Understanding Early Childhood Education and Care in Australia : Practices and Perspectives, edited by

Joanne Ailwood, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/monash/detail.action?docID=6215083.

Chapter 4

Practical approaches and philosophies in early childhood education and care Linda Henderson and Susan
Edwards In this chapter you will fnd an overview of the: Highscope approach Cultural historical approach
Reggio Emilia educational project approach Forest Schools approach Montessori approach Multiple
Intelligence Theory and Practice. • • • • • • Western-European approaches to early childhood education
are informed by various beliefs about young children and their learning. These beliefs are refected in
philosophical positions about the purpose of learning and, therefore, how educators should teach. They
are also evident in theoretical ideas that have been created to explain children’s development and
learning. Early childhood education is an interesting feld because it has drawn on a mixture of such
philosophies and theories to create different ‘approaches’ to learning and teaching with very young
children (Arthur et al., 2015). This is one of the reasons why Belonging, Being and Becoming: The early
years learning framework (EYLF) for Australia (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations [DEEWR], 2009) recognises that there are a range of theories and philosophies that early
childhood educators draw upon in their work (p. 11). In this chapter we outline some practical
approaches to early childhood education. These approaches apply theoretical concepts about young
children’s learning and development. Some of these practical approaches draw on the theories
discussed in the previous chapter. Some, such as the cultural historical approach, draw on other theories
infuencing early childhood education and care (ECEC). Each approach is introduced with a refection from
an educator on how and why they use those ideas and philosophies in their own work with young
children. The approaches considered in this chapter include the HighScope approach, cultural historical
approach, Reggio Emilia educational project approach, Forest Schools approach, Montessori approach
and the Multiple Intelligences approach. HIGHSCOPE APPROACH Children need to have direct hands-on
experiences with their world if they are to learn. When I set up my room I look at children’s interests
and divide the room into interest areas. In each area there are baskets and labels. The baskets are flled
with different materials and labelled with words and pictures describing their contents. This allows
children to purposefully choose an area and engage in meaningful learning experiences. On the mat area
I have a message board. Central to my teaching approach is predictable and wellstructured routines for
the children. Every morning the children and I gather on the mat for ‘greeting time’. I also read the
message board explaining the day’s routines. Then the children move into small group time, inside and
outside time, as well as whole group time. I embed into each of these routines deliberate learning
intentions. When the children come together for whole group time I might read a story about the
different seasons. I ask specifc questions that will help children make connections between the story
and real life. During ‘greeting time’ I will deliberately ask questions of children about their previous
learning to encourage them to review their learning. So I believe learning is ‘‘active participation’’
(Epstein, 2007) where children must be involved in planning, carrying out and refecting on their
intentional activities and my role is to support and extend their learning. — Mary refecting on her
practices as a High Scope educator
HighScope is a curriculum approach developed in the United States by the HighScope Education
Research Foundation, an independent non-proft organisation. HighScope is based on the idea that
combining teaching practices with curriculum provides the most effective means of supporting young
children’s learning (Conner, 2008). We can see this in Mary’s refection on HighScope when she talks
about embedding deliberate learning intentions for the children into their planned group time
experiences. According to the HighScope approach, teaching practices are about how teachers work
with children and curriculum is what children learn . Teaching practices are characterised by: shared
control during discussions between teachers and children active participatory learning relationships with
children, and provision of materials for children’s direct exploration. (HighScope, 2011) • • • HighScope
teaching practices are infuenced by concepts from constructivist learning theory. This includes ideas
developed by Piaget and Dewey regarding the need for children to explore objects when learning about
the properties of materials, and the role of children’s active problem solving and thinking in constructing
knowledge (Hohmann & Weikart, 1995). These ideas are evident in Mary’s work when she talks about
placing objects and materials in baskets located in different areas of the classroom. Children are invited
to select from these materials and to use them to support their own learning interests. In the HighScope
approach, the curriculum focuses on defned content areas so that what children learn during their
periods of exploration can be readily identifed. The main content areas are: language, literacy and
communication social and emotional development physical development, health and wellbeing arts and
science (including mathematics), and approaches to learning. (HighScope, 2011) • • • • • An important
aspect of HighScope is that the teaching practices and curriculum are aligned so children learn content
knowledge via intentional teaching. This does not mean that educators ‘tell’ children what to do.
Instead, educators use daily routines that help them participate in the ‘Plan/Do/Review’ process with
children. The ‘Plan/Do/Review’ process is a central aspect of the

HighScope approach, where children make choices about what they will do during a session. They then
carry out their planned ideas, and fnally refect on what happened during the implementation of their
ideas. The ‘planning’ phase occurs early in the session, the ‘doing’ phase during the middle part of the
session and the ‘reviewing’ phase towards the end of the session. Children appreciate that their learning
will be deliberate in terms of planning, and discovery-oriented in terms of what they will experience
during their ‘doing’ phase. They also learn that refection helps them to make connections between their
ideas and experiences. Mary indicates that this type of routine is important for supporting children’s
learning. She values the ‘greeting time’ and helps children to understand the range of experiences that
will occur during the day. Intentional teaching is embedded in each experience to ensure children access
content knowledge, as well as actively engage with objects and materials. HighScope is considered to
promote children’s curiosity, decision-making, cooperation, persistence, creativity and problem solving
(Hohmann & Weikart, 1995). HighScope is acknowledged as a signifcant international approach to early
childhood education. This is because the effectiveness of the approach was researched by randomly
assigning groups of children to a ‘no program’ and a ‘HighScope program’ approach. Initially conducted
over 30 years ago, the research followed children assigned to the ‘no program’ and the ‘HighScope
program’ into adulthood. Now aged in their forties, the fndings show that the original child attendees of
the ‘HighScope program’ were more likely to complete high school and be in sustained employment
during adulthood than their ‘no program’ peers. HighScope participants were also less likely to have
been in trouble with the law, to have used drugs of dependence and to be reliant on social security
(Schweinhart et al., 2005). The HighScope approach is a research-informed approach to early childhood
education that makes strong connections between how teachers teach and what children learn.
CULTURAL HISTORICAL APPROACH I believe that the child comes into the kindergarten with a range of
experiences. Each child may have learned differing concepts from similar experiences. It is my task as
the teacher to support the children in extending that knowledge and skills base. I believe in supporting
children to have experiences that will enable them to function successfully as a social person within our
community and culture. I acknowledge the child’s individual background when designing learning
experiences. I have a child, Finley, at the moment and he is very quiet and often stands watching what is
happening around him. I noticed that Finley loved watching the other boys build with the large indoor
blocks but he would not participate even when asked by the children or staff. One day Finley mentioned
that he had been to the zoo on the weekend. He was very excited about this. I suggested we go and
build a zoo with blocks. To my delight he agreed. I was able to actively work with Finley, talking about
what we might build, how we might use small blocks for the animals and where we might place the
animals. We spent about half an hour working on the zoo. The next day Finley returned to this zoo play
and over the next couple of weeks he would work with me. But he was also happy to have a peer join in.
Slowly over a period of many weeks Finley began to take on more initiative in this play to the point
where he was able to initiate this play independently. This shows how I set up a social situation from an
experience and interest of the child. I was also able to work on an experience that I felt was going to
provide Finley with new learning skills, especially in developing social skills with peers. I could also
provide opportunities for learning mathematical concepts with input from me as the teacher. Learning
using the child’s interests is critical because it acknowledges what the child already knows, what
experiences he may have already had with his family or community, and the importance of working
within a child’s zone of proximal development to enhance learning. — Elizabeth refecting on her
practices as an educator using cultural historical ideas A cultural historical approach to early childhood
education draws on ideas about children’s learning and development that were frst proposed by Lev
Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a Russian theorist who was interested in how children learn and develop within
a cultural context. We can see this in Elizabeth’s refection on her practice when she talks about
connecting Finley’s experience of having been to the zoo to provide him with a play-based activity.
Elizabeth deliberately draws on Finley’s contextual experiences as a basis for his play. An important idea
in cultural historical theory is that people learn to use the tools associated with their community
(Vygotsky, 1997). Learning to use tools is important because it helps people to achieve particular
‘objects’ or things they would like to do. Children learn to use cultural tools by interacting with other
people. Elizabeth shows this idea when she refects on using the blocks with Finley to achieve the object
of ‘playing zoos’. She shows him how to use the blocks as ‘tools’ for building enclosures and then how
the enclosures can be used to ‘categorise’ the different animals. By using the blocks as tools in this way
Elizabeth exposes Finley to mathematical concepts, such as length and categorisation. Vygotsky believed
that tools could be both physical (such as the blocks) and conceptual (such as measuring). Conceptual
tools include language and symbolic means of communicating ideas, including musical notation or
mathematical symbols. Cultural tools change over time because they are adapted by people as they use
them to achieve their objects of activity (Wertsch, 2007). Language shows how cultural tools change
over time. Early language was predominantly spoken. The invention of the printing press meant more
people had access to written language. This meant that reading as well as speaking became important.
In recent years, the widespread use of technologies in post-industrial societies means that language is
increasingly understood as ‘multimodal’, meaning that it now includes visual images and audio in
addition to written text (Kalantzis & Cope, 2012). Text messaging has also changed the form of language
and resulted in ‘new’ ways of communicating. As a cultural tool, language has a history of development
over time. This is why Vygotsky’s work is understood by some scholars to be ‘cultural historical’— tools
have a historical pattern of development within the culture from which they are derived (Daniels, 2008).
People use and adapt cultural tools to suit their purposes and needs. Vygotsky’s work suggests that
adults are important for young children’s acquisition of cultural tools (Hedegaard & Fleer, 2008). This is
because adults have learned how to use cultural tools and have acquired cultural knowledge over time.
Adults share cultural knowledge and the use of cultural tools with children through social interactions.
Elizabeth is very clear that she has an intentional role in supporting Finley’s play using physical and
conceptual tools— she provides materials, identifes and builds on his interests, connects him with his
peers, promotes access to mathematical concepts and knowledge about zoo animals, and engages him
in discussion about his activity. Elizabeth’s practices and decisions are grounded in her understanding of
how children’s experiences and interactions with others inform their acquisition of cultural tools as a
basis for learning. This is a core idea in cultural historical theory that is useful for thinking about how the
concept of ‘intentional teaching’ (DEEWR, 2009, p. 15) can be used in practice. REGGIO EMILIA
EDUCATIONAL PROJECT APPROACH Our kindergarten is inspired and provoked by the Reggio Emilia
Educational Research Project. We are constantly involved in a process of interpreting what this
inspiration means for our context so we can create unique, authentic and meaningful spaces for
learning. This means the kindergarten is not a separated space from the community but rather an open
space embedded within the community. By embracing this philosophy in all our engagements with
children and families we strive to respectfully foster experiences and interests that refect the children,
their families and the community in which they live and learn. Our provocations and possibilities for play
and learning are offered and shared by the educators, as well as the educators responding to the
provocations and ideas of the children. To do this we value the many ‘languages’ children possess to
express their inquiries, curiosities, competencies, wonder and learning. We also respect children as
individuals and share individual relationships with each child. However, we are also mindful of the social
context within which we play and learn. The group is of equal importance as are the individuals that
make up the group. No one comes to kindergarten in social isolation and so of central importance is the
process of learning about the sense of belonging to a group, including what each individual can bring to
the group and our responsibilities to the group. We believe that it is only through such encounters
children learn trust, respect, reciprocation of relationships, listening for meaning, participation and
more. Intricately entwined within these understandings is the use of documentation, which is
considered a research tool for educators in their role as observers and listeners of children’s learning.
Documentation gives us a window into children’s thinking and learning and provides us with a tool to
engage in rich pedagogical dialogue with each other. When we undertake documentation we frst ask the
children if we can share their time at a particular learning experience. When invited we record some of
the children’s conversations and photograph some of the processes they are engaged in. During this
time we listen with our eyes, our ears and our heart. We note the children’s exchange of rich language,
of ideas and views, the formation, expression and debate of differing theories and each child’s ability to
use all manner of materials as a medium of expressing their 101 languages. — Leanne refecting on her
practice using principles derived from the Reggio Emilia project The Reggio Emilia Educational Project
originated in the Italian town Reggio Emilia over 40 years ago and can best be described as a community
coming together to engage in a pedagogical experiment (Dahlberg & Moss, 2006). Following the Second
World War an increasing awareness of the importance of early childhood education was combined with
the belief that schools should be open democratic spaces in dialogue with the local community.
According to Loris Malaguzzi, the founding theorist and leader of the Reggio Emilia Education Project,
the purpose of education was to provide people with a dignifed and civil meaning to their existence
within community. This existence would develop clarity of mind and purpose along with a yearning for
the future of humankind (Millikan, 2003). We can see this in Leanne’s refection when she talks about
the kindergarten being an open space embedded within the local community and the group being a
place of encountering others as they learn about trust, respect, reciprocation of relationships, listening
for meaning and participation. Central is an understanding that education should be a shared experience
rather than an individual commodity (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 2012).

Reggio Emilia educators believe that children are guardians of democracy (Lepicnik, 2012). Both children
and teachers are co-founders of knowledge, and, together, they play a role in creating a democratic
society (Moss & Dahlberg, 2005). This means the role of early childhood education is to draw the
community’s attention to the rich culture of childhood (Rinaldi, 2006). Teaching becomes a form of
dialogue that aims to unsettle prior understandings to bring about transformation within the individual
and at the community level (Rinaldi, 2006). For the Australian context, this means that it is diffcult to
label a preschool or kindergarten as ‘Reggio’. The translation of specifc cultural understandings around
notions of ‘community’ and ‘dialogue’ is never straightforward. For Leanne community and dialogue
means listening with her ‘eyes, ears and heart’. Malaguzzi (1993) has likened this process to teachers
knowing about Piagetian ideas of development and learning, and then placing these ideas aside so as to
deeply listen to children. It is not possible to exactly replicate Reggio Emilia as it is practised in the
region from which it came. Instead, the principles that inform the practice of Reggio Emilia can be used
in different cultural contexts (Millikan, 2003). For example, the role of the kindergarten in relation to the
community is a central principle. Leanne indicates her relationship with the community as one of
respecting the community’s interests and values and fostering these within the kindergarten. Leanne is
also careful to promote another important principle for Reggio Emilia. This is one that holds an image of
childhood that recognises children as: • competent • intelligent • co-constructors of knowledge, and •
active participants in democratic societies. Foregrounded in these principles are practices such as
listening, learning from and with peers and adults, and provoking and evoking thinking (Chaille, 2002).
Leanne works with these principles when she talks about asking children for their permission to enter
their learning space to document their ideas. She acknowledges that her role is to listen to children’s
exchange of ideas. She is interested in how children form, express and debate different explanations for
what they see and experience. Leanne believes that children are theory makers who co-construct
knowledge with peers and adults.

Documentation is a tool that helps educators and children co-construct knowledge (Schroeder-Yu,
2008). Documentation illustrates the different stages associated with children’s thinking and problem
solving. It uses photographs, transcripts of children’s dialogue and examples of children’s use of
materials to create these illustrations. The environment is important because the aesthetic display of
documentation reveals how children plan, carry out and complete projects. Documentation invites
educators, families and children to engage in dialogue about children’s ideas, theories and experiences.
Documentation is core to a Reggio Emilia approach because it takes the community on a journey that
refuses to follow a straight pathway (Giamminuti, 2009), refecting an understanding of children’s
learning as complex. Using a Reggio Emilia approach is a political and an ethical choice made by a
community because the principles mean that together educators, families and children will actively
engage in pedagogical practices aimed at transforming knowledge and society (Olsson, 2009). FOREST
SCHOOLS APPROACH In our preschool community we have developed a philosophy around connecting
children with nature. By embracing the concept of ‘Being and Belonging’ from the EYLF (DEEWR, 2009,
p. 7) we bring together these concepts with the practice of connecting children with nature.We
consciously pay attention to the importance of embedding Indigenous perspectives into our everyday
practice because we understand that Indigenous children learned on Country everyday. For this to
happen we have developed strong partnerships with an Indigenous woman. Through such partnerships
we have become conscious that society today is always looking to the future instead of the now.
Educating with nature provides opportunities for children, families and educators to appreciate the now
and be in the moment. In practice this is a program that reaches beyond the gate where children are
able to explore wild spaces: wetland, forest area, national park and the beach. Each week, no matter
what the weather, the kindergarten children head down to the beach to engage in exploration. We do
this because we believe that children grow and learn when they are able to make choices, take risks and
are trusted by the educators. Outdoor learning provides many opportunities and possibilities to provide
these conditions. There are also rich opportunities for extending children’s skills as they explore
changing environments: climbing trees, scrambling across large boulders, walking on unsteady rocks at
the rock platforms, and lighting fres with fints. Integral here is the development of: resilience,
observations skills, awareness of the environment and how to care for it and create a strong sense of
place and belonging. What this means is that children are able to be successful and participate at a level
that works for them. — Karen refecting on her Beach Kinder program based on ideas derived from
Forest Schools Forest Schools originated in Scandinavia and are particularly associated with Denmark,
where young children learning in the outdoors is highly valued (Maynard, 2007). There is no one
defnition or explanation for what a Forest School is or how to develop and implement a Forest School.
However, a core idea is that the children experience their learning outdoors. Karen refects this idea
when she says her use of Forest School means reaching ‘beyond the gate where children are able to
explore wild spaces: wetland, forest area, national park and the beach’. Central principles for using a
Forest School approach include: • viewing children as active learners • providing children with
opportunities for social interaction • privileging access to frst-hand experiences, and • promoting
problem solving and experimentation. (Williams-Siegfredsen, 2012) Natural settings, such as woodlands
or meadows (in the United Kingdom or Scandinavia) or the bush and beach (in Australia), are considered
strongly aligned with these principles. This is because natural settings offer children opportunities for
unstructured outdoor play. Unstructured outdoor play is believed to provide opportunities for children
to create their own play situations. In these situations children need to draw on what is offered by the
environment to meet their play needs and so need to experiment with different materials, such as
sticks, leaves, logs and stones. They may need to solve problems about how to access different materials
and work out which materials are most suitable for their needs. Karen identifes these possibilities when
she says that using a Forest School approach means that the children can extend their skills by
participating in challenging activities, such as climbing and balancing on natural structures and/or
lighting fres with fints. Social interactions between peers and adults are also supported in Forest Schools
as groups of children focus on meeting their play goals through frst-hand experience of the natural
environment. Some settings run Forest Schools as part of a traditional program and visit an outdoor
location once a week for several hours. Others run primarily from an outdoor site. Children attend
Forest Schools in all types of weather with a focus on wearing clothing appropriate to the climate. The
main idea is that children spend time in the outdoor setting in a relatively unstructured way (Ridgers,
Knowles & Sayers, 2012). The learning and development associated with the outdoor experience
emerges from the children’s activities and is supported by adult guidance. In Australia, Forest Schools
are described as ‘Bush Kindergartens’. There are also some ‘Beach Kindergartens’. These kindergartens
draw on the principles of Forest Schools, but also focus on fostering children’s ecoliteracy (Reidy, 2012).
Ecoliteracy refers to children learning more about their local context. Local context involves
understanding the biodiversity of plants and animals living in the area. It includes a focus on
understanding the local cultural and Indigenous history (Elliot, 2013). Karen talks of working closely with
an Indigenous woman so that the children learn the cultural knowledge associated with their
experiences at the beach. This means the children are learning to understand the cultural meanings
associated with the space they visit, and so develop the capacity to see how people engage with their
environments. This is important because understanding the relationships between people,
environments and cultural meaning helps children develop respectful relationships with living and non-
living things. Other benefts associated with children’s participation in Bush Kindergartens include
building children’s resilience, increasing motivation and concentration, and improving physical stamina
and gross and fne motor skills. Karen believes that this occurs in her Beach Kindergarten because
‘children grow and learn when they are able to make choices *and+ take risks’. Being outdoors at the
beach provides a range of opportunities for these choices and risks that might not occur in a traditional
kindergarten setting. Forest Schools are committed to the belief that the natural environment creates
learning and play experiences for young children that foster relationships, build respect for the
environment, and challenge young children’s learning and skills development in authentic ways.
MONTESSORI APPROACH As a Montessori teacher I regard myself as an observer of children’s activity.
Observations inform my pedagogy. This is important because an essential element to my pedagogy is a
frm belief that my role is to prepare the classroom so children can determine their own engagement in
learning. My classroom is equipped with Montessori materials designed with the specifc purpose of
allowing children to direct their own learning. The materials are tools that take on the role of ‘teacher’
by directing children’s attention to the work task and preventing the child from becoming distracted. In
the morning I come early to set up the classroom. I check the materials to ensure they are in order and
in the right location. When the children arrive I wait by the front door and greet each child. When
greeting the children we shake hands and exchange personal greetings. The children have learned this
through our lessons in grace and courtesy, which are a part of their practical life lessons. The children
enter the classroom and know what to do. They will put their bags in the appropriate place and select a
tray with a collection of materials. For example, a child may select the tray with the bells designed for
sensory exploration. The learning will be both direct and indirect. As the child orders the bells according
to pitch they are directly learning the principles of ordering according to pitch. Indirectly they are also
developing auditory discrimination. I don’t need to tell the child how to order the bells by pitch as
previously I presented the bells using exaggerated movement and language that the children can imitate
and develop through repetition. Stepping in to help them as they engage in this repetition would only be
putting up an obstacle to their development. I believe children learn through movement directed by the
mind. My task is to help children build their desire to engage in this movement as learners so they build
their own intelligence. — Barbara refecting on her practice as a Montessori educator Dr Maria
Montessori was the founder of the Montessori Method of Education. She was an Italian physician,
anthropologist and pedagogue who studied children from different cultures and socio-economic
backgrounds (Montessori Australia, nd). Her studies informed her belief that children have an inner
drive to learn that pushes them towards independence and powers development. There is no ‘real’ or
‘authentic’ Montessori approach, but rather quality Montessori approaches (Ungerer, 2014). Quality
approaches are committed to Maria Montessori’s beliefs about children’s abilities to reason, develop
habits of concentration and be driven by a deep internal desire to learn (Grebennikov, 2005).
Montessori believed that educators should enter the classroom with a mind free of assumptions about
children’s learning (Isaacs, 2010, 2012). When educators are free of assumptions about children’s
learning they are capable of seeing childhood for its inner developmental drive, nature and learning
potential (Weinberg, 2009). This is evident in Barbara’s refection when she says that her role is to help
children tap into their natural desire to learn and build their own intelligence. Barbara sees her role as
preparing the classroom so that children can determine their own engagement in learning. The
educator’s preparation of the classroom using Montessori materials is central to the approach (Lillard,
2005). The materials are designed to capture children’s interest and attention while encouraging
independence in learning. They foster the development of perception and dexterity as well as
promoting independence in learning. Barbara describes these materials as tools that take on a teaching
role as they direct children’s attention to the task and help prevent distraction. Time is also important so
that children are involved in extended periods of uninterrupted work (Larson, 2010). During these
periods children select materials from one of the four learning areas: practical life exercises; sensorial
exercises; language exercises; and mathematical exercises. Practical life exercises allow children to learn
self-control and to build willpower (Feez, 2010). They involve culturally sensitive exercises using
functional objects, such as child-sized jugs to learn pouring, and shoes for lacing and polishing. Through
these exercises children learn how to regulate movement and attention. Sensory exercises allow
children to isolate percepts and construct sensory impressions, which lay the foundation for creativity
and imagination. Materials also include rods of differing lengths to sort according to size and glass jars to
order according to pitch. Mathematics and language materials involve using materials such as chains of
beads for skip counting or sandpaper letters to trace with a fnger (Weinberg, 2009). A Montessori
approach recognises early childhood as a time when cognitive capacities are laid and developed. It
argues that children need to engage in work that allows them to form and act on their own judgements
(Tregenza, 2009). The teacher’s role is to ‘guide’ and ‘direct’ children’s learning. This helps children to
enter extended periods of work and to reach their full potential (Bragdon, 2014). Imitation and
repetition is a principle used by Montessori teachers, and is applied to guide learning. Using precise and
purposeful gestures and language, educators show children what is needed to participate in each
exercise. For example, Barbara greets the children as they enter her classroom. She shakes their hand
and exchanges personal greetings. She says this teaches the children grace and courtesy as part of their
practical life exercises. Once children have been provided with guidance they are free to engage with
these exercises on their own, correcting themselves as necessary. The central aim of imitation and
repetition is to allow the child to train themself to become an observer of life, making comparisons and
forming judgements (Larson, 2010). MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND PRACTICE I believe all
children are ‘educational’ understanding of determined at birth. Drawing on come to understand that
every child profle, which can be developed and improved in the right learning environment. As a
teacher, my role is to develop approaches that allow children to engage in set tasks or problem-solving
situations in various ways. For example, if we were investigating the lifecycle of a butterfy, previously I
would have just read a story about it to all the children during circle time and had them all draw the
lifecycle. Now what I do is I set up learning centres where the children engage in a range of tasks
specifcally designed to allow them to investigate the lifecycle so as to arrive at their own
understandings. One centre might be designed for children with strong linguistic or verbal skills. In that
centre I might have books about butterfies and writing materials. In another centre I might have a CD
player and CDs with songs along with large pieces of material where the children could create a dance to
act out the lifecycle. There might also be a centre with a board and material for the children to design a
play about the lifecycle they could later perform for the class. A mathematical centre might have
counters and cut out pictures of caterpillars, eggs, cocoons and butterfies for children to map out the
lifecycle according to time. My role is to identify a child’s strengths and then I notice patterns and
relationships between their strengths. This way I build and stretch a child’s intellectual abilities and
meet their unique intellectual needs. — Gabby refecting on her use of Multiple Intelligences The
concept of intelligence is complex. Traditional theories of intelligence focused on genetic determination.
These perspectives believed that intelligence was determined by children’s genetic history and could be
measured using psychometric tests to identify their intellectual levels (Tannenbaum, 2000). Gardner
(1983) challenged these ideas when he studied a number of well-known people identifed for their
‘intelligence’. He argued that intelligence is about being able to solve problems, or create products that
are valued by one or more cultures. This was an important shift in thinking about intelligence because it
focused on what people do in social and cultural contexts, instead of seeing intelligence as relatively
fxed. Gardner argued that because intelligence is related to problem solving and creation, humans
possess a blend of intelligences (Gardner, 1999). Currently he names the intelligences as musical
intelligence, visual intelligence, verbal intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, naturalistic intelligence and existential
intelligence (Gardner, 2006). Some scholars in the feld of psychology question Gardner’s ideas because
his description of intelligence does not use traditional approaches (Waterhouse, 2006). However, in the
feld of education, Multiple Intelligences has been well received (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). This is evident
in Gabby’s refection when she talks of her shift in thinking about ‘intelligence’ and how this has
impacted on her curriculum planning according to the different intelligences. She creates ‘centres’ that
focus on different aspects of intelligence and help children focus on their intellectual strengths (see, for
example, Arnold, 2007; Schiller & Phipps, 2011). Using the example of the lifecycle of a butterfy Gabby
explains how using Multiple Intelligences helps children to arrive at their own understandings about the
lifecycle, instead of her just telling them the information. Gabby’s use of learning centres is one of the
unique features of applying Multiple Intelligences in educational settings (Bernard, 2014a). Therefore,
she acknowledges that every child has their own set of intelligences and the teacher’s role is to foster
these intelligences through individualised learning activities (Bernard, 2014b). Gardner’s theory of
Multiple Intelligences has transformed teaching across early childhood and school settings (Vialle &
Perry, 1995). But lessons have been learned since it was frst introduced to education. Multiple
Intelligences is a complex theory that can too easily be reduced to simply providing children with a range
of learning activities. To be effective the approach must be underpinned by a pedagogical framework
where ‘putting understanding up front’ is foremost (Perkins & Blythe, 1994). This means the focus is on
creating pedagogical conditions that advance the development of children’s ‘intellectual character’,
which emphasises depth over breadth and concepts over facts, and is grounded in realworld issues that
children care about or need to know (Ritchhart, 2002).

CONCLUSION

Philosophies and theories prescriptive about children’s learning and development are evident in
different approaches to ECEC. Approaches to ECEC describe how they view and understand children and
children’s learning. Approaches to ECEC articulate teaching and curriculum practices based on these
views and understandings. Multiple approaches to ECEC are available for educators to consider as a
basis for their own practice. This is an important aspect of working in Australian ECEC settings because
the EYLF does not prescribe a particular approach. Instead, educators are invited to refect on different
approaches and how these connect with their own beliefs and values according to contexts in which
they work.