Badly drained soils and very clayey soils are
unsuitable.
• Grows well in tropical lowland rain forest areas.
• Optimum temperature is around 250c but a diurnal
range of 180c is tolerable.
• Rainfall of 1250mm is adequate. Irrigation is
necessary where the dry season exceeds 4 months.
• Leaves can stay on the tree for a year, thus trees are
evergreen throughout the year.
• With severe drought, all leaves may be shed.
Cultivation
• Establishment : from seedling or rooted cuttings.
Raising of seedling
• Pre-germination:
• Use of viable kola seeds (fresh or stored after testa removal)
• Sowing horizontally in seed trays filled with equal parts of topsoil
and fine sand mixture at a depth of 3 – 5cm.
• Watering, daily but avoid overwatering.
• Temperature of 32 – 340c is best for germination.
• Germination is completed within 80days in C nitida and 60 days
in C acuminata.
• Stored seeds germinate faster; fresh seeds germinate in 1 – 8
months.
• Split nut germinate faster than whole nuts.
• Potting: Pre-germinated seeds are potted in baskets or poly bags
filled with top soil at a depth of 7-10cm.
• Seedlings are adequately watered and shaded.
Cultivation (Contd.)
Propagation of Rooted Cuttings
• Cuttings are taken from new growths, which has just
hardened i.e. about 2- 4 months after flushing (stem will be
dull dark green or brownish).
• Cuttings should be from healthy trees with desirable
qualities such as good yield, good nut size and annual yield.
• They should be 15 – 20cm long with 6 – 10 leaves.
• Cuttings are taken with secateurs (when it is humid and cool
especially in the morning or later in the day if the weather is
overcast).
• Placement of cuttings in containers with their bases in water.
• Covering with polythene.
• Cuttings are subsequently cut at the base with a sharp knife,
under water to get a fresh clean surface and then are placed
obliquely in a rooting medium to a depth of 10cm.
Cultivation:Propagation of Rooted Cuttings
Contd.)
• Rooting media (Propagator): Small wooden boxes, 60 –
74cm deep having 2.5cm gravel layer and a thick layer of
moist sawdust – about 30cm.
• Watering immediately to allow the medium to settle firmly
around their bases. The propagator is then closed or covered.
• Cuttings are sprayed thrice daily until a film of water appears
on the leaves. otherwise cuttings will quickly drop there
leaves and die back.
• Avoid water logging of the medium.
• Observation by the 8th week, for rooting. Rooted cuttings
with > one root are selected.
• Cuttings with root deviating for > 450 are discarded as plants
from such are usually not firmly anchored in the soil.
• (In the 2nd or 3rd years and ramets will have formed many
adventitious roots from stem).
Cultivation:Propagation of Rooted Cuttings Contd.)
• Potting: Successfully rooted cuttings are potted in rigid
containers at least 40cm high in order to provide sufficient space
for the new root.
• Rigid containers must be used; in flexible containers, the brittle
roots will break).
• Baskets could be successfully used.
• Potted plants are watered and set in the propagator and covered
for the following three weeks and only opened for rigid plant
inspection.
• From the 3rd week onward the polythene-covered frames (of the
propagator) are gradually lifted in the course of one week.
• By this time, the plants are sufficiently settled and adapted to the
prevailing (normal) humidity to effect their transfer to shaded
nursery beds.
• Adequate watering and other nursery practices done to
maintain healthy plant conditions.
• About 9 months of nursery life produces seedlings strong
enough for field transplanting.
Field Transplanting.
• Clear field agriculturally, rake roots and burn or
evacuate all all trash.
• Arrange field into strips to facilitate movement of
equipment around the farm, especially during adult
life of trees.
• Dig holes at points based on spacing. Separate top
soil from sub soil.
• Generally, spacing should be between 7.5m – 9m.
• Spacing of 2.5m x 2.5m is used for ramets; but this
later thinned to 5m x 5m or 7.5m x 7.5m.
• Transplanting holes should have the top soil at the
base to provide good nourishment early in the life of
the plants.
Maintainance
• Regular slashing of weeds (Field mower/ slasher for a large
farm)
• Reduce shade at the end of the second year before the dry season.
• Mulching with grasses or other clean herbaceous materials just
before the commencement of the dry season.
• The mulch should be in rings around the base of the trunk but
should not touch it.
• Cut dead or diseased wood and branches, harbouring parasitic
plants, and paint the surface with tar.
• Saprophytes such as orchid, ferns in crevices of the bark, in
wounds, at junctions of branches should be frequently removed.
• Dead stands are supplied with new ramets.
• Regeneration of coppiced tree also occurs on kola farms. Shoots
arising from such trees should be thinned to one or two.
• Coppicing height of 120m gave higher % of regeneration plants
compared to 60 and 30cm height.
Maturity and Harvesting
• Flowering season lasts approximately 3 months from Aug –
October in Nigeria.
• Few inflorescences are also produced between Jan – June;
• Only 12% of observed flowers in Nigeria are hermaphrodite;
higher % of hermaphrodite flowers occurs in the Jan – June
flowering.
• Pollination is probably by insects.
• Fruits mature 130 days after pollination.
• Ripe pods are pale green or light brown in colour.
• Harvesting is done with sharp knife or hook mounted on a
long pole.
• Pods from very tall trees are allowed to drop themselves and
picked up quickly before insect infestation.
• Harvesting is usually done monthly.
YIELD
• Average yields are generally low – about 210 saleable
nuts/ tree/ annum
• Seed trees begin to bear fruit in the 7th year but stem
cuttings can produce fruit in the 1st year.
• However, they are not allowed to do so until the 3rd
year.
• Flowers are removed before the 3rd year and this
encourage strong growth and good braches.
• Seeding trees may fruit every 3, 5 or 7 years.
• Vegetatively propagated ones with such noted quality
will yield annually.
• The economic life of the kola tree is 70 – 100 years.
Pest & Diseases
• Fruit & Nut Disease: Fusarium solani, Penicillium
sp. and Diplodia macropyrena on stored nuts.
• In storage, very soon after harvest, droplets of water
may form on the surface of nuts (transpiration rate is
high at this period).
• This provokes the development of various parasitic
fungi.
• Infection of nuts are prevented when they are allowed
resting stage prior to storage.
• During this time respiration is greatly reduced.
• *Botrydiplodia theobroma attacks both white and red
nuts; rusty brown spots appears on nuts which later
turn black and become hard and dry.
Root diseases
• Commonly caused by Formes lignosus and F. noxius.
• They affect kola planted on clear felled land (due to
decayed roots in soil).
• Affected plants suddenly drop their leaves and die 1-2
weeks later.
• Roots of such plants are covered with brown
rhizomorphs and fruiting bodies often formed at the
base of the trunk (Rhzomorphs; aggregation of fungal
hypae).
• Prevention is by removal of logs, stumps and roots
from the area where kola trees are to be planted.
• *Swollen shoot virus symptoms have also been
recorded in kola.
Pests
• Kola weevil-Balanogastris kolae and Sophrorhinus sp.
• Attack wounded/damaged fruit and account for 50 -70%
damages.
• Larvae causes most of the damage through consumption of
the cotyledon.
• Prevention is by collecting fallen pods immediately;
thorough inspection and removal of infested nut
• Fumigation of nuts with methyl bromide (or phostoxin
fumigation)
• Kola stem borer- Phosphorus virescens; P..gabonator.
• Attack newly formed shoot, bore into the twigs towards the
woody parts.
• Stem dries from top to down.
• Control-spray with Rogor (0.075%) which kills the larvae
and Cabaryl (Sevin 50W) which kills the adult.
• Processing
• Nuts are extracted, piled and left to sweat for five days.
• This allows the white covering to be removed;
• Nuts are then sprinkled with water, seeds are then washed
and gently dried under shade for about 3 hours.
• Storage :
• Clean nuts are packed in basket between layers of Cola
cordifolia leaves or banana leaves which are replaced at 2-3
weeks interval.
• The nuts are regularly checked for the presence of insect pest,
mould attack and drying.
• Improvement (Breeding for high yield)
• Breeding for trees with higher percentages of hermaphrodite
flowers and self compatible trees.
• Selection, particularly in ramets production for trees that
yield annually with ease of vegetative propagation over the
year.
• Uses
• Kola has industrial and traditional significance industrially
for preparation of kola-type beverages -coca cola, pepsi cola
and Kola wine;
• A source of alkaloids caffeine and theobromine in
pharmaceutical preparations.
• Kola nuts contain caffeine and act as a stimulant and anti-
depressant,
• Also thought to reduce fatigue and hunger, aid digestion,
and work as an aphrodisiac.
• Once considered a substitute for alcohol in people
dependent upon drink and for nicotine in smokers.
• It relieves stomach aches and can stop diarrhoea as well as
purging the body of poisons.
• Traditionally - roots as chewing stick, traditional ceramics
wood for carving and boat building and a source of dies.
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale ).
• Family - Anacardiaceae
• Genus - Anacardium
• Species - occidentale.
• Origin - Central and South America
• Brief Description
• The cashew tree is of medium size with a spreading
canopy.
• Grows to a height of 10 – 11 meters.
• Dicotyledonous with a deep anchorage roots.
• Feeding roots are distributed within the top 50cm of
the soil profile.
• Leaves are large, simple, thick, alternate, pale –
green and borne on short swollen petioles.
Cashew: Inflorescence and fruit
Flowering and Pollination
• Inflorescences consist of male and hermaphrodite
flowers, which could be auxiliary or terminal.
• There are six – seven times ♂ flowers than ♀
flowers on the same panicle.
• Pollination is by insects
• The ratio of seed set to number of flowers produced
is very low.
• The fruit is a kidney -shaped achene with a
greyish-coloured pericarp, which contains the
cashew nut shell (CNS) oil which is used
industrially.
Climatic and soil Requirements.
• Climatic and soil Requirements.
• Grows well from sea level up to an altitude of 120m.
• Requires deep, well drained soils free from iron concretions.
• Grows well on poor soils that will not carry a good crop of
cocoa, rubber, kola, guava and even plantains. Very few
economically important tree crops (mango, guava) are as
drought tolerant and adapted to wide range of soil and
climatic conditions as cashew:
• Rainfall of 900 -1100mm per annum evenly distributed
• High rainfall area should be avoided as it encourages cashew
fruit rot.
• Cashew is very tolerant to cold.
• Optimum temperature range is 24 –29 oc (max 35oc)
• Harmattan winds are injurious to good production of cashew.
Cashew (Contd.)
• Propagation
• Mainly by seed;
• Seeds are collected from mother trees and stored in jute bags under cool
dry conditions (six months without loss of viability) or geminated
immediately.
• Germination; Cashew seeds possess a very thick coat and thus take
a considerable time to germinate.
• Early germination is induced by cracking seed coat carefully to
avoid damage to the embryo and cotyledons (scarification).
• Alternatively, the seeds could be treated with dilute sulphuric acid or
soaked in water for 24 –36 hours before sowing in seed boxes
(stratification).
• Seeds treated via any of these methods will germinate in 2 – 3 weeks.
• Germinated seed are planted in filled polybag (one bag –1).
• Cashew is better planted at stake, since the plant (seedling) produces
tap root very rapidly and go deep into the soil; root injury at
transplanting is thereby avoided.
Nursery and Field Establishment
• Nusery
• Germinated seeds could be planted in nursery beds at 30 x
30cm or 45 x 45cm spacing.
• Polybags are also arranged in nursery. T
• Mulching and regular watering in both cases.
• Light shade may be provided. Nursery period’s ranges from 4
– 6 months.
• Transplanting
• Transplanting into the field when the rainfall is steady.
• Clear-felling, burning of trash and levelling.
• Land is divided into blocks of four-hectare units.
• Recommended spacing for mature plants are 9m x 9m, 10m x
10m or 12m x 12m, depending on variety.
• Initial spacing at transplanting could be 4.5 x 4.5m, 5 x 5m 0r
6 x 6m later thinned to 9 x 9m, 10 x 10 or 12 x 12m as trees
mature
Maintenance
• Weed control - each tree should be ring weeded in
the early years.
• Establishment of a leguminous ground cover helps
in weed control.
• Dead stands should be supplied.
• Watering / irrigation may be necessary shortly after
establishment (Also in long dry seasons).
• Pruning of the lowest side branches at the end of the
1st year of growth and repeated at the second year of
growth and repeated at the third years of field growth.
• The stem should be maintained unbranched up to 1m
above the ground level.
Diseases
• Seedlings wilt - Fusarium spp.
• It is encouraged by over watering.
• Control, water lightly and spray with fungicides – Captan,
Benomyl.
• Leaf Scab - Occurs both in nursery and in the field.
• Brown hard scabs develop on the abaxial surface of the
leaves.
• Control, Prune to open the canopy and spray with copper
fungicides.
• Fruit rot - fruits rot before opening. (A number of fungi
have been implicated).
• Common with trees in high rainfall area. Avoid high rainfall
area.
• Deficiency diseases - Immature fruits drop from trees
growing on poor soils especially those low in K.
• Control, apply balanced fertilizers.
• Pest
• Long horn beetle, Analeptis trifasciata.
• Adult and larvae feed on stem and branch.
• Control, kill adult and larvae.
• Red banded thrips: Selenothrips rubricivctus: It feeds on leaves and
young seedlings. Spray with Rogor or any good insecticide.
• Variegated locust, Zonocerus variegatus; feed on leaves.
• Spray with Nuvacron, Cymbush, Decis.
• Harvesting
• Healthy trees fruit in the fourth year of field planting.
• The first crop is small, but this increases up to the tenth year when
the plants come into mature production.
• One tenth of flower sets to form fruits).
• The fruits are allowed to drop from the trees and picked.
• The apple is cleanly removed and the nuts are gathered and sun
dried till they are fully dry (3 – 7 days depending on weather).
• Fully dried nuts give sharp rattle when they are shaken together in
the hand. Dull rattle indicates that nuts require further drying.
• Processing
• Peasant processing involve putting nuts in clay pots
followed by roasting over wood fire.
• On roasting, the CNS oil in the shell of the nut exudes and
accumulates.
• The CNS oil facilities roasting of the nuts.
• Fully roasted nuts are removed for cracking and picking.
Fresh nuts are added to the hot fuel for oil for roasting;
cracked nuts are used nuts are used as fuel for roasting.
• The excess CNS oil is withdrawn and refined for industrial
use.
• Commercial processing involves the use of fully automated
cashew processing machines based on the same principle as
peasant processing.
• The machine contains a nut cleaning, grading, roasting, nut
cracking, and winnowing chambers.
• It also has the cashew grading system and bagging unit.
• Improvement
• Research into viable vegetative propagation
method
• Higher yielding trees. Trees with high proportion
of hermaphrodite flowers and higher ratio of fruit
set; bigger nuts with good CNS (and nut) content
and apples (high sugar content).
• Utilization
• The apple is consumed raw or the juice processed
into cashew drink. The juice is also fermented to
produce alcoholic drinks.
• The pulp is used as livestock feed
• The nuts are also consumed (20 – 22% protein).
Banana/Plantain (Musa sp.)
• Family – Musaceae
• The term banana is usually used for all types of
bananas including cooking bananas and plantains.
• Bananas with all its species, varieties or hybrids
belong to the genus Musa, order Zingiberales, family
Musaceae.
• The genus Musa contains 30-40 species, with all wild
species being diploids (2n=2x= 14, 18, 20, 22) and
native to South East Asia.
• The edible bananas (chromosome numbers 22, 33, 44;
the basic number being n = x = 11 are derived from
at least two wild species; Musa acuminata Colla (A
genome) and Musa balbisiana Colla (B genome).
Banana/Plantain Orchard
Musa sp. (Contd.)
• There is no botanical distinction between banana and plantain
except that the storage of carbohydrate in the fruit takes the
form of starch in plantain and Sugar in banana.
• The culture of both crops is similar.
• They are cultivated mainly for food, either raw or processed.
• They also serve as shade for cacao in the early stages of growth.
• Triploids AAA were generated from AA by chromosome
restitution while inter specific hybridizations between Musa
acuminata (AA) and M. balbsiana (BB) gave rise to various
groups like AB, AAB and ABB.
• Hybridization has been accomplished artificially by cross-
pollination to produce genome groups like AABB, ABBB, and
AAAB.
• Different combinations of the A and B genomes are now
cultivated; AAB (Plantains), ABB.
Environmental requirements
• Largely produced between latitudes 300N to 310S
in Nigeria.
• Temperature should not be below 16 0 C or above
350C (ideal around 240C).
• Rainfall of 2500mm well distributed throughout
the year. Not be less than 1300mm for good
performance.
• Well drained sandy-loam soil rich in O.M is
desirable. Heavy and clay soils may stunt the
growth due to improper aeration.
• Good growth is recorded in soils having pH of
4.5 - 7.5 (slightly acidic to slightly basic).
• Recommended varieties in Nigeria
• Banana: Dwarf Carvendish, Gross Michel (AAA)
(Local var – Omini).
• Plantain: (AAB) Red Ogoni Agbagba, Bini,
Orishele and Osaboaso.
• Plantain Materials
• Propagation is by vegetative means through the use
of suckers. Different suckers are usually
found/used.
• 1) Sword suckers - Suckers without open leaves.
• 2) Maidens - Young Plantains with open leaves.
• 3) Peepers - Small suckers just arising from the
soil rhizome bases.
Maidens Sword suckers Peeper
Cultivation
Nursery :
• Clear the land and burn the thrash.
• Mark out the area for planting (about 4.6 m x 4.6m) depending on
variety.
Propagation
• Sword suckers are the best planting materials.
• Maidens when to be used cut back 30cm before planting.
• Peepers are grown in 30cm x 50cm poly bags, containing
manured top soil, for two month in nursery, under shade.
• Multiplication of suckers for commercial planting.
• Cut back a mature plant near the ground and consolidate with
earth to form a mound around the plant.
• Suckers will quickly force through the mound.
• They are removed and planted in the nursery.
• This way, about 20-30 suckers can be obtained from a plant.
Field establishment
Orchard Planting
• Suckers and maidens are planted with early rains.
• Poly bag seeding are planted as soon as the rain become
steady.
• Holing, at least 30cm deep and 2.5m apart both ways
(1,600plants ha-1).
• Addition of two spade-full of cured/decomposed poultry
manure or cow dung or compost are applied to each hole
together with 15g of Furadan 5.G. (insecticide and
nematicide).
• Alternatively, 20g of Furadan 3.G. could be used.
• Manure/ compost and Furadan should be thoroughly mixed
before planting.
• Plant one propagule per hole and compact the soil around it.
Field management
• Fertilizer application apply N: P: K at 250g N, 100g P (P205)
and 200gk (Kcl) per plant per annum in four equal doses.
• Apply in ring form 30cm away from the plant. (Apply at
4,5,7,9 months after planting).
• Weed control is by regular slashing until canopy closes.
• Establishment of wind breaks – In area with strong winds,
establish fast growing tree specie like Eucalyptus/Tectona
around the orchard to serve as wind breaks.
• Staking is necessary when pseudostem can not support the
weight of bunches or when plantain flowers during the dry
season or when fruits are not harvested in February before
the early rain thunderstorms.
• Stake with bamboo or forked stick so that the fork of the
stick clasps the lower inflorescence of the fruits.
Harvesting
• Fruit matures in 1 – 2years after planting depending on
variety.
• Harvesting is done when the fruit is about ¾ full and
still green.
• Harvest by cutting pseudostem with machetes as high
up as the hand can reach to have it bent. Then cut off
the bunch.
• Pests
• Banana borer; introduced by the weevil Cosmopolites
sordidus. It attacks the rhizomes. Control – Apply
Furadan to the soil.
• Drosophila spp attack fruits on the crop. Control –
spray Ambush or Cymbush 2 weeks after fruit maturity.
Diseases
Panama / Banana wilt
• Plants wilt and die.
• Caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense
• Control is by use of resistance variety, farm sanitation too.
• Sigatoka (Cercospora leaf spot)
• Caused by Cercospora musae
• Recognized by the presence of profuse brown sports on
leaves later forming bands parallel to lateral veins.
• Control – spray Bordeaux mixture 10 -15times/annum for
best result
• Bunchy top
• Caused by virus and transmitted by aphids.
• Plants are stunted and leaves become crowded wrinkled at
the top and coiled. Control – burn infected plants
Diseases (Contd.)
• Black sigatoka – caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis.
• Control, spray Bordeaux mixture up to 25times/annum or
spray regularly with mineral oil.
• Nematode attack – caused by Rhadopholus similis. Also
root knot nematode attack by Meloidogyne spp.
Nematodes destroy root system, plants fall easily and yield
is generally poor.
• Control – Fallow the land. Apply Carbofuradan or Morap.
• Improvement
• Production of high yielding and disease resistance
varieties, especially to black Sigatoka which appears to be
more rampant now. Somaclonal variants are being
researched into.
• Uses
• Table fruits, used in producing whole and mixed drinks
(fruits and alcoholic). Peels as livestock feeds.
Quiz
• D i f fe r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n
Sword suckers and
Maidens in terms of use
and planting operation in
managing Sigatoka disease
SUGARCANE
• Origin – not well established. The suggested area is
New Guinea where noble cane (Saccharum
officinarum) was reportedly first domesticated.
• Wild species – S.officinarum, S. spontaenum and S.
robustum. These are noted for being disesae
resistant, excellent vigour and hardiness.
• Other species – S. sinense ( China), S. barberi (India)
are believed to be natural hybrids of S.officinarum
and S. spontaenum. These were cultivated in the 19th
century but are no longer cultivated commercially.
• Family – Gramineae, Genus – Saccharum, Tribe,
Andropogonae
Sugarcane
Brief description
• Sugar cane (2n = 80) is a robust tropical perennial grass
• Can have up to 10 annual (harvest) cycle due to natural ratooning.
• It is a C4 plant.
• The height varies from 4.5 – 6.0m or more.
• Roots are fibrous and arise mainly from the base of the plant.
• Feeding roots are confined to the superficial layers of the soil (20
– 30 cm). Prop roots, developing from the lower nodes, occur in
some varieties.
• The stems (culms or stalk) are from 2.5 – 7.5cm in diameter and
are the storage organ for the sucrose which is the commercial
product of the plant.
• Internodes are glabrous and vary in length, but generally from 5 –
25cm, shortest at the lower part of the cane and longest about
halfway along its length.
• Internodes are separated by nodes which have a circle of
primordial roots and bud (eye).
• Stem colour could be green, yellowish green, red, purple, brown or
even striped (striped cane).
• The thicker the rind, the better for environmental resistance, the
softer the rind however, the easier for milling.
• Leaves arise from the nodes, are alternate and could be up to 2m
long.
• Leaves are 5 – 7cm wide and can cover up to 7 times the soil surface
area covered.
• Inflorescence is an open branched pyramidal panicle (up to 1m long)
and is composed of spikelets (one sessile, one pedicelled, one (or
both) is sterile).
• Flowers are complete with varying degrees of male
functionality/fertility.
• Some varieties have fertile pollen and eggs (selfers), some have
sterile pollen but fertile eggs – (cross pollinators).
• Sugarcane often flowers under short day condition and flowers use
up the stem sucrose store resulting in poor cane quality. (Note for
harvesting!)
• Grows well from sea level to 2000m above sea level (optimum below
1500m).
• It is tropical and thrives well between 370N (Spain) and S (South Africa) of
the equator.
• Requires 1,150 – 1300mm of uniformly distributed rainfall per annum.
• Irrigation is essential in dry areas.
• Optimum temperature is 32-350C; Ideal temperature range for growth is 21-
350c.
• High temperature at the early stage favours rapid growth.
• Does not tolerate shade and overcast sky.
• Short day plant and flowers in response to short days.
• Topping prevents or delays flowering, it may however cause the erstwhile
dormant lateral buds to burst open!
• Thrives on a wide variety of soils ranging from sandy to heavy soils (which
are usually favoured).
• The soil should be fertile and well drained. Sugarcane does not normally
tolerate salinity.
Propagation
• Commercial sugarcane is vegetatively propagated by:
• Setts – Section of immature stems containing a minimum of
two nodes. (Young canes (top) roots fasted than older ones).
• Tillers – Shoots developing from the basal nodes of the stalk
near the ground.
• Suckers – Outgrowths from the buds of nodes along stalks
• Ratoons – After harvest, ratoons develop from stumps which
are left in the soil.
• They grow into the next crop. Ratoons are removed for new
planting.
• Tops – On small scale, stalk, tops removed during harvesting
are planted.
• Seed propagation is practiced in breeding programmes (not
for commercial planting)
Rapid propagation
Induction of stooling and tillers
• Induction of stooling:
• Nursery beds are made and fertilized.
• Small setts each carrying 2 buds are planted 1.5m apart on ridges
0.9m apart.
• Setts are covered with 1cm of soil and watered regularly.
• After about two months after planting, the setts will produce a
number of shoots, which are removed and planted out.
• Done by carefully removing soil at the base of the mother sett.
• The process is repeated until sufficient numbers of shoots have
been obtained
• Induction of tillers
• Tillers are removed from growing cane, cut into setts and planted
on well prepared, adequately watered and manure nursery beds.
• The setts grow rapidly and within 50 days of planting; produce
shoots which are big enough for field planting.
Pre-planting treatment of planting material
• Sugarcane setts exude large amount sucrose into the soil on
planting.
• This attracts fungi, insect and other microbes which attack
the setts resulting in planting losses.
• In large plantings, setts are pre-treated with fungicides,
insecticides and nematicides.
• Organo-mercurial compounds such as ‘Aretan’ is used.
• A 0.05% solution of Aretan is made and setts are dipped
therein before planting.
• Benlate (Benomyl) can also be used as antifungal
• Seasoning – setts are kept under cool condition for 3 – 5
days before planting.
• Encourages germination and minimizes seeding infection by
pathogens
Establishment
• Land preparation
• By clear-felling, burning of trash, and removal of stumps.
• Ploughing, harrowing and ridging 1.5m apart.
• Planting also done on the flat provided the soil is loose enough.
• Planting
• The recommended varieties of sugarcane for cultivation in Nigeria:
C0 –1001, C0 – 440, C0 – 961, C0 – 301, C04744 and Ajax.
• About 12,500 – 20,000 setts with 2 – 3 buds are required to plant
one hectare at the spacing of 1.5-1.8 x 0.6m.
• Planting is done at an angle of 450 or horizontally in the base of
furrows at 1m apart.
• Planting is usually done in end-to-end or ear-to-ear method in the
furrows
• Setts should be covered with only 2-5cm of soil.
• Deeper planting delays germination.
• Subsequent tillage operation may be used to throw more soil on the
growing stool.
Establishment Contd.
• Planting failure: Results from:
– careless seed bed preparation;
– poor soil drainage;
– lack of plant protection;
– use of old or poor planting material;
– damage to buds and improper seasoning of setts.
• In rainfed cultivation, planting could be done immediately the rains
become steady.
• Under irrigation, planting is done at any time of the year.
• Maintenance (post planting).
• Weed control is done manually or mechanically.
• Sugarcane is a low starter and as such weeds must be checked before
the canes occupy the soil (becomes a good competitor).
• A combination of manual weeding and herbicide application control
weeds effectively.
• Herbicides such as ‘Dalapon’ or TAC should be applied before and
at the time of planting.
Maturity and Harvesting
• Maturity time for harvesting is 20-24 months.
• Three harvests are usually carried out in the 8- year life span
of the plantation
• (Note that harvesting for planting is done in 12-15months).
• The 1st main harvesting is done 20-24months after planting
for industrial processing.
• Harvesting procedure- leaves are stripped from the plant and
the canes are cut at or just below the ground level (15cm-
22.5cm to the ground level). The immature leafy tops are cut
off as they contain little sucrose. The cut canes deteriorate
soon (48hrs) after harvesting and should, therefore, be
processed immediately. After harvesting, the cane lines must
be cleaned of cane tops, mulch and other wastes, usually by
piling them between the rows.
• Ratoon crops
• The first ratoon crop: stumps are allowed to grow after the
main harvests.
• Management practices are done as for the main crop.
• The ratoon is harvested after 20-24months.
• The second ratoon crop: stumps are again maintained after
harvesting the first ratoon crop.
• Harvesting is done 20-24 months later.
• Replanting
• After harvesting the 2nd ratoon crop, the land is ploughed up
and left to fallow for 20-24month before re-planting;
• Hence life span of 8years.
• For continuity in industrial processing, a relay planting
procedure is followed;
• The land is divided into three with each portion being
planted at an interval of 20-24months.
Pre- harvest burning
• In some places, pre harvest burning is employed to
eliminate dry leaves and facilitate harvesting.
• Usually not intensive and is prevented from spreading
to adjacent farms.
• Pre harvest burning is done when there are no strong
winds.
• Fire traces are cut around the plot and fire fighting
equipment are on standby.
• Alternatively, two-three rows (traces) of ploughing
may be done around the farm.
• Pre harvest burning encourages rapid sprouting of
ratoon but also favours weed growth.
• Thus weeds must immediately checked (spraying with
pre emergence herbicide)
Pre harvest burning of sugarcane field
• Determination of sugarcane ripening
• Ripe canes produce top quality sucrose. Ripeness be
determined by:
• Visual observation (experience)
• Sample harvesting for processing
• Punching of stalks (to extract juice) with refractometer
to test juice for mature quality sucrose.
• Sample milling of sample prices of cut stalk.
• Processing of sugarcane
• Harvested ripe stalks are crushed in a milling machine
followed by the extraction of the juice.
• The juice is thus separated from the bargasse (chaff).
• The extracted juice is then concentrated under
centrifugal force to separate the sugar from molasses.
Processing Contd.
• The crystalline sugar obtained is dried and
packed for sale as granulated brown sugar or
cubed brown sugar.
• The sugar could also be bleached and packed
for sale as white granulated or cubed sugar.
• Refining of sucrose
• After crystallisation, the sucrose is either
refined into white sucrose or left unrefined
(brown sucrose).
• Unrefined (brown) sugar is generally assumed
to be more nutritious
Diseases
• Smut, Fungal caused by Ustilago scitaminae; It is systemic.
• Canes show the characteristic whip- like structure (arrowed shoots)
from the centre of the leaf-roll.
• Shoots are covered with thin silvery sheath which on bursting
releases masses of black spores.
• Control, use resistant cultivars.
• Rogue and burn infected plants. Disinfect planting material
• Red rot, Fungal, Colletotrichum falcatum.
• Enters the stalk through lesion caused by other pests.
• Affected plants suddenly wilt and older leaves dry prematurely.
• The top may also die off.
• Dark red lesion are seen on mid rid of leaves. The lesions later turn
black and become covered with masses of spores.
• Reddish discolourations are seen on one or more internodes of
opened stalks.
• Control – Use resistance cultivars, avoid over irrigation, rouging and
burning of infected plants.
Diseases (Contd.)
• Gummosis (gummy disease), Bacterium and systemic,
• Caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv vasculorum (Bacterium
vasculorum).
• Transmission is by infected stems, and by windy rains.
• The leaves become thin with translucent stripes.
• The stalks exude yellowish gummy substance when cut.
• Setts from such stalk fail to sprout. There is ratoon failure.
• Stalks become stunted and die off.
• There is poor juice quality and difficulty in crystallization of sucrose
• Control – Use resistant variety. Maintain farm sanitation.
• Ratoon stunt – (Viral)
• Infected canes show depressed growth.
• There is orange-red discolouration of stalk and node as well as
hardening of the vascular bundles at the node.
• Control – Hot water treatment of setts at 500c for two hours.
• Treat stems with mercurial fungicides. Maintain farm sanitation.
Gummosis of Sugarcane
Grassy stunt of Sugarcane
• Other minor diseases: include leaf scald and viral diseases
especially Mosaic caused by Sugarcane mosaic Potyvirus (SCMV)
transmitted by aphids;
• Streak caused by Maize streak Geminivirus (MSV) transmitted by
leafhoppers (Cicadulina spp).
Pests
• Sugarcane borers – (Diatraea spp).
• Newly hatched larvae burrow in the stem through the top 3-5 nodes of
canes.
• Emerge when they are adults. Sucrose is lost, stems are weakened,
• Young tillers die off. Diseases (red rot) gain access into the plant.
• Control, spray with a mixture of endrin and and any potent insecticide
(Cymbush, Nuvacron etc).
• Rats – Damage stems and create openings for other pathogens.
• Control – Farm sanitation, clean weeding. Use of rat poison – zinc
phosphate, Thallium sulphates and arsenical compounds.
• Termites – they damages setts and canes shoots. Control, treat with
BHC (Lindane) aldrin or dieldrin. Dip setts in a 0.25-0.5 % emulsion
of these chemicals.
• Yield:
• Variable depending on whether the farm is virgin or ratoon.
• Virgin cane can produce up to 10tonnes/ha/each month of
growth but declines successively to 5t/ha/month of growth.
• Ratoon crops decline from about 100t/ha for the 1st ratoon
harvested after 12 months to 60 t/ha for the 4th ratoon.
• Yield decline of up to 20% is common under tropical ecology
with water shortage.
• Improvement
• Breeding for canes with high quality and quantity of sucrose ;
and reduced fibre content.
• Cultivars combining good yield with environmental, pest and
disease tolerance/resistance.
• Cultivars with delayed flowering
• Utilization.
• Sugarcane (noble canes) – is a source of drinking juice, raw
sugar and centrifugal (brown) sugar.
• Refined sucrose is used industrially as a sweetening agent.
Domestic use as well.
• Molases (dark brown viscous liquid separated from
crystalline sugar by centrifugals) contains 35% sucrose,
15% reducing sugar, gums, starch, wax and carbonated ash.
• It is used to sweeten roughages for feeding livestock.
• It is fermented and distilled to produce rums, gin and vodka.
• It is also fermented to produce industrial and automobile
alcohol, ether alcohol, acetone, citric acid and glycerol,
acetone wax and gum.
• Molasses is a source of bakers and brewers yeasts
(Torulopsis utilis) and is high in protein.
• Bargasse
• Used as fuel, livestock
feed (ruminants),
production of (furfural)
cellulose producer gas
and plastics.
• The press mud or filter
mud, which settles out
during the clarification
of the juice in the
manufacture of sugar,
is used as fertilizer.
• The green tops are also
fed to livestock.
Pineapple
• Family: Bromeliaceae
• Genus: Ananas;
• Specie: comosus; sativa
• Origin: The American continent: Brazil and Paraguay region.
• It has spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions, especially
the wetter areas, as a commercial fruit crop.
• Important pineapple going countries of the world are the Hawaiian
Islands, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, Ghana, Kenya,
Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia, Puerto Rico and India.
• Juice has worldwide market. The fruit and juice have good industrial
demand also.
• Fruit is a good source of vitamin A and B and rich in vitamin C and
calcium.
• Also contains phosphorus and iron. It is also used as a form of
medicine and in wine production.
Description
• It is perennial, herbaceous, sometimes spinescent,
succulent, up to 1 m tall;
• Leaves are long, sword-like, arranged in a tight spiral
around a short stem, edges very sharply dentate to
nearly entire, often variegated, or red or brown
streaked;
• Flowers purplish-blue, progressive toward apex of
stem, with oldest flowers at base of inflorescence;
• Fruit a composite of 100–200 seedless fruits fused into
a tight, compact unit, developing along axis of stem,
oval to cylindrical, yellowish to orange, often greenish;
• Fruit development requiring about 20 days
Pineapple fields
Environmental Requirements
• Pineapple thrives in climates that are uniformly warm.
• It requires fairly moderate temperature from 15-32 0C.
• May be grown under a wide range of rainfall conditions but
1250mm – 1500mm, distributed throughout the year is
adequate.
• Areas with a heavy rainfall are best for pineapple growth.
Optimum rainfall is 1500mm per year although it can grow in
areas having 500mm to 5550mm of rainfall.
• Fruit grows well near the seacoast as well as in inland, so
long as temperature ranges from 15.5 to 32.50 C.
• Low temperature, bright sunshine and total shade are harmful.
It can grow successfully up to 1525m above sea level.
Environmental Requirements (Contd.)
• It has limited root system, hence would require a
large amount of moisture in the top and subsoil.
• They are tolerant of a wide range of soils providing
they possess good drainage, soil aeration, and a
low percentage of lime.
• Sandy loam, mildly acid (with pH range of 5.5 to
6.0) and of medium fertility, is best.
• Can also grow in sandy, alluvial or laterite soil.
• Heavy clay soil is not suitable.
• Stagnant/ excessively high water table will cause
immediate death of the plant.
• Variety:
• Smooth cayenne is recommended in Nigeria. It is the
most important and widely grown variety for
commercial purpose.
• Other important verities are Queen, Kew, Mauritius,
Charlotte, Rothchild, etc.
• Qualitatively, Queen is the outstanding table variety.
• CULTIVATON
• Land Preparation:
• Land should be thoroughly cultivated and all weeds
destroyed before planting, to aid aeration (since
rooting is shallow).
• Land should be levelled to avoid water stagnation.
Adequate drainage channels should be provided.
Vegetative Propagation
• Crown suckers; the portion found at the end of the
fruit.
• These are the short stiff shoots which grow from the
top of the fruit.
• They are usually taken off when fully developed and
then planted.
• They mature in 12 – 18 months of planting. They are
second choice planting material.
• Side suckers/ Ratoons;
• Arise from leaf axil or buds that are low down on the
stem/ underground rhizome.
• Fruiting occurs in about 12 months of planting.
Third choice for planting.
• Slips;
• Small suckers produced on the fruit stem, arising from
below the fruit as it matures.
• They are preferred for producing big more uniform growth
and fruiting, which occurs in 18 – 20 months.
• First choice planting materials.
• Stem cuttings/stumps
• The main stem from plants which had fruited can be cut into
sections or sliced horizontally.
• These are then planted below the soil level.
• Cuttings develop into rooted shoots which are left in the
nursery till they are well developed and established for
transplanting.
• This method waste time and not much practiced.
• Source: pinapples.info
• Planting: The basal leaves of the planting material is detached
carefully to expose the incident roots.
• Sun-cured for about two weeks to prevent rotting.
• Disinfection: Planting material is dipped in Ceresan solution
(4g in 1 lit. of water) or 0.2% solution of either Dithane M-45
or Benlate before planting to protect the plants against bud rot.
• Planting in double hedge system for convenient intercultural
operations.
• For a density of 44000 plants per ha , the spacing should be
90cm x 30cm x 60cm i.e. 90cm between two rows of adjacent
beds, 30cm between plants in a row and 60cm between two
single rows.
• High density planting is the latest advanced technology applied
in pineapple cultivation.
• Spacing are: 120cm x 60cm x 40cm (41600 plants/ha.), 75cm x
30cm x 30cm (63000 plants/ha), 60cm x 30cm x 45cm (64000
plants/ha).
Cultivation (Contd.)
• Best time of planting pineapple is early rains or early winter.
• With irrigation: any time of the year.
• Suckers should be planted at 10 - 15cm depth in 15-20cm
deep hole.
• About 500g FYM or cow dung is added to the soil of each
hole.
• Planting may be done in single or double row following
triangular or rectangular system.
• Pineapple may be planted using black polythene film as soil
cover. This ensures total weed control and heavy crop.
• Fertilizers may be applied by spraying or drip method.
• Initial investment will be high but drip method is cost
effective.
Maintainance
• Mulching: Grass mulch the field or paper mulch if
polythene cover is not used.
• This reduces the cost of weeding and conserves nutrients.
• Weed control;
• Weed control is the major inter culture operation in
pineapple field.
• Weeding should be done at least 3 to 4 times a year as the
plant can not tolerate competition.
• Manual weeding can be partially eliminated by chemical
herbicides like Bromacil @ 3kg and Diuron @ 2kg per ha.
• Application is done a few days after hand weeding .Before
the new weeds emerge, a second spraying @ 1.5kg per ha
after 15 days is necessary.
•
Maintainance (contd.)
• Desuckering;
• Important immediately after fruit harvest.
• Keeping one or two suckers on the mother plant near the ground
level, all others are removed.
• Slips also should be removed.
• After desuckering, plants should be fertilized and earthed up.
• Fertilizer application;
• Pineapple requires abundant supply of Nitrogen and Potash.
• Manuring should be done in 2 - 3 equal doses every year, once at
the onset of the rains and again at the end of the rainy season after
the fruit are harvested and slips and suckers are removed.
• The fertilizers doses recommended for obtaining higher yield are
10g N, 5g P2O5 and 10g K2O per plant per year in addition to 500g
FYM.
• Alternatively: a general dosage of 200kgN, 100kgP and 200kgK
ha-1)
• Fertilization is followed by earthing up around the stem.
Induction of flowering
• Ripeness-to-flower stage: 11-12 months after planting
and formation of at 25 – 30 leaves.
• Normally, 70 to 80% of plants flower in a year.
Flowers do come late
• Even after 15-18 months of growth under optimal
nutritional and environmental conditions, as low as 50
to 60% flowering occur.
• Hence, application of flower inducing chemicals is
helpful.
• Yield may be increased by applying flower inducing
chemicals.
• A plant produces only one fruit during its life time.
Substances for flower induction
• Unsaturated gasses: ethylene and acetylene in the
form of smoke cause early flowering in pineapple.
• Achieved by applying acetylene saturated water or
calcium carbide in the heart of the plant.
• About 50ml Ethrel solution (10 ppm conc. in
combination with 2% urea + 0.04% sodium
carbonate) can bring forth
flowering.
• NAA at 25 ppm.
• Calcium carbide.
Synchronized fruiting
Delaying harvest
• To delay harvest by a few days (10 - 15 days), 300
ppm, Planofix may be sprayed on the fruit just 60 to 70
days ahead of harvest.
• To ripen the fruit earlier by about 10 - 15 days, 500
ppm of Ethrel is sprayed on fruit about one month
before normal harvest.
• Staggering of harvesting throughout the year is
possible by;
– (i) using different planting materials;
– (ii) planting suckers and slips at regular
intervals from July-December and;
– (iii) applying flower inducing chemicals at
desired time as stated above.
• Irrigation;
Pineapple is mostly
grown as a rainfed
crop;
• Supplementary
irrigation give
higher production.
• Irrigation in dry
periods keeps the
plants healthier.
• Irrigation is
essential after
planting or after
manuring if there is
deficiency in soil
moisture.
Harvesting
• Fruits ready for harvest when the dark green colour becomes
lighter and the deep seated eyes become shallow
• Also when the base begin to turn yellow (& for top quality
harvesting, when the fruit turn fully yellow).
• Harvesting for local markets is at full maturity stage
• Harvesting for distant markets at 75-80% maturity stage.
• Done with a sharp knife severing the fruit stalk with a clean cut
and retaining 5-7 cm of the stalk.
• Slips and a part of the crown are removed.
• Any mechanical injury on the fruit skin may cause the fruit to rot
quickly.
• Great care is necessary in handling the fruit.
• For canning industry, cylindrical fruits of about 1.5kg size.
• Such fruits are obtained when peduncles are upright and plant
density is around 40000 per ha.
• Yield: 30 tonnes/ha under proper management; 50-60 tonnes/ha
is obtainable with higher plant density
Pests and Diseases
Mealy bugs: (Pseudococcus sp).
• Attack leaves and fruits leading to premature fruit rot and wilting
of leaves.
• Controlled by dipping the basal portion of the
• Application of Carbofuran @ 15 to 17kg per ha in plantation
• Malathion and Dieldrin also controls the pest.
• Heart rot/Root rot: Fungal; (Phytophthora sp).
• Application of Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50) or copper
oxychloride@2g per litre.
• Sucker should be dipped in fungicide before planting.
• Plant resistant variety.
• Leaf blotch
• Causes brown spot which later expand to form streaks.
• Control is by spraying Cu fungicides.
• Root knot; (Nematodes, Meloidogyne sp.
• Control by soil fumigation with nematicides. Plant resistant
varieties.
• Improvement
• Basically in the development of higher yielders (juice quality and
quantity);
• Disease and pest resistance;
• Synchronized flowering and lighter skin (thickness).
• Uses
• Cultivated for fruit, used fresh, canned, frozen, or made into juices,
syrups, or candied.
• Pineapple bran, the residue after juicing, is high in vitamin A: used in
livestock feed.
• From the juice may be extracted citric acid, or on fermentation, alcohol.
• In the Philippines, a fine quality cloth is made from leaf fibers.
• Commercial bromelain is generally prepared from pineapple wastes.
• A mixture of several proteases, bromelain is used in meat tenderizers,
in chill-proofing beer, manufacturing precooked cereals, in certain
cosmetics, and in preparations to treat edema and inflammation.
• Bromelain is nematicidal.
• This is in addition to other medicinal uses which are quite staggering.
Citrus Fruits (Citrus sp)
• Family - Rutaceae
• Genus - Citrus (150 genera & 2000 spp)
• Species:
1. Sweet orange C. sinensis
2. Sour orange C. Aurantium
3. Lime C. aurantifolia
4 Lemon C. limon
5. Grape fruit C. paradisi
6. Tangerine/Mandarin C. reticulata
7. Shaddock (pomelo) C. grandis
8. King orange C. sinensis X C. reticulata
9. Tangelo C. paradisi X C.
reticulata
• Related genera include Fortunella Swing. and Poncirus Raf.
Citrus sinensis
Citrus: Brief description
• Citrus species are evergreen tree of small to medium stature.
• Stems often thorny (prickly). Leaves are unifoliate, petiolated and
quite often the petioles are winged.
• Leaves, wings and rind of fruits contain oil glands which secretes
the rind oil (acid).
• Flowers are perfect, usually large, fragrant, mostly white and
carried singly or in clusters.
• Cross-pollination usually by insects; selfing occasionally occurs.
• Fruit (hesperidium) are small to large with leathery rind, yellow to
orange in colour.
• Juice varies from sweet to acid.
• Seed may be many, few or non as in tangelo, the endoderm is
segmented 8 –18 (usually 10 –14).
• Citrus seeds exhibit polyembryony as a result of the development
of apomitic embryos which could be diploid (nucellar) or haploid
(synergids)
Climatic and soil Requirements
• Grows very well in tropical and subtropical regions with
adequate moisture (1100 – 1500mm rainfall per annum
distributed over 9 months).
• Inadequate/excessive rainfall gives rise to small/watery or
puffy fruits respectively.
• Temperature above freezing point. Range of 13 – 37oC
(optimum of 28oC) is required for good growth.
• Optimum temperature for maturation of best quality fruits is
13 - 17oC (Explains why fruits from subtropical climate are
better than high temperature tropical fruits).
• Excessive cloud cover is not favourable for growth & fruiting.
• Soil must be deep, well drained, free from iron concretions
and very fertile (with plenty organic matter).
Planting/Propagation
• Propagation is by seed or budding
• Normally, a high % of seedling are identical to mother plant uniformity among
plants is best obtained by budding.
• Such plants fruit earlier than seedling trees.
• Seed propagation
• Seeds are extracted from fruits collected from trees with high yield, good growth,
high juice quality, and those free from pest and diseases especially viral diseases.
• Larger seeds have larger embryo, which gives very vigorous seedlings.
• Seeds should be sown immediately after extraction to prevent loss of viability.
• For temporary storage (10 – 15 days), the freshly extracted seeds are mixed with
sawdust, moist fine sand or moist ground charcoal and stored in a closed jar in a
cool place.
• Seeds are sown at 3x6cm spacing in seed boxes or nursery beds.
• At 3 – 6cm height seedlings are transferred (pricked) into 15 x 24cm cane basket
or 15x24cm polybags previously filled with fertile to soil/nursery beds at a
spacing of 15x30cm. Weak seedlings should be discarded.
• Watering should be adequate.
• Seedlings should be mulched and all laterals rubbed off. Pest and disease control
and adequate nutrition of plants are important.
• Provision of shade is not necessary. Transplanting is in 12 –15 months.
Citrus: Vegetative propagation
• By budding using the normal ‘T’ and the inverted ‘T’ methods.
• (Choice of rootstock affects the quality nutrient uptake).
• Seedlings (rootstocks) are raised (as before) to the age of 10 to 15 months after
pricking to a height of at least 45cm after which they are budded.
• Budding: pruning (including removal of leaves) the rootstock seedlings a
week before budding.
• Bud wood is collected very early in the morning of the day of budding and
used immediately (Bud wood for transportation is stored in moist cotton wool
& wrapped in moist sacking).
• Bud wood should be from branches aged 8 – 10 months.
• Budding is carried out in the cool hours of the morning (or in the evening) at a
height of 25 – 30cm from ground level of the rootstock.
• All (small) side shoots should be rubbed off. The budded materials should be
well taken care of like normal nursery plants.
• Seedlings and budded plants should be trained to have a single stem of 1m
before pinching the apex to aid branching.
• Transplanting
• After sufficient growth in the nursery (18 months).
• Land is prepared by clear felling of vegetation and burning of excess
trash.
• Site should be level or with slight slope and protected from strong
winds.
• Seedlings are transplanted 6m x 6m or 7m x7m in 60cm x60cm x
60cm planting holes.
• Establishment of leguminous ground cover.
• Maintenance
• Regular weed control by hand weeding or by use of herbicides.
• Mulching at the end of the rains and also removal of undecomposed mulch
just before or during the early rains.
• Pruning of laterals should be carried out to shape the tress;
• Regular control to pests and diseases through farm sanitation and application
of insecticides and fungicides.
• Fertilizer application done in May and September (early and late rains).
• Use only fertilizer mixtures recommended by soil scientists (NPK is okay).
• Application of irrigation/water when necessary.
Citrus: Harvesting
• Fruiting starts 3-5 years after plating depending on the on the specie,
variety and method of propagation.
• Trees generally reach maximum fruit bearing capacity in 10 – 12
years.
• Some trees fruit throughout the year but the main crop comes at the
end of the early rains, while the second crop occurs in the early part
of the dry season.
• In southern Nigeria, the second crop occurs in the early part of the
rain but is, however, a light one and generally inferior.
• Unripe fruits are generally green and turn orange or yellow when
ripe. (Some however maintain their green colour even when ripe).
• The fruits are easily perishable after ripening and are thus delivered
to processors, retailers or consumers immediately after harvesting.
• Fruits to be transplanted over long distances should be harvested
when green but physiologically mature.
• Fruits as well as trees should not be bruised or damaged during
harvesting.
Diseases
Tristeza disease – viral
• Usually more severe on C. sinensis, C. paradisi and C. reticulata
budded into sour orange.
• Tristeza is sap transmissible.
• Control; by budding into any of the following (as rootstock); rough
lemon, cleopatra mandarin, willow – leaf tangerine and lake
tangelo.
Citrus gummosis (foot rot or brown rot). Caused by Phytophthora sp.
• Bark of trunks and roots are killed leading eventually to the death of
the tree.
• Causes fruit rot in mild cases.
• Control; treat the trunk, twigs and roots with effective fungicides.
Anthracnose - caused by Glaeosporium sp. and Colletotrichum sp.
• Symptoms include leaf blight, twig blight and fruit staining.
• Very serious on C. limon varieties.
• Control; spray with Copper fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, captan.
• Maintain good farm sanitation; use tolerant/resistant varieties.
Citrus scalp – caused by Elsinoe sp and Sphaceloma sp.
• Whitish scabs develop on leaves, twigs and fruits. Sour orange is
especially susceptible.
• Control; as for anthracnose.
Deficiency diseases
• Mineral deficiencies such as N,P,K Zn (result in sickle leaves) and Fe
(chlorotic patches) deficiencies.
• Treatment is by application of appropriate amount of the deficient
nutrient(s).
Pests
• Purple scale insects – found in large number on the leaves. They feed on
the foliage. Control; spray with oil emulsion. Use the insects’ parasites
(biological control).
• Mealy bugs (Pseudococcus citri), causes injuries to the growing tips.
Control – spray with Malathion or Parathion.
Fruit moths
• Adults puncture the fruits and succulent leaves which are thereafter
invaded by saprophytic fungi causing fruit rot and drop.
• They are difficult to control. Consult your entomologists. Spray
malathion or parathion.
Improvement
• Development of varieties resistant to pest and diseases,
especially gummosis and tristeza.
• Some rootstocks are veritable in this regard and must
be improved.
• Improvement for high/better fruit quality.
Processing and Uses

• The commercial product of citrus is the fruit juice,
which is extracted in various forms for consumption.
• The rind oil (acid) is extracted from the rind and has
pharmaceutical significance (lime oil, sweet orange
oil, lemon oil etc.).
• The fruit pulp obtained after juice extraction is used to
feed livestock.
Para Rubber (Hevea braziliensis)
• Family - Euphorbiaceae
• Genus - Hevea
• Species - braziliensis
• Origin - Amazon basin, Brazil.
• Apart from H. braziliensis, a number of species have
been exploited for rubber (latex)
• This include:
– Ficus elastica,
– Funtumia elastica,
– Castilloa elastica,
– Manihot glaziovii (Tree cassava),
– Parthenium argentatum,
– Hevea spruciana etc.
Brief Description
• H. braziliensis grows up to a height of 25m or more
• Trunk is straight, covered with smooth, light grey bark
6 – 15 mm thick.
• Has a deep tap root with lateral roots 7 – 10m long.
• Branches are slender and form a crown/canopy.
• Leaves are alternate, and palmate each carrying three
leaflets which are ‘glabrous’, with entire margin and
pinnate venation.
• Inflorescence is a short auxiliary panicle with hairy
branches which terminate in male and flowers.
• Female flowers are normally bigger, more terminal,
strongly scented and ‘apetalous’
• Pollination is by insects (bees and moths)
• H. braziliensis which is outcrossing;
• Fruit is a large deeply three – lobed capsule and ripens
5-6 months after fertilization.
• Seeds are large, ovoid and lose viability soon after they
mature; poisonous as they contain cynogenetic
glucoside.
• Bark is the most important (commercial) part of the
tree.
• Latex vessels are located in the cortex and are derived
from the cambium.
• Havea has a compound system of latex vessels which
originate through the fusion of adjacent cells whose
cell walls disintegrate as the cells mature.
• (Nuclei of the original cells become grouped together
at various points along the vessels).
Climatic and soil Requirements
• H. braziliensis is lowland (best from 0-300m)
• Grows well between 15oN and 10oS where the climax vegetation
is the tropical forest and where the climate is hot and humid.
• Temperature range is 23 - 45o c (best range 24 - 35oc)
• Well distributed rainfall of 1800mm – 2000mm or more per
annum.
• Thrives best on deep well drained loams free from iron
concretions and with optimum pH of 5-6.
• Latex flow in the latex vessels is a function of cell turgidity and as
such high rainfall and relative humidity favours rubber production.
• Tracks of strong winds are normally be avoided.
Cultivation
• Site selection in addition to satisfying the climatic and soil
requirements, be level; the place should be accessible with good
water and electricity supplies.
• There should also be adequate supply of skilled labours.
Propagation: seed/budding
Seed propagation:
• Seeds are collected from groups of selected trees based on their
agronomic qualities.
• (To collect, the base of trees is cleared & probably fenced against
animals. Seeds that dropped are gathered).
• Seeds retain viability for only a month after they mature, so they
should be sown soon after collection.
• To assist early germination, the micropylar cap of the seeds
should be removed.
• Seeds are then germinated in either shaded seedbeds or seed
boxes.
• Germination starts from 4-5 days after sowing and is completed in
about 3 weeks.
• Germinated seeds are removed daily and planted in shaded seed
beds at 30x30cm spacing (or 45cm x 20 cm) or in polybags filled
with top soil at the rate of one seedling per polybag.
Management
• Shade is provided for the first half of the plants nursery life (6-8 months)
• Shade removal thereafter should be gradual to avoid shock to the seedlings.
• Weeding is by hand and seedlings should be mulched during the late rains;
just before the beginning of the dry season.
• Pest and disease control; preferred method being nursery sanitation, use of
chemicals, biological control and use of tolerant or resistant varieties, in
that order.
• Seedlings should be adequately watered but not over-watered.
Pruning
• Seedling growth is usually monopodial.
• Sympodial growth occurs too early when the shoot apex is damaged.
• Pruning/cutting the stem back to 45 – 60cm to develop the trunk of the
trees.
• Seedlings will be ready for transplanting (or budding) in 10 – 15 months.
• In some cases, the stem is cut back to 45 – 60cm and root to 10cm.
• The stumps are then tied in bundles and taken to the field for transplanting.
Vegetative propagation
Budding.
• Selected or desirable vigorous root stocks are
raised as seedlings and patch budded at the age of
12 – 15months.
• Two parallel cuts are made, latex is removed.
Another cutting is made at the top, scion is inserted,
covered with the flap & bound.
• Flap is removed after 3 weeks by which time the
two cambia would have united.
• Rubber can also be propagated by cutting or by
green budding (Patch budding rootstocks at 3-4
leaf stage seedling).
Stumping
• Budded materials are stumped at 4 –6 weeks after budding usually 2 weeks after
the removal of the binding tape. Stumping forces (encourages) the bud to grow.
• Stumping is usually done with a pruning saw at 3-4cm height above the union.
The cut surface is painted with tar (or black thick paint).
• Transplanting into the field could be done from two weeks after stumping.
• Note! The height of stumping is determined by the tapping method to be
adopted.
• For one panel tapping, stumping height is 2.5cm while it is 3.25 – 3.5cm for
2 panels tapping system.
• The normal age at stumping is 12-15 months or it could be deferred till the
stocks are 2.5-4 years old.
Transplanting
• Rubber tree does not tolerate shade, hence the field is prepared by clear – felling,
burning of trash, removal of stumps and roots and site levelling.
• Spacing could be rectangular at 9m x 2.4m for budding and 8x1.8m for seedlings.
• Avenue planting of two to four rows with a space of 5m to 7m between avenues
has been found to facilitate plantation operations.
• Also, 6m – 7m square or rectangular spacing is practicable.
Maintenance
• Weeds must be effectively controlled.
• Establishment of cover crop: weeding may be confined to
50cm circular patch around each plant.
• Not advisable to use herbicides in young rubber plantation as
not much is known on the residual effect of herbicide on latex
formation and flow.
• Mulching before the end of the late rains; undecomposed
mulch must be removed during the early rains.
• Watering as necessary especially in the first few years of
establishment.
• Pruning to shape trees and to remove side shoots up to the
height of 3m from the ground to give a straight and smooth
trunk.
• Fertilizer applied as appropriate. Compost and farmyard
manure can also be applied.
• Pest and diseases (particularly root disease) should be actively
checked
Harvesting
• The latex is the main economic product from the rubber tree.
• Obtained by tapping the trunk of the tree.
• Tapping (harvesting) is the systematic wounding of the bark
of the rubber tree.
• Usually done very early in the morning and must be
completed before 9.30am to 10.00am.
• Latex flow begins to decrease around 9.00 to 9.30am.
• Latex flows out due to the pressure in the latex vessel and
those of the adjacent parenchyma tissues.
• The pressures are highest in the morning when transpiration
pull is at its lowest and air humidity at it’s maximum.
Tapping systems
• Brazilian method; 2) Herringbone system; 3) The panel
tapping system.
Brazilian method:
• Latex is extracted daily by cutting 2.5 – 5cm long oblique
lines along the stem for 100 –150 days and allowing the
plant to rest during the rainy season.
• The disadvantages are that the wounds are too deep; bumpy
scars develop on the bowl;
• There is rapid consumption of the tappable region and
excessive contamination of latex by fragments. (Economic
life of the tree is subsequently shortened).
Herringbone system:
• Oblique cuts are made in the bark with all the cuts
converging into a central vertical cut and then into the
collecting cup.
• The cambium should not be injured. Depth of cut is about
4.0-4.5mm.
• This is the only method used for Ficus elastica (Lagos
rubber).
• Panel tapping system: - As latex vessels are opened, latex flows
out rapidly at first but gradually slows down later and when the
vessels are almost empty, the latex coagulates, thus blocking the
opened ends of the vessels.
• To resume latex flow, the coagulated latex (scrap) is removed first
and then a bark strip of approximately the same width as that of
the coagulant plug from the surface (ends) of the latex vessels is
sliced off.
• The cutting depth should be 1.0-1.5mm away from the cambium.
Tapping begins when the tree is 6-7 years old and has attained the
prescribed circumference in its girth.
• The first curve is made to start 65cm – 70cm from the ground on
the left had side of the tree as the operator faces it.
• The cut runs in a half – spiral fashion to low right at an angle of
25o for seedlings trees and 30o for budding trees.
• The lowest end of the tapping panel should be 12.5 – 15cm
above the highest point of bud union (positions of panel could be
scratched or painted before cut).
• A skilled tapper will remove less than I mm at each tapping and would not
consume more than 19mm month-1 .
• The cut is made with a sharp knife with a v-shaped cutting edge to form a channel
through which the latex can run.
• A small metal spout is fixed at the base of the cut to direct the latex to the
supporting cup which is held by a cup hanger.
• Before tapping, the collection cup is treated with anti coagulant (Na2 S04 or dilute
Ammonia solution).
• One skilled tapper can tap 350-450 trees day-1 between 6am to 9.30am. (Collect
latex scrap and clean cup).
Second tapping panel

• The second panel for tapping will being on the right hand side of the tree at 75cm
from the ground and the 3rd panel on the same side as the first but 120cm from the
ground.
• In this way it should take up to 12 years before the same bark is tapped again.
• Resting of trees is done in most countries during the drier season or 1/3 of the
plantation may be rested over six months but under this condition tapping may be
done daily instead of ever other day.
• If the cambium has not been extensively damaged during tapping, a smooth layer
of new bark grows over the wound and in 7-12 years time, the same area can be
tapped again.
International notation for tapping system
• This varies with length of tapping cuts, frequency of tapping, fraction of the
circumference cut etc.
• Numerator denotes types of cut; denominator– reciprocal of the fraction
expressing the horizontal length of each cut relatives to the full
circumference).
• d-denotes day, w-week, m-month, y-year.
• C/2, d/2 – half circumference tapped every other day.
• This is regarded as 100% tapping. C/2,d/3 is 67% tapping intensity.
Stimulation of latex flow

• Aging trees (15 years and above, with overlapping tapping cuts) are
stimulated to yield more latex by applications of chemical like
Newbark – containing sulphate of iron and KMnO4 .
• A 15cm strip is scraped round the trunk just below the tapping cut
and the compound is painted over the scraped surface.
• Other useful compounds for latex stimulation are nitrate of soda,
wood ash, cattle manure, vegetable mineral oil and palm oil;
• Synthetic hormones like 2,4-D (increases later flow and accelerates
bark renewal in young trees).
Processing of Rubber
• Preservation: Latex should be processed
immediately. When storage is imperative, however,
it should be bulked and strained.
• Then, gaseous ammonia or ammonia solution (31
ml of 20 percent ammonia solution / litre of latex)
is added.
• This treatment prevents latex coagulation.
Processing into crumb rubber
• Nitrite crumb method: Fresh latex is treated with
NaNo2 (Sodium nitrite and then coagulated with
acid (acetic or formic Acid).
• On continuous stirring the coagulum (white
spongy mass) breaks into crumbly cake which is
dewatered and dried.
Processing latex into sheet Rubber
• Latex (30 – 35% dry rubber content (drc)) is diluted
to a 12 –15% drc. and then coagulated in a
coagulation tank by thoroughly mixing in acetic or
formic acid.
• H2So4, coconut water, undiluted palm wine could
also be used as coagulants.
• On stirring or agitation of tank, the rubber
coagulates as a white spongy mass which is passed
through machine rollers under a continuous flow of
clean water into thin sheets for drying.
• The sheets are finally passed through another set of
drying which gives the ribbed sheet.
• The ribbed sheets are cut into convenient sizes and
smoked.
• Drying: Done in smoke houses with temperature ranging between 37-60o c
and lasting about 7days.
• Rubber must not be sun dried or it goes tacky. It should be hanged to drip
under shape before smoking.
• Mould prevention: Sheets are dipped into paranitrophenol after rolling
before drying to prevent mould formation in area with high humidity.
• Yield
• Varies from 300-400 Kg dry rubber ha-1 in unselected rubber seedling to over
1000kg dry rubber ha-1 in budded clones.
• Diseases and Pests

• Panel diseases
• a. Black thread or black stripe – caused by Phytophthora sp.
• Black pencil-like stripe or lines develop in the cortex and wood of infected
trees.
• Infection usually starts at the tapping cut and runs vertically upwards.
• Favoured by high humidity.
• Control; paint tapping panel with disinfectants.
• Also, disinfect tapping knives. Treat with appropriate fungicides and maintain
good farm sanitation.
• b. Mouldy rot – occurs on rubber growing under damp conditions it is caused by
the fungus Ceratostomella fimbriata.
• Slightly depressed and discoloured spots appear on the panel which later darken
and become covered with greyish mould.
• Control – farm sanitation and treatment with fungicides.
• Root diseases
• Three types:
• White root, caused by Formes lignosus ;
• Brown root by Formes noxius
• Red root “ Ganoderma Pseudoferreum
• Symptoms – very similar.
• The rhizomorphs of the mycelia of the causal organism cover the roots of the trees,
cutting off supplies of nutrient and water to the crown.
• Foliage turns brown and fall off. There is general die back and latex flow any be
stooped. Trees die eventually.
• Control; farm sanitation. Remove stumps and root after land preparation. Apply
fungicides (Bordeaux mixture, Captan).
• Other diseases are powdery mildew, stem, rot and deficiency diseases.
• Pest Termites, Rats, squirrels beetles and caterpillars.
• Control : hand pick, spray with insecticides and maintain good farm sanitation.
• Other pests are wild pigs, bats and domestic animals. They damage the bark of
trees.
• Improvement – Research is necessary on rubber cultivation.
• High yielding (improved latex flow). Tress resistant to diseases,
pests and environmental stresses should be bred for.
• Utilization
• The rubber latex is processed into several rubber products. The
most important being tyres and tubes for automobiles,
industrial machines and bikes.
• The rubber latex (natural rubber) is an amorphous hydrocarbon,
polyisoprene [(C5H8)n], which has the property of being highly
extensive (expandable).
• The kernel oil when extracted is used for soap manufacture.
• Apart from tubes or tyres, it is used for foot wears and wire and
cable insulation.
• The kernel (50-60% for seed) contains 40-50% of a semi –
drying oil used for making soap.
• The cake left after oil extraction could, after sufficient
treatment, be possibly used as livestock feed.
Coffee
• Family - Rubiaceae
• Genus - Coffea
• Cultivated Species:
• C. arabica (2n = 44).
• Robusta Coffee including: C. canephora;
C. excelsa; C. congoensis;
C.marcrocarpa;
C. abeokutae; C. stenophylla; C. brevipe.
(some spp lack caffeine)
• C. liberica
C. arabica
• Originated from the highland of Ethiopia & is the original
source of coffee beans and produce the best quality coffee.
• It grows best at altitudes 600m and above.
• It is naturally self-pollinating and produces two to three
flushes of while, sweet scented, star–shaped flowers per year.
• Leaves are simple, alternate, opposite and fairly stiff with a
dark green colour and a shiny surface.
• Reproductive lateral branches, on which flowers are borne,
develop from the axillary and sub axillary buds.
• The fruit is a berry and is dull green when immature and
changes through yellow to bright crimson when mature.
Not much grown in Nigeria.
C. canephora (Robusta coffee)
• Lowland coffee;
• Grows well from sea level to 150m.a.s.l. and
originated in the equatorial or tropical rain forest
areas of west Africa (100 N&S).
• The bean quality of robusta coffee is inferior to
that of C.arabica but superior to that of C. liberica.
• They are the ones mainly grown in Nigeria and are
very tolerant to coffee leaf diseases and high
yielding under satisfactory environmental
conditions.
• The robusta types of coffee are out breeding.
C. liberica
• Centre of origin in Zaire although a few authorities have claimed
Liberia in W. Africa as the centre of origin.
• The seeds are usually very large (about 2,000 beans/kg).
• The trees are very vigorous.
• The plant is well adapted to medium attitudes; 450 – 600m.a s.l.
C. liberica is outbreeding.
• Climate and soil Requirements.
Climate and soil Requirements.

• Site selection and altitude of such site depend on the type of
coffee to be cultivated
• C. arabica best at 1,500 – 2,000m a.s.l.
• Coffee grows under a wide range of rainfall – 750 to 3000mm;
• The ideal requirement for C. arabica is, however, 1,500 –
2250mm & it should be evenly distributed over 8-9 months.
Climate and soil Requirements (contd.)
• Requires high temperature (except C. arabica) for good
growth and productivity
• C. arabica performs best at mean temperatures of 16 – 24oC;
• Sensitive to frost which leads to rapid leaf and fruit drop.
• Can tolerate high R.H.; very low R.H (5 – 10%) conversely
leads to rapid leaf and fruit shedding. Under this condition
the plant can remain leafless but alive for a considerable
period.
• Winds: should not be planted in areas subject to strong
winds as the stems are slender and break easily when bearing
a heavy crop.
• Soils – Coffee thrives best on deep fertile slightly acidic (pH
5.3 – 6.0) well drained loamy soil especially on hill sides
with a gentle slope; rich in K & OM;
• Very sandy soils and shallow soils are unsuitable
Propagation
• Coffee is usually propagated from seed,
• Vegetative propagation by budding, grafting & by stem
cuttings are also practiced.
Nursery
• Coffee seeds loose viability easily in storage and this results
in low germination percentage,
• Stored seeds may also result in irregular germination and
thus the production of non-uniform seedlings.
• Plump, clean, ripe seeds are selected from superior bushes
large seeds; pea – berry and light beans are discarded.
• A quick way to test the good seeds is to put the collected
seed lot in water, pea-berry and damage seeds will float, but
healthy and potentially viable seeds will sink.
Propagation(contd.)
• Depulping & shelling: selected berries are depulped by soaking in
water for 3-5days and the pulp (mesocarp) is rubbed off.
• Seeds are washed thoroughly to remove the mucilage and shelled
thus separating the two seeds in each bean.
• Seeds are then air – dried under shade.
• Seeds meant for planting are dressed with fungicide (Thiram or
Captan) 24 hours before sowing{
– to minimize seed losses during germination and
– to ensure the production of healthy vigorous seedlings.
• Selected seeds are sown in seed boxes or trays at 2.5cm x 2.5cm
in a medium of fine river sand.
• Sowing can also be on seedbeds.
• Sown seeds are watered and covered with transparent polythene
sheeting in order to keep the medium moist.
• Water logging is avoided
• Germination occurs in 4-6 weeks (depending on Temperature )
Propagation(contd.)
• Seedlings raised in trays or boxes should be transplanted
after the cotyledons have opened and before the seedling
pass the four-leaf stage.
• Seedlings are lifted into polypots (25cm x 12cm) already
filled with top soil or one part topsoil + one part compost.
• The seedlings are kept under light shade.
• Six weeks to transplanting, however, the shade should be
gradually removed.
• Seedlings should be ready for transplanting in 5-6 months.
• Used widely in coffee breeding when clonal materials are to
be tested on a large scale.
• For rooting, the single leaf-bud cutting is commonly used.
Planting Operations
• Clear-felling with excess thrash removed or burnt.
• Field is divided into blocks which are lined out at the chosen
spacing usually 3x3m.
• Planting holes are dug at 60x60x60cm and the seedlings are put
into the holes making sure that the top soil used in filling the hole
are well pressed around the seedling root.
• Advanced land preparation – clearing by clear felling 12-15
months ahead of transplanting; removal or burning of excess
thrash; establishment of the legume ground cover.
• Polypots are removed from seedlings before putting them in dug
holes.
• Where seedlings have to be uprooted before transportation, the
roots are protected by dripping in clay slurry or wrapped in wet
sacking.
• A temporary shade should be provided for transplanted seedlings
for the 1st 12-18 months after which it is removed.
• Successes have been recorded, i.e. longer life when shaded – with
Leucaena or Glyricidia.
Maintenance
• Clean weeding particularly in the first 18-24 months to
eliminate weed problem in later years and facilitate good
establishment of both the seedlings and the ground cover.
• Ground cover to be removed within 50cm radius form the
base of each plant and the exposed soil should be heavily
mulched and kept free of weeds.
• Herbicides could be used to keep down weeds in the
mulched area around the coffee plant young coffee can also
be intercropped with cowpea or groundnut during the 1st 2
years without much disadvantage.
• Organic mulches such as banana thrash, sugarcane leaves,
elephant grass, and leguminous plants have been found
beneficial to coffee. The mulch should be 10 -15cm thick.
• A gap of about 10 -15cm radius around the plant should be
left unmulched to reduce the risk of insect (termite) attack on
the plants. (Spray mulch with Rogor 40 where termites are
prevalent).
CRP 301
END OF
SEMESTER
REVISION
Write concisely on the following
F3 Amazon cacao variety.
Tray method of fermentation of cocoa.
Tenera variety of Elaeis guineensis.
The oil palm bunch.
Rehabilitation of old oil palm plantation.
Quality of traditional and special oil.
Inflorescence and pollination in Cocos nucifera.
Bud rot of coconut.
Cola acuminata.
Kola root diseases.
Transplanting of Hevea braziliensis.
Stimulation of latex flow in rubber.
Nitrite crumb method of processing rubber.
Coffea arabica.
Dry method of pre industrial processing of coffee.
• Trinitario Cacao (a) are cultivated mainly in West Africa
(b) are polymorphic but with minimal variability (c)
exhibit high degree of genetic plasticity (d) a and b (e) a
and c.
• Cacao (a) trees are medium statured with fragile
branches (b) jourquettes to produce 3 – 5 orthotropic
branches (c) roots are deep and can withstand strong
winds (d) all of the above (e) none of the above.
• In cocoa processing; (a) Tray method fermentation
completes in 6 days (b) Sweat box method allows for
even fermentation (c) Basket and heap fermentation give
poor beans (d) a and b (e) all of the above.
• In Oil palm production, (a) Dura and Tenera types are
planted on commercial scale (b) Pisifera has thickest
mesocarp and high oil content (c) a bunch may weigh
less than 25kg (d) a and b (e) a and c.
• Coffea arabica (a) is adapted to medium altitudes (b)
flowers on terminal buds and are self-pollinating (c)
has limited cultivation in Nigeria (d) beans are
superior only to C. canephora (e) b and c
• In roasting for coffee processing, (a) up to 30 minutes
is allowed (b) volatile materials are permanently
removed (c) roasted beans are grounded and packed
for sale (d) a and b (e) all of the above.
• To establish 5 hectares of Elaeis guineensis,(a) nursery
is better established 10 - 12 months before
transplanting (b) 1690 seedlings are required (c)
intercropping is unnecessary (d) a and b (e) a and c
• Cola nitida trees (a) have heavy foliage and are more
robust than C. acuminata (b) are of major economic
significance (c) are propagated mainly by seeds (d) a
and b (e) all of the above
• Cashew (a) is a high altitude crop (b) can tolerate
drought and variable soil types (c) is not tolerant to
cold climates (d) fruits on flowers along the branches
(e) all of the above
• Funtumia elastica (a) is related to Manihot glaziovii
(b) is superior to Hevea brasiliensis in latex yield (c)
is widely cultivated in Nigeria (d) a and b (e) a and c
• Pre-harvest burning of sugar cane fields (a)
eliminates dry stem and leaves (b) facilitates
harvesting
• (c) is normally intensive (d) improves sucrose content
of stem (e) all of the above
• Black sigatoka is (a) is mainly encountered on Musa
acuminata (b) is caused by Cercospora musae (c)
have symptoms similar to that of Fusarium
oxysporum (d) is predominantly foliar (e) all except c.
• List the importance of sterilization in Oil
palm fruit processing
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
• Palm oil obtained from traditional oil palm
fruits processing is
called……………………………...and two
features that lead to its FFA content
of ………..% are
(

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COURSE CODE: CRP 301

COURSE TITLE: PRODUCTION OF

CREDIT UNITS: 2 (THEORY: 15HRS;

PREPARED BY A.L. NASSIR, PhD

• With respect to inflorescence

Processing and Uses

Second tapping panel

Stimulation of latex flow

• Diseases and Pests

Climate and soil Requirements.

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