3 Semiconductor Devices and Motor Controlling
3 Semiconductor Devices and Motor Controlling
3 Semiconductor Devices and Motor Controlling
Industrial Engineering
Introduction To Mechatronics
(MEng3212)
Chapter Three
Semiconductor Devices and motor controlling
In contrast, other materials have atoms with valence electrons that are
tightly bound, and when an electric field is applied, the electrons do
not move easily.
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Semiconductor
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Semiconductor
• A valence electron from a nearby atom can move to the hole, leaving
another hole in its former place.
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Semiconductor
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Semiconductor
• This is because the dopant atom only has three valence electrons.
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Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are mainly two types
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Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
N-type:
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom. And even
for lesser thermal energy it is released Leaving the parent atom
positively ionized.
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors
A P-type material is one in which holes are majority carriers i.e. they
are positively charged materials (+++).
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Indium needs one more electron to complete its bond. This electron
maybe supplied by Silicon , there by creating a vacant electron site
or hole on the semiconductor atom.
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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this impurity
atom is called acceptor level and this acceptor level lies just above
the valence band.
Thus holes are more in number than electrons and hence holes are
majority carriers and electros are minority carriers in P-type
semiconductors.
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Diode
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JUNCTION DIODE
Contemporary electronic devices are produced by creating
microscopic interfaces between differently doped areas within
semiconductor material.
If a p-type region of silicon is created adjacent to an n-type region, a
pn junction is the result.
The p-type side of the diode is referred to as the anode, and
the n-type side is called the cathode.
pn junction, electrons from the n-type silicon can diffuse to occupy
the holes in the p-type silicon, creating is called a depletion region.
A small electric field develops across this thin depletion region due to
the diffusion of electrons.
Depletion region: it is formed from a conducting region by
removal of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a
current.
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JUNCTION DIODE
• If a voltage source is connected to the pn junction with the positive
side of the voltage source connected to the anode and the negative
side connected to the cathode forming a complete circuit, the diode is
said to be forward biased.
• The applied voltage overcomes the contact potential and shrinks the
depletion region.
• The anode in effect becomes a source of holes and the cathode
becomes a source of electrons so that holes and electrons are
continuously replenished at the junction.
• The anode is connected to the n-type silicon and the cathode to the p-
type silicon, the depletion region is enlarged, inhibiting diffusion of
electrons and thus current; the diode is reverse biased.
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JUNCTION DIODE
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p-n junction
However, the concentration of positive and negative carriers is quite
different on opposite sides of the junction and a thermal energy-
powered diffusion of positive carriers into the n-type material and
negative carriers into the p-type material occurs.
The n-type material acquires an excess of positive charge near the
junction and the p-type material acquires an excess of negative
charge.
Eventually diffuse charges build up and an electric field is created
which drives the minority charges and eventually equilibrium is
reached.
A region develops at the junction called the depletion layer. This
region is essentially unhoped (it is just intrinsic silicon).
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p-n junction
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Diodes
• Electronic devices created by bringing together a p-type and n-type
region within the same semiconductor lattice. Used for rectifiers,
LED etc.
The region around the junction is left with neither holes nor free
electrons.
This neutral region which has no charge carriers is called the
depletion layer.
This layer which has no charge carrier is a poor conductor of
electricity.
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Diodes
Reverse Biased
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Diodes
Characteristics of Diode
Diode always conducts in one direction.
Diodes always conduct current when “Forward Biased” ( Zero
resistance)
Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased (Infinite resistance)
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half-wave rectifier
In practice, no real diode has ideal characteristics but
semiconductor p-n junctions make good diodes
To understand such devices we need to look at some properties of
materials
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Full wave rectifier
Unlike half wave rectifiers that utilize only the half wave of the
input AC cycle, full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle.
use of a diode bridge reduces the time for which the capacitor has
to maintain the output voltage and thus reduced the ripple voltage
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Full-wave rectifier
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Reading assignment
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Electrical Properties of Solids
• Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivities are
higher than those of insulators but lower that those of conductors.
• Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenide, Indium, Antimonite and
cadmium sulphide are some commonly used semiconductors.
• Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients of
resistance, i.e. as temperature increases resistivity deceases
Energy Band Diagram
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Energy Bands in Insulators and Conductors
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
A diode is useful as a
rectifier, where it passes only
the positive half or the
negative half of an AC signal.
Figure 4 Diode check valve analogy. 41
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
• Rectifier circuits are used in the design of power supplies, where AC
power must be transformed into DC power for use in electronic
devices and digital circuits.
• The important specifications that differentiate diodes are the
maximum forward current and the maximum reverse bias voltage
where breakdown occurs.
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
Zener Diode
Reflect back on the current-voltage relationship for a diode. Note that
when a diode is reverse biased with a large enough voltage, the
diode allows a large reverse current to flow. This is called diode
breakdown.
A special class of diodes is designed to exploit this characteristic.
They are known as zener, avalanche, or voltage-regulator diodes.
In summary, zener diodes are useful in circuits where it is necessary to
derive smaller regulated voltages from a single higher-voltage
source.
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
Voltage Regulators
Although the zener diode voltage regulator is cheap and simple to use,
it has some drawbacks: The output voltage cannot be set to a
precise value, and regulation against source ripple and changes in
load is limited.
Special semiconductor devices are designed to serve as voltage
regulators, some for fixed positive or negative values and others easy
to adjust to a desired, nonstandard value.
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
Optoelectronic Diodes
• Light-emitting diodes are diodes that emit photons when forward
biased.
• The positive lead, or anode, is usually the longer of the two leads.
• The LED is usually encased in a colored plastic material that enhances
the wavelength generated by the diode and sometimes helps focus the
light into a beam.
• LEDs are manufactured to produce a variety of colors, but red, yellow,
and green are usually the most common and least expensive.
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Energy Bands in Semiconductors
Optoelectronic Diodes
•• Earlier we said that a pn junction is sensitive to light. Special
diodes, called photodiodes, are designed to detect photons
• Note that it is the reverse current that flows through the diode
when sensing light.
• It takes a considerable number of photons to provide detectable
voltages with these devices.
The photodiode is based on
quantum effects.
If photons excite carriers in a
reverse-biased pn junction, a
very small current proportional
to the light intensity flows.
Figure 4 Light-emitting diode.
The sensitivity depends on
the wavelength of the light.
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
• The bipolar junction transistor was the salient invention that led to the
electronic age, integrated circuits, and ultimately the entire digital world.
• The transistor has truly revolutionized human existence by impacting
practically everything in our every day lives.
• semiconductor diode consists of adjacent regions of p-type and n-type
silicon, each connected to a lead.
• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT), in contrast, consists of three adjacent
regions of doped silicon, each of which is connected to an external lead.
• There are two types of BJTs: npn and pnp transistors. most common type is
the npn BJT
• It consists of a thin region or layer of p-type silicon sandwiched between two
regions or layers of n-type silicon.
• Three leads are connected to the three regions, and they are called the
collector, base, and emitter.
• As denoted by the bold n in Figure, the n-type silicon in the emitter is more
heavily doped than the collector, so the collector and emitter are47 not
interchangeable.
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
• collector current is proportional to the base current with an amplification factor
known as the beta (ꞵ) for the transistor.
• Because of the BJT’s base-collector current characteristics, it can be used to amplify
current or to simply switch current on and off.
Common Emitter Transistor Circuit
The characteristics of the common emitter transistor circuit can be summarized
by plotting the collector current IC versus the collector-emitter voltage VCE for
different values of base current IB.
• The transistor has a cutoff region (where no collector current flows), an active
region (where collector current is proportional to base current), and a saturation
region (where collector current is strictly controlled by the collector circuit,
assuming sufficient base current).
• When designing a transistor switch, we need to guarantee that the transistor is fully
saturated when it is on.
Bipolar Transistor Switch
collector-to-emitter circuit can be replaced by a very high impedance or, for all
practical purposes, an open circuit
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Bipolar Transistor Packages
The small-signal transistor packages are
often the TO-92, and the power
transistor packages are the TO-220.
Surface mount technology is becoming
increasingly popular for use on
production printed circuit boards, but
Figure 7 Models for
transistor switch states.
such devices are less useful for
prototyping because of their small size.
• LEDs and phototransistors are often found in pairs, where the LED is
used to create the light, and this light in turn biases the phototransistor.
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
Field-effect transistor (FET) that operates on a different principle
than the BJT but serves a similar role in mechatronic system design.
Both the BJT and FET are three-terminal devices allowing us to draw
analogies between their function and how they are used in circuits.
Both BJTs and FETs operate by controlling current between two
terminals using a voltage applied to a third terminal.
forward bias of the base-to-emitter junction of the BJT allows charge
carriers to enter a thin base region from the emitter, where they are
attracted to the collector, resulting in a large collector current
controlled by the much smaller base current.
BJT is a current amplifier. In contrast, with a FET, the electric field
produced by a voltage on one electrode controls the availability of
charge carriers in a narrow region, called a channel, through which a
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
• Therefore, a FET can be described as a transconductance amplifier, which
means the output current is controlled by an input voltage.
• The nomenclature describing the FET is as follows. The control electrode in
the FET, called the gate, is analogous to the base of the BJT.
• In contrast to the BJT base, the FET gate draws no direct current (DC)
because it is insulated from the substrate to which it is attached.
• A conducting channel, whose conductivity is controlled by the gate, lies
between the drain, which is analogous to the BJT collector, and the source,
which is analogous to the BJT emitter.
• There are three families of FETs: enhancement-mode metal-oxide-
semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs), depletion mode MOSFETs, and junction
field-effect transistors (JFETs).
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
• Each of these families is available in p-channel and n-channel varieties.
• Understanding the different families and varieties of FETs is somewhat
complicated when encountering them for the first time, so we focus
primarily on the widely used n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET.
• when a positive DC voltage is applied to the gate, an electric field formed in
the substrate below the gate repels holes in the p-type substrate leaving a
narrow layer or channel in the substrate in which electrons predominate.
• This is referred to as an n-channel in the p-type substrate. The substrate is
usually connected to the source internally so that the substrate-source pn
junction is not forward biased.
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
• This MOSFET has a p-type substrate and an n-type source and
drain that form pn junctions with the substrate.
• There is a thin silicon dioxide layer insulating the gate from
the substrate.
• MOSFET mimics a very large resistor (~10 ^8 - 10 ^12Ω
), and no current flows between the drain and source. The
MOSFET is said to be in cutoff.
Figure 10 n- channel enhancement-
• Vgs is gradually increased beyond a gate-to source threshold mode MOSFET.
voltage Vt, the n-channel begins to form.
• Vt depends on the particular MOSFET considered but a
• typical value is about 2V. Then as Vds is increased from 0,
conduction occurs in the n-channel due to a flow of electrons
from source to drain.
• The drain current Id, by convention, is shown in the direction
opposite to electron flow. Figure 11 Enhancement-mode
• a subtle feature of the n-channel is that it is wider near the MOSFET n-channel formation.
source than at the drain because the electric field is larger due
to the larger difference between Vg and ground at the source
end and the smaller difference between Vg and Vdd at the With a positive Vgs larger than Vt , as Vds
drain end. is increased from 0, we enter the active
region, also called the ohmic region, of the
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
• when Vgs - Vt reaches Vdd, there is no longer an electric field at the
drain end of the MOSFET.
• Therefore, the width of the n-channel shrinks to a minimum value
close to the drain resulting in what is called pinch-off.
• This pinch-off limits a further increase in drain current, and the
MOSFET is said to be in saturation.
• In saturation, the current is almost constant with further increases in
Vds.
• MOSFET application we consider is switching power to a load.
• MOSFET switch is very easy to design because the gate draws
practically no steady state current and use of a MOSFET as an analog
switch.
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Next Lecture:
Chapter Four: Sensor Communication Design
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