Behaviorism

Overview

Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and

theory. It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to mentalistic psychology, which often had
difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet
of behaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology
should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events
that take place in their minds. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be
described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical
constructs such as thoughts and beliefs. From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school
of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in
psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists
in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning although he
did not necessarily agree with behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who
rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F.
Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive
revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically,
they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications, such as in cognitive–behavioral
therapy that has demonstrable utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and
addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior
from the birth of a human to their death. Behaviorism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change
in external behavior achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good
habits and the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of
repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is a kind of learning that
occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the CS is a
neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the US is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and
the unconditioned response (UR) to the US is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is
repeated (some learning may occur already after only one pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned
response (CR) to the CS when the CS is presented alone. The CR is usually similar to the UR, but unlike the
UR, it must be acquired through experience and is relatively impermanent. Classical conditioning differs
from operant or instrumental conditioning, in which a behavior is strengthened or weakened, depending
on its consequences (i.e., reward or punishment).

A classic experiment by Pavlov exemplifies the standard procedure used in classical conditioning. First
Pavlov observed the UR (salivation) produced when meat powder (US) was placed in the dog's mouth. He
then rang a bell (CS) before giving the meat powder. After some repetitions of this pairing of bell and meat
the dog salivated to the bell alone, demonstrating what Pavlov called a conditional response, now
commonly termed conditioned response or CR. Ivan Pavlov provided the most famous example of classical
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conditioning. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure
that enabled him to study the digestive processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected the
animal’s digestive fluids outside the body, where they could be measured. Pavlov noticed that the dogs in
the experiment began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than
simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipated salivation, psychic secretion.
From his observations he predicted that a stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation
on its own, if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food. In
his initial experiments, Pavlov rang a bell and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs
started to salivate in response to the bell. Pavlov called the bell the conditioned (or conditional) stimulus
(CS) because its effects depend on its association with food. He called the food the unconditioned stimulus
(US) because its effects did not depend on previous experience. Likewise, the response to the CS was the
conditioned response (CR) and that to the US was the unconditioned response (UR). The timing between
the presentation of the CS and US affects both the learning and the performance of the conditioned
response. Pavlov found that the shorter the interval between the ringing of the bell and the appearance of
the food, the stronger and quicker the dog learned the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is
modified by its antecedents and consequences. Mechanisms of instrumental conditioning suggest that the
behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength. The expressions operant behavior and respondent
behavior were popularized by B. F. Skinner. The former refers to an item of behavior that is initially
spontaneous, rather than a response to a prior stimulus, but whose consequences may reinforce or inhibit
recurrence of that behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or
respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the reinforcement and punishment to
change behavior. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by conditioning of
reflexive (reflex) behaviors which are also elicited by antecedent conditions, while classical conditioning is
maintained by its antecedents and consequences. Behaviors conditioned through a classical conditioning
procedure are not maintained by consequences. They both, however, form the core of behavior analysis
and have grown into professional practices.

B.F. Skinner is the person whose work is most often cited in connection with operant conditioning. To
implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber in which subjects
such as pigeons and rats were isolated from extraneous stimuli and free to make one or two simple,
repeatable responses. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record of these
responses from which response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that
Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules.
A reinforcement schedule may be defined as any procedure that delivers a reinforcer to an organism
according to some well-defined rule. The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic experimental data
from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal
observations of human and animal behavior.

Contracts, Consequences, Reinforcement, and Extinction

Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on behavior change. The relevant behavior
should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the terms of the contract. Behavioral
contracts can be used in school as well as at home. It is helpful if teachers and parents work together with
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the student to ensure that the contract is being fulfilled. Two examples of behavior contracts are listed
below:

 A student is not completing homework assignments. The teacher and the student design a
contract providing that the student will stay for extra help, ask parents for help, and complete
assigned work on time. The teacher will be available after school, and during free periods for
additional assistance.
 A student is misbehaving in class. The teacher and student devise a behavioral contract to
minimize distractions. Provisions include that the student will be punctual, will sit in front of the
teacher, will raise hand with questions/comments, and will not leave his seat without permission.

Consequences occur immediately after a behavior (Figure 1.3). Consequences may be positive or negative,
expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or symbolic (a failing
grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious. Consequences occur after the "target" behavior
occurs, when either positive or negative reinforcement may be given. Positive reinforcement is
presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement occurs
frequently in the classroom. Teachers may provide positive reinforcement by:

 Smiling at students after a correct response;

 Commending students for their work;
 Selecting them for a special project; and
 Praising students' ability to parents.

Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an adverse
condition. Many classroom teachers mistakenly believe that negative reinforcement is punishment
administered to suppress behavior; however, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a
behavior, as does positive reinforcement. Negative implies removing a consequence that a student finds
unpleasant. Negative reinforcement might include:

 Obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional;

 Submitting all assignments on time results in the lowest grade being dropped; and
 Perfect attendance is rewarded with a "homework pass."

Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular response.
Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Examples of punishment include:

 Students who fight are immediately referred to the principal;

 Late assignments are given a grade of "0;"
 Three tardies to class results in a call to the parents; and
 Failure to do homework results in after-school detention (privilege of going home is removed).

REINFORCEMENT (Behavior Increases) PUNISHMENT (Behavior Decreases)

POSITIVE Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

(Something is Something is added to increase Something is added to decrease undesired
added.) desired behavior. behavior.
Ex: Smile and compliment student on Ex: Give student detention for failing to follow

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 good performance. the class rules.

NEGATIVE Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment

(Something is Something is removed to increase Something is removed to decrease undesired
removed.) desired behavior. behavior.
Ex: Give a free homework pass for Ex: Make student miss their time in recess for
turning in all assignments. not following the class rules.

Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced

stimulus. Examples of extinction are:

 A student has developed the habit of saying the punctuation marks when reading aloud.
Classmates reinforce the behavior by laughing when he does so. The teacher tells the students not
to laugh, thus extinguishing the behavior.
 A teacher gives partial credit for late assignments; other teachers think this is unfair; the teacher
decides to then give zeros for the late work.
 Students are frequently late for class, and the teacher does not require a late pass, contrary to
school policy. The rule is subsequently enforced, and the students arrive on time.

Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing

Modeling is also known as observational learning. Albert Bandura has suggested that modeling is the basis
for a variety of child behavior. Children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses by observing
those around them. A child who kicks another child after seeing this on the playground, or a student who is
always late for class because his friends are late is displaying the results of observational learning.

Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired behavior is broken
down into discrete, concrete units, or positive movements, each of which is reinforced as it progresses
towards the overall behavioral goal. In the following scenario, the classroom teacher employs shaping to
change student behavior: the class enters the room and sits down, but continue to talk after the bell rings.
The teacher gives the class one point for improvement, in that all students are seated. Subsequently, the
students must be seated and quiet to earn points, which may be accumulated and redeemed for rewards.

Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the appropriateness of a
behavior. For example, to teach a child to remember to perform an action at a specific time, the teacher
might arrange for him to receive a cue immediately before the action is expected rather than after it has
been performed incorrectly. For example, if the teacher is working with a student that habitually answers
aloud instead of raising his hand, the teacher should discuss a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a
question posed to the class.

Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is a method of eliciting better classroom performance from reluctant students. It
has six basic components:

1. Specification of the desired outcome (What must be changed and how it will be evaluated?) One
example of a desired outcome is increased student participation in class discussions.
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 2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment (by removing negative stimuli from the learning
environment). In the above example, this would involve a student-teacher conference with a
review of the relevant material, and calling on the student when it is evident that she knows the
answer to the question posed.
3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforcers (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards). A student
receives an intrinsic reinforcer by correctly answering in the presence of peers, thus increasing
self-esteem and confidence.
4. Reinforcement of behavior patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success
in engaging in class discussions.
5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the amount of one-on-one review with
the student before class discussion.
6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach based on teacher expectations
and student results. Compare the frequency of student responses in class discussions to the
amount of support provided, and determine whether the student is independently engaging in
class discussions (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000).

Further suggestions for modifying behavior can be found at the mentalhealth.net web site. These include
changing the environment, using models for learning new behavior, recording behavior, substituting new
behavior to break bad habits, developing positive expectations, and increasing intrinsic satisfaction.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

Behaviorism can be critiqued as an overly deterministic view of human behavior by ignoring the internal
psychological and mental processes, behaviorism oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior. Some
would even argue that the strict nature of radical behaviorism essentially defines human beings as
mechanisms without free will. The behaviorist approach has also been criticized for its inability to account
for learning or changes in behavior that occur in the absence of environmental input; such occurrences
signal the presence of an internal psychological or mental process. Finally, research by ethologists has
shown that the principles of conditioning are not universal, countering the behaviorist claim of
equipotentiality across conditioning principles. Behaviorism was developed as a counter to the
introspective approach that relied primarily, if not entirely, on internal, self-reflection on conscious, mental
activity. While radical behaviorism may be quite limited in its explanatory power, it served an important
role in allowing psychology to develop a scientific pursuit of knowledge about human nature and behavior.
Nevertheless, the link between stimulus and response is not just a simple, direct, cause and effect
relationship. Factors beyond the stimulus are involved in determining the response. Actions occur based
on purpose, and purpose is determined by the mind of the subject. Thus, a more complete understanding
of human behavior would need to include both the external actions of the body and the inner life of the
mind.

Educational Implications

Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral
change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval
from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They
generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those
that are repeated often (Parkay & Hass, 2000). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most
behavior is learned. If behaviors can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned. A behavior
that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far
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toward eliminating it. When the teacher does not respond angrily, the problem is forced back to its source-
the student. Other successful classroom strategies are contracts, consequences, punishment and others
that have been described in detail earlier. Behaviorist learning theory is not only important in achieving
desired behavior in mainstream education. Special education teachers have classroom behavior
modification plans to implement for their students. These plans assure success for these students in and
out of school.

Behaviorist Teaching Strategies.

 Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in many ways,
including:

 Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.

 Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response, gradually
getting harder with questions to help students.

 Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give
them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.

 Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material and
giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.

 Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can be in
the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more.

REFERENCES

 Cunia, E. (2005). Behavioral learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A Web Quest.
Retrieved from
http://erincunia.com/portfolio/MSportfolio/ide621/ide621f03production/behavior.htm

 Graham, G. (2002). Behaviorism. In E. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.

Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2002/entries/behaviorism/

 Hauser, L. (2006). Behaviorism. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from

http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/behavior.htm

 Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2006). An overview of the behavioral perspective. Educational Psychology
Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/behovr.html

 Huitt, W. (1996). Classroom management: A behavioral approach. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/manage/behmgt.html