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No Child Left Behind and Its Impact on Special Education 57
Family Educational and Privacy Act 59
The Individualized Family Service Plan 59
Response to Intervention 60
Social Developmental History 61
The Individual Education Program 64
Steps in the Evaluation Process from Referral
to Classification 64
Manifest Determination 72
Student’s Present Levels of Educational Performance 83
How the Students Disability Affects Involvement and
Progress in the General Education Curriculum
(including strengths and needs) 84
Current Educational Status 103
Statement of Eligibility 103
Rationale for the Type of Educational Program and Placement 109
Summary 115
Self-Reflection Questions 115
Class Discussion Questions 115
Section II 201
Introduction 201
Crisis Intervention 201
Roberts’s Stages of Crisis Intervention 202
Intrapsychic Humanism 204
Attachment Therapy 206
Play Therapy 209
Sand Tray Therapy 210
School-Based and School-Linked Services 211
Case Study to be Evaluated by Students 212
Summary 213
Activities 213
Self-Reflection Questions 214
Class Discussion Questions 214
Appendix A 315
Appendix B 319
Appendix C 320
Appendix D 321
Appendix E 323
Appendix F 379
Biographical Information 409
References 410
Index 423
Chapter 1
An Overview of the
Theoretical Information
Necessary in the Field of
School Social Work
The history of school social work is about 100 years old in the United States. It
can be followed along three paths of history: the socioenvironmental, the profes-
sional, and the legal histories. It can be chronicled by situations that occur in the
environment, educational, or societal as well as the historical and legal decisions
that have occurred.
Socioenvironmental
After the inception of compulsory education (that is, when the law mandated
that children receive an education) at the beginning of the 20th century, which was
created through individual state enactments, social work services began in schools
with a focus on attendance and academic achievement. In the years immediately
following the Great Depression, the focus shifted to socioeconomic circumstances
and primary needs such as food, clothing, and housing. A decade later, during the
conservative era following the end of World War II, social workers in schools
turned their attention to the intrapsychic and interpersonal issues of their students
(Leiby, 1978). By the 1960s and 1970s, school social workers were faced with
social and political upheavals, which placed a new emphasis on issues such as
1
2 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
racism, drug abuse, child abuse and neglect, and changing social times including
protests and violence resulting in a more “humanistic approach to education”
(Allen-Meares, 2004, p. 35).
In the 1980s, group work and the inception of legislation for the handicapped
became the new focus for school social work resulting in increased responsi-
bilities through special education programs for school social workers. Team-
work and evaluations were now involving social work interventions along with
consultation, evaluation, and services for classified students. These responsi-
bilities continue today. Between the 1990s and today, changes in the social
environment including gender, single-parent households, the growth of tech-
nology, changes in welfare, school-based violence, and community control of
schools have become major issues (2004). In addition to the special education
responsibilities, advocacy, support for students and families, as well as primary
prevention and crisis intervention have become the purview of our present-day
school social workers.
Professional
The professional growth of school social workers evolved from the days of the
“friendly visitor” in the early 1900s, to the present national standards for practic-
ing school social workers. In the early years, agencies outside of the schools sup-
plied the schools with social workers. In 1913, Rochester, NY, was the first to hire
school social workers. By 1919, a nationwide association of visiting teachers was
established, which lasted 10 years. After 1929, school social work services were
reduced due to the Depression resulting in a shift to social casework during the
1930s and 1940s. This move to casework stemmed from the absence of funds for
public school personnel.
During the 1950s, the focus shifted again toward cooperation with other school
professionals. In 1955, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) recog-
nized the specialization of school social work. A more professional title, school
social worker, was proposed in the 1960s, phasing out the former “visiting teacher”
label. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, a move was made to help handicapped
students through evaluation, consultation, and treatment. More recently, in the last
two decades, some states have developed requirements for the practice of school
social work. Additionally, the creation of the National School Social Work Asso-
ciation and a credential was established by NASW. (The credential information can
be found at http://www.socialworkers.org/credentials/default.asp.) This governing
body felt the essential need for such services in the schools and therefore provided
a special credential. As the needs of special students with disabilities were defined,
the federal government provided legislation that was enacted by the individual
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 3
states. Thus, social workers offer services in the schools through the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Allen-Meares, 2004).
Legal History
Between 1900 and today, many legal initiatives have developed influencing the
position of social workers in schools. Between 1852 and 1918, all the states insti-
tuted compulsory education. The reason for this was a need to prevent illiteracy in
children sparked by the influx of immigrant children. The idea of a democratic
society was also an influence. Discipline and civic duty bolstered the move for
public school education as well as the need to curb child labor (Leiby, 1978).
Horace Mann was an educational reformer who saw public school education as an
answer to the social dilemmas of the poor and common man created by the influx
of immigrants (Leiby, 1978). In 1917, the Smith-Hughes Act included vocational
education as a mandate, which led to employment in a vocational field directly out
of high school. During the Depression years (1929 to mid-1940s), the Civilian
Conservation Corps established educational agendas in the camps. During the
following decade (1950s) and through the 1980s, the courts ruled on many cases,
which made significant changes to education. In 1954, in Brown vs. The Board of
Education of Topeka U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren said, “We
conclude, unanimously, that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘sepa-
rate but equal’ has no place” (www.pbs.org). This decision overturned the 1896
court case of Plessey v. Ferguson. The original ruling of Plessey v. Ferguson,
which mandated racial segregation, was in violation of the Equal Protection
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided title programs
establishing grants for compensatory educational programs (www.ed.gov). The
Civil Rights Act (1964) influenced the advocacy position of school social work for
public programs to be desegregated (www.ourdocuments.gov/doc). Section 504,
the Rehabilitation Act (1973), established accommodations for students with veri-
fied disabilities. Public Law (PL) 94-142 (passed in 1975) ensured that all handi-
capped children would receive an education (Wright & Wright, 2007). In 1974, the
Family Education and Privacy Act gave parents full access to their child’s school
record and the ability to change information that they found incorrect (Wright &
Wright, 2007). In 1990, PL 94-142 was altered and became the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA ). It was again revised in 1997 and again in 2004
including a functional assessment that can be completed by the school social
worker. For a complete understanding refer to Chapter 4. A revision of the Ele-
mentary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was passed in 2002 and renamed
the No Child Left Behind Act. The main objective of No Child Left Behind is
4 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
“. . . to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to
obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challeng-
ing state academic achievement standards and state academic assessments”
(Wright & Wright, 2007, p. 299). It requires testing each year in grades 3 to 8,
“highly qualified teachers” in each classroom, “research-based instruction,”
parental decisions and involvement, selection of schools, and public reporting of
student progress (p. 299). (See Chapter 4 for more details.)
TIME LINE
1838–1920
•• 1838: Influence of Horace Mann
•• 1852–1918: Compulsory education in all U.S. states was accomplished
•• 1896: Plessey v. Ferguson
•• 1913: Social work services begin in schools; attendance and academic achieve-
ment were the emphasis; Rochester, NY, hires first school social worker
•• 1917: The Smith-Hughes National Vocational Education Act
•• 1919: National Association of Visiting Teachers established
•• 1920s: School social workers called friendly visitors
1929–1950
•• 1929: Great Depression
•• 1930s: Shift in school social work services: food, clothing, shelter were empha-
sized as result of the Depression
•• 1940s: Reduction in school social work services and a shift to casework
•• Civilian Conservation Corps established education in camps
•• World War II: School social work focus on intrapsychic and interpersonal issues
1950–1980
•• 1950: School social worker begins cooperating with school professionals
•• 1954: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
•• 1955: National Association of Social Workers (NASW) recognizes specialty of
school social work
•• 1960: Name of visiting teacher changed to school social worker
•• 1960–1970: School social worker face issues of racism, drug abuse, child abuse
and/or neglect, and “humanistic approach to education” (Allen-Meares, 2004)
•• 1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 5
1980–Present
•• 1980s: Group work for school social workers
•• 1980s: Increased role with special education for school social workers
•• 1980s: School social worker focuses on handicapped children, including evalua-
tion, consultation, and treatment
•• 1980s: Teamwork for school social workers, including consultation, evaluation,
and services for classified students
•• 1990: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
•• 1990s–present: School social worker deals with changes in family systems, growth
of technology, school violence, community, and control of schools
•• 1997: IDEA revised
•• 2002: No Child Left Behind Act
•• 2004: IDEA revised
•• 2000s: Requirements for school social work practice established by states
•• 2000s: NASW creates special credential for school social worker
A SYSTEMS APPROACH
At the turn of the 20th century, the term systems no longer only referenced military
and government interactions but rather included managerial, philosophical, and
scientific interrelationships as well. Social work was very much influenced by this
theory because it helped understand the person in the environment concept.
The social work systems approach has its etiology in the biological theory
developed by Ludwig von Bertanlanffy (Allen-Meares, 2004). Both speak of the
interrelationships of the organism (person) with its (his or her) environment.
Social work focuses on the person in the environment, better known by social
work professionals as PIE. We realize that the impact of the environment on the
person and that of the person on the environment is reciprocal. Therefore, our
need is to have an approach that recognizes this unique philosophy. Putting the
responsibility for the problem on the client alone defeats our purpose. We look at
the variables that are contributed by the environment in which the client func-
tions. The systems theory emulates the biological theory in that it recognizes and
6 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
takes into account the mutual relationship between an organism (person) and its
(his or her) environment. For example, a young girl became hysterical in her
English class one morning. Her teacher could not illicit from her the cause of this
reaction. I interviewed the child in a quiet, comfortable, and safe environment.
She shared with me that her stepfather had beaten her mother the night before as
well as the family dog. He also threatened to kill the dog. She was told by her
mother that she had to come to school, but when she arrived, she was over-
whelmed with emotion and was unable to verbalize the situation. Learning can
only take place under conditions that are supportive and safe. This child felt safe
in school and therefore could express her feelings. The school environment, as
opposed to her home, was supportive and safe. When the child understood after
contact with her mother that everyone at home was going to be cared for, she
could then resume her academic work. This case is a clear example of the inter-
relationship of environments and the need to modify the living environment to
allow for the client to function in the school milieu.
Each of us exists within an intricate system of micro and macro environments that
affect one another on many levels. The school as an organization needs to be exam-
ined from the perspective of how it functions in its interrelationship with the child,
parents, and community. It was established for the purpose of educating children.
The micro level includes the child and the teacher; the child and the administration;
the parent or guardian, the teacher, and administration; and the teacher and the
administration. Children are sent to school to learn, and the process can only be suc-
cessful with the cooperation of the family and the teacher. The teacher becomes the
substitute parent (in loco parentis), and the child therefore is in the care of the
teacher. It is a trusting relationship that permits communication and socialization.
The teacher must be interactive with the student and receive information that the
child is learning. Without these elements, education could not exist as it does today.
Children need to have an alliance with the teacher and the teacher with the student.
Parents need to believe that their child is being treated with respect and dignity as
well as being given the essential academic components by the teacher. Teachers
must also feel that there is respect and open communication with the parent(s) or
guardian(s). At times, the relationship of the child to the administration becomes one
of discipline. When the child’s education is not successful, the administration must
intercede to find the proper ingredients for the educational process to succeed. Par-
ents and administrators are often called on to intervene when the academic success
of the child is in question. The interaction of these people sometimes becomes the
pivotal component for preparing a plan for intervention so that the student’s educa-
tion can be maximized. The teachers and administrators must work together to
ensure the education of each child is carried out systematically and with regard for
the individual child. For example: A child is disciplined for not having completed an
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 7
assignment. The grandparent had died the night before but the child could not come
to explain his loss. When the child did not give the teacher an adequate answer for
not having done the assignment, he was sent to the principal’s office. Again, the
child said nothing. When the parent was contacted, the explanation was given and
the policy consequence was not enforced. The child was then sent to the social
worker for a counseling session to deal with his loss. The social worker views this
scenario as a positive situation, since the needs of the child and the teacher were
considered. In this way, the social worker can feel the PIE is reciprocal, and it fulfills
the ideal of the systems approach.
On the macro level, the school is a community organization that provides for the
welfare of the minors living in that environment. The school board is made up of
representatives of the community who make policy and programs that govern the
education of those children. This makes the school a vital component of the com-
munity that is entrusted with the human resources: the children. If the school is to
function successfully as part of the community, it needs to provide the children with
not only an adequate education but also an exceptional experience. The community,
in turn, must communicate with the school board and give input to their needs. The
credentials of the personnel must be carefully managed, and the school facility
must be a safe and secure environment where community members feel confident
that the inhabitants are carefully monitored. The school organization must relate to
other community organizations, and reciprocity should exist between the resources
of all community agencies. The school must remain open and available for use to
other agencies in the community and to the community members. The community
representatives (the board of education) must have dialog and respond to the com-
munity at large. For example, a beloved coach was losing his position because of
budget cuts. The students and parents presented the need for this coach and this
position to be kept because of the importance this program had to the students,
parents, and the community at large. The community members presented their case
at an open board of education meeting. After serious consideration, the board
decided to reinstate the coach and the program based on the case presented to them.
In this case, the social worker was queried by the parents and students as to how to
proceed with the handling of the dilemma and gave them a socially acceptable and
feasible way of handling the issue. They followed her advice and were successful.
The social worker in a school must be a viable, active player in the interaction
of the systems. The school is considered an open system. This openness occurs on
a continuum with some systems being more viable and open to the interactions
that occur between the system parts—that is, one that is influenced by different
systems on both a micro and macro level at various times. To maintain equilib-
rium, the school can receive and give data as a way of maintaining balance. The
school is affected by the social, economic, and political climate that surround it.
8 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
For example, zero tolerance is a concept that comes about because of the conser-
vative political climate. Gang influence is a social phenomenon that very much
impacts the dropout rate in school. The economic forces in a society facing reces-
sion cause students to have fewer supplies and often cause larger classroom size.
Because the relationships between social worker and client are so interconnected
with the relationships outside of this micro system, school social workers play a
viable, active role in maintaining the equilibrium between both the micro and
macro systems of their clients. As stated earlier, the impact of the PIE is para-
mount in understanding the open system concept.
On the macro level, a school and its community are impacted by the federal,
state, and local regulations and laws, which provide a foundation for how a specific
district must operate. This macro system surrounds the school system as seen in
the following examples. Federal mandates such as the No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (discussed in
Chapter 4) govern much procedural structure for each state, who in turn have vary-
ing interpretations of these acts, which affect each state’s schools municipality.
States are mandated to implement these acts, and variations in interpretation are
seen in different states.
Internal influences on school programs and policies are essential. Primary or
universal prevention is a first-line defense against a difficult problem and is broad
stroked to give exposure to the majority of students. It involves teaching about the
problem and how and why one should avoid getting involved. It targets those who
are not yet involved. Preventative programs for such elements as school violence,
dropout, bullying, and suicide and homicide as well as high-risk behaviors (drugs,
drinking, and smoking) are known as primary or universal prevention programs,
because they target those who are not yet involved in the problem behaviors.
These reach a majority of students and thus impact the environment of the com-
munity as well. As these variables are enacted in the schools, students then
respond to them and often cause changes to them thus creating the reciprocity of
the systems approach interacting.
Secondary or selective prevention is aimed at helping those who are experi-
menting with the problem behavior but have not gotten fully involved in it. In
addition to macro programs in the school prevention arena, micro programs exist
to help students and their families deal with personal problems such as mental
health issues. Many children and adolescents face mental health needs that often
are unrecognized or unmanaged by pediatricians and parents, resulting in more
children who are likely to go untreated (Committee on School Health, 2004).
Mental health services (secondary or selective prevention) can be either admin-
istered in the school setting or supplemented by wrap-around or auxiliary services
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 9
in the community. These are micro systems where the student and/or his or her
family are directly impacted by the inside or outside services available through the
school environment. For example, a 12-year-old boy on the brink of academic
failure was referred to the school social worker. During the session, the child dis-
closed that his parents are divorced and he lives with his mother and younger
brother and has no contact with his father, who is an active alcoholic. The school
social worker needs to assess the therapeutic needs of the student and his mother
and brother as well as involvement in supportive agencies in the community to
avert the child from emotional distress and school failure. Both the family and the
student can be helped by counseling services in the school, a possible recommen-
dation to Al-Anon, involvement with Big Brother, Big Sister, a support group for
single parents within the community, et cetera. The first issue to be dealt with is
to assess the supportive needs of the student. This would be done through a per-
sonal interview with the student. After realizing that the family is in crisis, the
parent would be called in for an interview with the social worker. Getting the
mother to explain specifically what is going on at home with her son would aid
the social worker to add support and explain how important it is for the mother to
receive support from the community agencies. A list and the phone numbers of
these agencies would be given to the mother for her to pursue. The social worker
might suggest counseling sessions with the mother and son with the school social
worker as well. This illustrates the interaction between an internal micro system
with services available in the external macro system.
As a school social worker, one must be adept in his or her ability to access com-
munity resources for students and their families. When problems become serious
involving multiple levels of intervention (tertiary or indicated prevention), systems
theory becomes essential to reach out to the community and access the services
needed by students and their families. Tertiary or indicated prevention is used after
a diagnosis has been given. It includes prevention of relapse and/or progression of
the impairment. For example, a student returning from a facility for drug addiction
may require the services of a local addiction counselor, Narcotics Anonymous, fam-
ily counseling, Al-Anon for family members, and possibly even probation. Proba-
tion for drug addiction sometimes can be a serious deterrent for further drug use.
AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
It includes the concept of homeostasis. That is, a change in one part of the organi-
zation causes a reciprocal change in another part (Bye & Alvarez, 2007).
There is a reciprocity of systems that tends to create a homeostatic environ-
ment. It is viewed as an adaptive pattern between the systems. The give-and-take
of this perspective lends itself to adjust the environment to the student as well as
the student to the environment. As both the student and the environment are
vibrant and ever-changing systems, the balance between these systems must
remain in equilibrium.
This approach is similar to the strengths perspective in social work as the focus
is not on changing the student but rather developing a fit between the student and
his or her environment. A school social worker needs to assess the environment of
the school and find a solution that fits from the outside environment (Ambrosino,
Hefferman, Shuttlesworth, & Ambrosino, 2000). In the early years of being a
school social worker, I realized that there weren’t any Alateen meetings in the
local area, despite that at the time many adolescents were abusing alcohol in
school. Through extensive networking and outreach, I was able to institute a meet-
ing in a local mental health agency. The local Alcoholics Anonymous chapter
cosponsored this intervention and provided transportation for students who
wanted to attend meetings.
The situation I faced illustrates an ecological approach in practice. School
social workers using this approach effectively will need to maintain a “dual focus”
(Dupper, 2003, p. 5). This focus entails helping the students develop ego strengths
as well as utilizing the community resources to provide needed services. Addition-
ally, with the continual growth of technology and the Internet, it is essential that
school social workers avail themselves of the community resources and interact
with all the components in the ecological system.
STRENGTHS PERSPECTIVE
The strengths perspective is one of the most recent practices in social work.
Evolving over the past 30 years, this theory moves away from the pathological
(traditional) model.
According to Dennis Saleebey, it is a paradigm shift. That is, it is a move away
from the traditional individual treatment or medical model. In their research,
Sybil and Steven Wolin realized that children who had suffered severe emotional
trauma in childhood had grown up to far surpass the expectations of anyone who
had treated them (Saleebey, 2001). The history of the strengths perspective dates
back to Jane Addams, who looked for the power in people to use as a building
tool to their present life (Saleebey, 2008). In the 1980s Rapp and Chamberlain
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 11
were working with the mentally ill and believed that the traditional approaches
did not work. They coined the term strengths perspective and used it to work with
that population. They believed the support and development of a client’s strengths
would lead to successful adaptation to their environment. Their efforts proved
successful (Saleebey, 2008). The strengths perspective requires a change in atti-
tude and awareness from pathological or deficits to identifying clients’ strengths.
The basic principles of the strengths perspective are: each of us has “assets,
resources and capacities” (Saleebey, 2008, p. 70); everyone knows what is “right
for them” (Saleebey, 2008, p. 70); trusting that a person will overcome his or her
adversity helps produce the change; and no one can predict a person’s maximum
capacity for growth (Saleebey, 2008).
Dennis Saleebey explains the following components for use of the strengths
perspective: focusing on the resilience of the individual or system being exam-
ined, but not ignoring the hardship experienced; avoiding the pathological
approach exhibited in the diagnostic manual; and examining (which is not unethi-
cal) the strengths and abilities of the client to bring to the surface the awareness
that one does possess these abilities and traits (Saleebey, 2001).
Developmental Theories
For a school social worker, understanding developmental theories are essential.
What is seen as normal at one time in a child’s or adolescent’s life may be per-
ceived as regressed or abnormal in other developmental stages. Charles Darwin
was the first to study the development of a child through observing and commu-
nicating with them. In 1877, he published a book titled The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals. He wrote this book after the birth of his son. It
documented his child’s development. He believed that understanding adult life
and its development would come from the comprehension of childhood experi-
ences and observations (Austrian, 2002).
There are many developmental theories varying in philosophical origins or
beliefs that pertain to children or the understanding of children. I examine the
theories of four developmental psychologists in this section. These theorists
were chosen because of their great influence on the field of child development
and their substantial influence on many others who followed. Sigmund Freud’s
theories came from treatment of adult patients and were concerned with the
pathology that originated in early childhood. The mother-child dyad was his
primary concern. Anna Freud’s work emanated from her work with children
and their parents. The theories that came from her work and that of White and
Heinz reflect both innate and maturational concepts in mental development.
Both the Freuds and Erikson examined the influence of the environment in
12 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
child development. The biopsychosocial concept evolved from their work and
is very much utilized by social workers (Austrian, 2002). Jean Piaget’s work
is of particular interest because it deals with cognitive development, which is
essential knowledge for those social workers in the educational environment.
His work as that of Darwin was done through observation of children in their
natural environment.
Sigmund Freud
Freud is recognized as the father of psychoanalysis. He originally worked as
a neuropathologist treating people with physical distress. Through his work with
hypnosis, he realized that much of the problem behaviors (particularly with
hysteria) he witnessed came from a psychological origin. He then began his
research into the psychological realm for answers to the pathology of his
patients (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006). He developed the theory of men-
tal life being divided into the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.
Much of what he found regarding normal and abnormal behavior was linked to
the unconscious and early childhood experiences.
He also developed the structural theory of personality consisting of the id,
the ego, and the superego (Ryckman, 2004). Defense mechanisms were the
constructs described to protect the ego from anxiety in the face of the battle that
ensues between the id (instinctual process) and the superego (conscience),
which tells us the difference between right and wrong (Ryckman, 2004). Freud
is seen as the foundation to much of the psychodynamic theory and therapy that
followed.
Although Sigmund Freud worked primarily with adults, his theories were based
on child development particularly stemming from childhood traumas or crises.
This theory is referred to as the Theory of Psychosexual Development and includes
five developmental stages, which are defined below.
•• Oral stage: Occurs between birth and 18 months. Pleasure in this stage is
obtained from oral gratification. It is pleasure received from the infant’s own body
referred to as autoerotic.
•• Anal phase: Occurs between 18 and 36 months. The child is interested in the
anal excretions and toilet training. The child at this time is aware of his or her
environment. This is the period where the child begins to assert his or her inde-
pendence.
•• Phallic phase: Occurs between ages of 3 to 5 years old. It is the precursor to
the genital period. At this time, the child experiences pleasure from touching his
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 13
or her genitals. This is the period when the Oedipal or Electra complex arises. In
the Oedipal period, the young boy becomes rivalrous with his father until he real-
izes that he cannot take his mother from his father and thus identification with the
father ensues.
In the Electra complex, the girl realizes she does not have a penis and develops
a feeling of rage toward the mother for depriving her of a penis. She would need
a penis so that she could experience her mother in the same way as her father does.
She then turns toward the father to give her the penis (a baby as a substitute) but
then is rejected by the father. It is a more difficult phase for a girl, since she must
turn against her primary object (her mother) (Austrian, 2002).
•• Latency stage: Occurs anywhere from 5 to 12 years old. During this period
of development the child is seen as having developed a superego or conscience.
Sexual issues are not in the forefront of the child’s development, but cognitive and
social issues seem to take precedence. Children enjoy school and play as well as
being with peers. Resolution of the Oedipal/Electra crisis is seen as the beginning
of the latency period, while puberty and sexual awakening is seen as the comple-
tion of this period (Austrian, 2002).
•• Genital stage: Freud was not as interested in this stage as in the first two
stages of development. After the Oedipal/Electra crisis was resolved, most adult
development would be molded by those early experiences. The genital period is
one where the physiological development leads the way for psychosocial develop-
ment. The person is capable of orgasm and procreation. The goal of this period is
to mate with an appropriate sexual partner. Genital life becomes the central theme.
The Oedipal issues again resurface but must be overcome before genuine sexual
interpersonal relationships can emerge. Sexual fantasies are usually a prelude to
the actual sexual encounters (Austrian, 2002).
Anna Freud
Anna Freud expanded on the work of her father by focusing on a more in-depth
exploration of the behaviors of children and adolescents. She did this through
observation and interview. She was interested more in the ego development in
children than her father. Her view of the ego evolved from that of her father’s (the
ego arises out of the id) to that of the ego psychologist who viewed the ego as a
separate innate entity. She also developed the concept of ego defenses (Robbins,
2006). She was also able to link the defenses to the appropriate developmental
stages (Turner, 1986). During World War II, she focused on the environmental
impact on children and adolescents. This, of course, has a direct influence on the
14 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
field of social work. Based on her observations, Anna Freud recognized the fol-
lowing stages of development in children and adolescents:
•• Infancy Stage: In this stage, there is no differentiation between the self and
others. The “part object” refers to the infant internalizing the object until his
or her needs are fulfilled and then withdraws. With “object constancy,” the
infant is able to know the object or mother will be there for them. The child
knows and maintains the object internally.
•• Anal Stage: In this phase, the child is controlling and domineering. He or she
asserts his or her independence in the environment.
•• Phallic Stage: This phase is expressed with competitiveness with the same-
sex parent and wanting the opposite-sex parent.
•• Latency Stage: The child’s energy is placed into friends, school, and activities.
•• Preadolescent: In this stage, the child returns to the need-fulfilling relation-
ship and an ambivalent relationship with the object.
•• Adolescence: In this phase, the child is interested in sexual functioning with
relationship outsiders (Austrian, 2002; Freud, 1965).
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902. He taught in Anna Freud’s Montessori
school and was later seen by her for psychoanalysis. He was not trained as a therapist
but later on, while at Yale School of Medicine, received a grant that he used to study the
child rearing of two Native American tribes. This helped him develop the psychosocial
theory that very much influences our field of social work (Austrian, 2002). Erikson was
interested in the healthy development of children where the Freuds focused more on
pathology. Erikson looked at ego development through societal influences. He exam-
ined development in view of changes in society such as the industrialization of this
country (Erikson, 1963). The Freuds examined development up to and including ado-
lescence, while Erikson thought that development didn’t end until the person’s life was
over. In the 1940s and 1950s, Erik Erikson’s study on the developmental phases not
only focused on children and adolescents but also focused on development across the
life cycle. His observations initiated his theories of positive development of the indi-
vidual’s interaction with his or her environment. Today, Erikson’s theories greatly align
with the social work practices in schools. The following are the developmental stages
(relevant to school aged children/adolescents) given to us by Erikson:
•• Trust vs. Mistrust: (Birth to 18 months) At this time, the primary object pro-
vides love, care, and consistency, which contribute to an infant’s development of
basic trust.
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 15
•• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: This normally develops in the infant from
18 months to 4 years. The child needs to be in charge of his or her body functions
by developing independent bathroom habits. With the parents’ help, the child will
develop security and the ability to make decisions.
•• Initiative vs. a Sense of Guilt: This occurs in the range of ages 4 to 6 years.
At this stage, the child is developing competence and the development of superego
(conscience). The child should be able to develop his or her own goals and focus
on their achievement.
•• Industry vs. Inferiority: This stage usually occurs between the ages of 6
and 12. The child does good “work” at this stage. This entails both school
work and play outside of their family. Their “work” is to develop skills in
new tasks.
•• Identity vs. Role Confusion: This stage should occur between the ages of 13
and 22. Thus, it signals the end of childhood/adolescence. It is a time of role devel-
opment leading to the final resolution of issues such as peer group, occupation,
and sexuality. A sense of loyalty and development of one’s own values is para-
mount during this stage. Involvement in the community and the culture is also part
of the rite of passage during this time (Erikson, 1963).
Jean Piaget
As Charles Darwin studied his child’s behavior and development from natural
observation so did Jean Piaget. He was innovational in the understanding and
chronicling of intellectual growth and mental development from infancy to ado-
lescence. His initial observations involved watching his own children in their
development. His theory views mental growth as being continuous and influenced
by the social and physical environment (Piaget, 1967). His work has a direct effect
on that of the school social worker, since knowledge of this type of development
is essential in the school environment. As social workers looking at child devel-
opment, we must know what is age appropriate to the child. It helps us view
behaviors and communications as healthy and normal. The following is a synopsis
of his developmental phases:
•• Sensory-Motor Stage: This occurs between birth and age 2. The child only
knows what he or she has directly experienced. Toward the end of this stage, the
child realizes that when an object is hidden it still exists.
•• Preoperational Stage: This occurs between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. At
this stage, the child believes that all things can be explained. He or she makes up
16 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
stories to support the reasons that he believes things happen. He or she animates
objects and doesn’t realize that natural phenomena are not man-made.
•• Concrete Operations: This stage occurs during ages 7 through 11. During
this time, the child is able to perceive actions in his or her mind. For example,
he or she can add or subtract in his or her head with no need for seeing the
concrete objects. Reversibility is recognized by the child. It is called concrete,
because the child only deals with objects that are physically there. Conservation
is a concept acquired during this period. That is, the child is able to see that a
quantity remains the same even if its physical appearance is altered.
•• Formal Operations: This stage is seen during ages 11 to 16. During this
stage, the child can think abstract thoughts, understand hypotheses, and draw
conclusions. He or she is able to understand the difference between the present
and the future. He or she develops values and morals. This is the last develop-
mental stage proposed by Piaget, although the depth and understanding of
knowledge does increase throughout adulthood (Singer & Reverson, 1978).
obtaining the same results. It should be an experimental design with control study
participants as well. This theory does appear in peer-reviewed journals that are
objective, governed by the experts in the field, and scrutinized scientifically
(Raines & Alvarado, 2007).
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory
The modality of cognitive behavioral therapy is evidence-based and a major
practice theory in social work. According to Corcoran (2006), it is “a broad class
of present-focused interventions with a shared focus on changing cognition
(thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions about the world), changing behavior, and
building clients’ coping skills” (p. vii).
It is a present-focused therapeutic intervention therapy. It focuses on chang-
ing cognition, which includes thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions that one holds
about his or her environment and developing coping abilities in the client
(Corcoran, 2006). According to Braswell and Bloomquist (1991), there are six
stages of this intervention for children: (1) assessment, (2) treatment-connected
assessment, (3) the treatment plan, (4) school consultation, (5) termination, and
(6) follow-up. The assessment includes a diagnosis, treatment, and development
of a plan for the student. The next step (treatment plan) is preparing for change
and subsequently involves skills training, which include the micro-systems of
the child. Consultation with the teacher and counselor in an effort to find out the
specifics of the child’s progress is an essential component of this plan. Termina-
tion is the process where the child reviews the progress made and prepares for
his or her independence with newly learned skills. Follow-up, after a given
period of time, is important to assess whether the gains made are still applicable
and to review the structure of the implemented plan. The type of skills focused
on depend on the needs found in the assessment process. Skills might include
learning how to study for a test, communicating with peers or a teacher, resolv-
ing a disagreement with a friend, and/or getting along with parents.
Example: A student came to me because she failed a test. She was anxious and
said that she was stupid. As part of the treatment assessment, I asked what grades
she had received before this test in that class. They were all average or above
grades. We then reviewed the study plan before a test and built on the already
established study skills. I consulted with her teacher to ascertain if there were any
changes in the student’s behavior or academic performance. The answer was
negative. I reviewed the information with the student and terminated the interven-
tion but asked her to return after the next test in that class to see if the intervention
had helped. It had.
18 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
Solution-Focused Therapy
Solution-focused therapy is another evidence-based practice modality. It is
based on a positive strengths model and avoids labeling issues as pathology. It also
relies on the client’s motivation to change. Discussion of the problem and its
definition are avoided, but what the client would like the situation to be is empha-
sized. It is based on a “constructionist epistemology” (Gingerich & Wabeke, 2001,
p. 34). That is, meaning is built on how the client sees himself or herself and the
major players in his or her life. The theory revolves around what a person thinks
is conceivable in his or her situation. Language becomes the vehicle for the con-
versation between the therapist and client(s). They work together to develop
meaning that leads to change (Gingerich & Wabeke, 2001). Problems are not
solved but the method of getting to an imagined goal is the focus of treatment. The
miracle question and scaling are two unique components of this therapy. The
miracle question asks a client the question: “What would it be like if you awak-
ened tomorrow and your problem was solved?” You then ask them to describe the
ideal. That becomes the goal of treatment. Scaling is the process of asking “on a
scale of 1 to 10, how do you see the problem?” This question gives a frame of
reference for comparison, and the client can see when the problem area is getting
better. This modality is used well with individuals, groups, and/or families.
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby did his empirical research with orphans during World War II,
which gave rise to the attachment theory. Bowlby proposed that healthy psycho-
logical development is based on the development of emotional “affectional bonds
or attachments” (Raphael, 1983, p. 68). Bowlby (1977) defines attachment theory
Chapter 1 Overview of Theoretical Information 19
Play Therapy
One of the most widely used interventions with children is play therapy. It is a
natural way of observing children in an environment that is comfortable and safe.
Children are able to uncover their inner conflict areas through fantasy, which
makes it easier for them to deal with. They can express their feelings in an indirect
20 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
way without hurting those whom they love. There are different modalities of play
therapy based on various theories. The ones selected for school purposes are:
object-relations play therapy, experiential play therapy, dynamic play therapy, and
narrative play therapy.
•• Object-relations play therapy is used with young children who exhibit emo-
tional and behavioral difficulties. It is founded on the attachment theory of John
Bowlby, Margaret Mahler, and Donald Winnicott. It is used by having the therapist
and child engage in play to further the interpersonal relationship between them
(Schafer & Kaduson, 2006). The relationship between the child and therapist is the
catalyst for growth and resolution of the child’s difficulty.
•• Experiential play therapy: Dr. Carol Norton (2007) explains that in this
intervention the child arrives at his or her emotions through his or her experi-
ences. This process is not cognitive, but through the experiences a cognitive
understanding of the world is formed. The child doesn’t think about his or her
experiences but uses his or her senses to incorporate information. This in turn
produces an emotional response. Experiences with the environment, according
to this school of thought, enable a child to move through developmental stages.
Experiences help a child progress developmentally. The experiential approach
to play therapy helps a child be empowered over his or her emotional life
(Schafer & Kaduson, 2006).
•• Dynamic play therapy is a developmental approach elucidated by Steve
Harvey, PhD to help a child and his or her family work toward communication and
understanding. “Movement, dramatic storytelling and artistic expression” (Schafer
& Kaduson, 2006) are used to confront the issues of the child and his or her fam-
ily (Schafer & Kaduson, 2006).
•• Narrative play therapy, according to Ann Cattanach, helps a child express
his or her life experiences and thus helps him or her understand, contemplate, con-
nect to, and alter. Through this process, the child can view himself or herself and
make the necessary changes with the help of the therapist. The child and therapist
also develop a space and story for the child to create his or her own identity
(Schafer & Kaduson, 2006).
Crisis Theory
Over the last 50 years, crisis theory has developed from the theories of Eric
Lindemann, Gerald Caplan, Howard Parad, Peter Sifneos, and Naomi Golan. It is
used with individuals, families, groups, and communities. It is an eclectic approach
that embraces the following concepts: each individual or group is subject to
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Hargrove called me to preach de Gospel—he was my old marster,
and he started me out wid my message.” Instantly the audience
quivered with quickened attention, for they knew at once that the
man in the pulpit had something great to tell.
“I was seekin’ God six long weeks—jes’ ’cause I was sich a fool I
couldn’t see de way. De Lord struck me fus’ on Cap’tal Squar’, an’ I
left thar badly crippled. One July mornin’ somethin’ happen’d. I was a
tobarker-stemmer—dat is, I took de tobarker leaf, an’ tor’d de stem
out, an’ dey won’t no one in dat fac’ry could beat me at dat work. But
dat mornin’ de stems wouldn’t come out to save me, an’ I tor’d up
tobarker by de poun’ an’ flung it under de table. Fac’ is, bruthr’n, de
darkness of death was in my soul dat mornin’. My sins was piled on
me like mount’ns; my feet was sinkin’ down to de reguns of despar,
an’ I felt dat of all sinners I was de wust. I tho’t dat I would die right
den, an’ wid what I supposed was my lars breath I flung up to heav’n
a cry for mercy. ’Fore I kno’d it, de light broke; I was light as a
feather; my feet was on de mount’n; salvation rol’d like a flood thru
my soul, an’ I felt as if I could ’nock off de fact’ry roof wid my shouts.
“But I sez to mysef, I gwine to hol’ still till dinner, an’ so I cried, an’
laffed, an’ tore up de tobarker. Pres’ntly I looked up de table, an’ dar
was a old man—he luv me, an’ tried hard to lead me out de
darkness, an’ I slip roun’ to whar he was, an’ I sez in his ear as low
as I could: ‘Hallelujah; my soul is redeemed!’ Den I jump back quick
to my work, but after I once open my mouf it was hard to keep it shet
any mo’. ’Twan’ long ’fore I looked up de line agin, an’ dar was a
good ol’ woman dar dat knew all my sorrers, an’ had been prayin’ fur
me all de time. Der was no use er talkin’; I had to tell her, an’ so I
skip along up quiet as a breeze, an’ start’d to whisper in her ear, but
just den de holin-back straps of Jasper’s breachin’ broke, an’ what I
tho’t would be a whisper was loud enuf to be hearn clean ’cross
Jeems River to Manchester. One man sed he tho’t de factory was
fallin’ down; all I know’d I had raise my fust shout to de glory of my
Redeemer.
“But for one thing thar would er been a jin’ral revival in de fact’ry dat
mornin’. Dat one thing was de overseer. He bulg’d into de room, an’
wid a voice dat sounded like he had his breakfus dat mornin’ on
rasps an’ files, bellowed out: ‘What’s all dis row ’bout?’ Somebody
shouted out dat John Jasper dun got religun, but dat didn’t wurk ’tall
wid de boss. He tell me to git back to my table, an’ as he had
sumpthin’ in his hand dat looked ugly, it was no time fur makin’ fine
pints, so I sed: ‘Yes, sir, I will; I ain’t meant no harm; de fus taste of
salvation got de better un me, but I’ll git back to my work.’ An’ I tell
you I got back quick.
“Bout dat time Mars Sam he come out’n his orfis, an’ he say: ‘What’s
de matter out here?’ An’ I hear de overseer tellin’ him: ‘John Jasper
kick up a fuss, an’ say he dun got religun, but I dun fix him, an’ he
got back to his table.’ De devil tol’ me to hate de overseer dat
mornin’, but de luv of God was rollin’ thru my soul, an’ somehow I
didn’t mind what he sed.
“Little aft’r I hear Mars Sam tell de overseer he want to see Jasper.
Mars Sam was a good man; he was a Baptis’, an’ one of de hed men
of de old Fust Church down here, an’ I was glad when I hear Mars
Sam say he want to see me. When I git in his orfis, he say: ‘John,
what was de matter out dar jes’ now?’—and his voice was sof’ like,
an’ it seem’d to have a little song in it which play’d into my soul like
an angel’s harp. I sez to him: ‘Mars Sam, ever sence de fourth of
July I ben cryin’ after de Lord, six long weeks, an’ jes’ now out dar at
de table God tuk my sins away, an’ set my feet on a rock. I didn’t
mean to make no noise, Mars Sam, but ’fore I know’d it de fires
broke out in my soul, an’ I jes’ let go one shout to de glory of my
Saviour.’
“Mars Sam was settin’ wid his eyes a little down to de flo’, an’ wid a
pritty quiv’r in his voice he say very slo’: ‘John, I b’leve dat way
myself. I luv de Saviour dat you have jes’ foun’, an’ I wan’ to tell you
dat I do’n complain ’cause you made de noise jes’ now as you did.’
Den Mars Sam did er thing dat nearly made me drop to de flo’. He git
out of his chair, an’ walk over to me and giv’ me his han’, and he say:
‘John, I wish you mighty well. Your Saviour is mine, an’ we are
bruthers in de Lord.’ When he say dat, I turn ’round an’ put my arm
agin de wall, an’ held my mouf to keep from shoutin’. Mars Sam well
know de good he dun me.
“Art’r awhile he say: ‘John, did you tell eny of ’em in thar ’bout your
conversion?’ And I say: ‘Yes, Mars Sam, I tell ’em fore I kno’d it, an’ I
feel like tellin’ eberybody in de worl’ about it.’ Den he say: ‘John, you
may tell it. Go back in dar an’ go up an’ down de tables, an’ tell all of
’em. An’ den if you wan’ to, go up-stars an’ tell ’em all ’bout it, an’
den down-stars an’ tell de hogshed men an’ de drivers an’ everybody
what de Lord has dun for yor.’
“By dis time Mars Sam’s face was rainin’ tears, an’ he say: ‘John,
you needn’ work no mo’ to-day. I giv’ you holiday. Aft’r you git thru
tellin’ it here at de fact’ry, go up to de house, an’ tell your folks; go
roun’ to your neighbours, an’ tell dem; go enywhere you wan’ to, an’
tell de good news. It’ll do you good, do dem good, an’ help to hon’r
your Lord an’ Saviour.’
“Oh, dat happy day! Can I ever forgit it? Dat was my conversion
mornin’, an’ dat day de Lord sent me out wid de good news of de
kingdom. For mo’ den forty years I’ve ben tellin’ de story. My step is
gittin’ ruther slo’, my voice breaks down, an’ sometimes I am awful
tired, but still I’m tellin’ it. My lips shall proclaim de dyin’ luv of de
Lam’ wid my las’ expirin’ breath.
“Ah, my dear ol’ marster! He sleeps out yonder in de ol’ cemetery,
an’ in dis worl’ I shall see his face no mo’, but I don’t forgit him. He
give me a holiday, an’ sent me out to tell my friends what great
things God had dun for my soul. Oft’n as I preach I feel that I’m doin’
what my ol’ marster tol’ me to do. If he was here now, I think he
would lif’ up dem kin’ black eyes of his, an’ say: ‘Dat’s right, John;
still tellin’ it; fly like de angel, an’ wherever you go carry de Gospel to
de people.’ Farewell, my ol’ marster, when I lan’ in de heav’nly city,
I’ll call at your mansion dat de Lord had ready for you when you got
dar, an’ I shall say: ‘Mars Sam, I did what you tol’ me, an’ many of
’em is comin’ up here wid da’ robes wash’d in de blood of de Lam’
dat was led into de way by my preachin’, an’ as you started me I
want you to shar’ in de glory of da’ salvation.’ An’ I tell you what I
reck’n, dat when Mars Sam sees me, he’ll say: ‘John, call me
marster no mo’: we’re bruthers now, an’ we’ll live forever roun’ de
throne of God.’”
This is Jasper’s story, but largely in his own broken words. When he
told it, it swept over the great crowd like a celestial gale. The people
seemed fascinated and transfigured. His homely way of putting the
Gospel came home to them. Let me add that his allusions to his old
master were in keeping with his kindly and conciliatory tone in all that
he had to say about the white people after the emancipation of the
slaves. He loved the white people, and among them his friends and
lovers were counted by the thousand.
III
HOW JASPER GOT HIS SCHOOLING
FOOTNOTE:
[1] First Families of Virginia.
IV
THE SLAVE PREACHER