1.

Answer the following briefly:

(a) Tracks and sectors

(b) 1/0 buffer

(c) Sequential search

(d) Huffman coding

(e) Strengths and weakness of CD-ROMS.

(a) Tracks and sectors: In computer storage systems, tracks and sectors are used to organize and locate
data on a disk. A track is a concentric circle on a disk surface, while a sector is a pie-shaped portion of a
track. Tracks are divided into sectors to store and retrieve data efficiently.

(b) 1/0 buffer: A 1/0 buffer, also known as an input/output buffer, is a temporary storage area used in
computer systems to hold data while it is being transferred between different components or devices. It
acts as a buffer, smoothing out the flow of data between devices that may operate at different speeds or
have varying data transfer rates.

© Sequential search: Sequential search, also known as linear search, is a simple searching algorithm
used to find a specific target value within a list or array. It involves checking each element of the list
sequentially until the target value is found or the entire list has been traversed. It is a straightforward but
potentially time-consuming method for searching.

(d) Huffman coding: Huffman coding is a compression algorithm used to reduce the size of data files. It
works by assigning variable-length codes to different symbols based on their frequency of occurrence in
the data. More frequently occurring symbols are assigned shorter codes, resulting in overall compression
of the data. Huffman coding is commonly used in file compression formats like ZIP and JPEG.

€ Strengths and weaknesses of CD-ROMs:

Strengths:

1. Large storage capacity: CD-ROMs can hold up to 700 MB (megabytes) of data, which was significant
when they were introduced.

2. Read-only: CD-ROMs are not easily writable, making them ideal for distributing software, music, and
other media that should not be modified by the end user.

3. Wide compatibility: CD-ROMs can be read by many different devices, including computers, CD players,
and game consoles.

Weaknesses:

1. Lack of rewritability: CD-ROMs cannot be easily erased or modified once they are burned, limiting
their usefulness for data that needs frequent updates.

2. Susceptibility to physical damage: CD-ROMs are prone to scratches, which can render them
unreadable.
3. Limited storage capacity compared to modern storage media: With the advancement of technology,
CD-ROMs have been surpassed by other storage options like DVDs, Blu-ray discs, and online storage,
which offer larger capacities.

4. Slow access times: CD-ROMs have slower data access times compared to solid-state drives (SSDs) or
hard disk drives (HDDs), leading to slower data retrieval and longer loading times for software or media.

2.(a) write about different ways to perform the file operations

Create, Open, Close, Read and write with respect to C++.

Why there is more than one way to do each operation?

(b) A couple of year ago a company bought a new COBOL compiler. One difference

Between the new compiler and the old compiler was that the new compiler did not automatically
close file when execution of a program terminated, whereas the old compiler did. What short of
problems did this cause when some of the old software was executed after having been recompiled
with the new compiler? Explain.

(a) Different ways to perform file operations (Create, Open, Close, Read, and Write) in C++:

1. Create a file:

- Using the C++ Standard Library: C++ provides the `ofstream` class to create and write to files. You can
use the `open()` method to create a new file or overwrite an existing file with the given name.

- Using C-style functions: The `fopen()` function from the C standard library can be used to create a file. It
returns a file pointer that can be used for writing data.

2. Open a file:

- Using the C++ Standard Library: C++ provides `ifstream` for reading and `ofstream` for writing. You can
use `open()` method with `ifstream` to open an existing file for reading and `ofstream` to open a file for
writing.

- Using C-style functions: The `fopen()` function can be used to open an existing file for reading or
writing, depending on the mode specified.

3. Close a file:

- Using the C++ Standard Library: For both input and output file streams, the file is automatically closed
when the stream goes out of scope or when the program terminates.

- Using C-style functions: The `fclose()` function is used to close a file that was opened with `fopen()`.

4. Read from a file:

- Using the C++ Standard Library: With `ifstream`, you can use `>>` operator or `getline()` function to read
data from a file.
- Using C-style functions: `fread()` and `fgets()` are commonly used functions to read data from a file
using C-style file handling.

5. Write to a file:

- Using the C++ Standard Library: With `ofstream`, you can use the `<<` operator to write data to a file.

- Using C-style functions: `fwrite()` and `fputs()` are commonly used functions to write data to a file using
C-style file handling.

Why there is more than one way to do each operation?

The availability of multiple ways to perform file operations in C++ is due to historical reasons and the
need to provide different programming paradigms to cater to different programming styles and
preferences. Some of the reasons include:

1. Compatibility: C++ inherits many file handling functionalities from the C programming language,
which has been in use for a long time. To maintain compatibility with existing codebases and to
make it easier for C developers to transition to C++, C++ continues to support C-style file
operations.
2. Flexibility: Different programmers may have different preferences and coding styles. By providing
multiple ways to perform file operations, C++ allows developers to choose the method that best
suits their needs and coding practices.
3. Backward compatibility: C++ strives to maintain backward compatibility, so older methods are
not deprecated to avoid breaking existing code.
4. Familiarity: Some developers coming from other languages or familiar with specific APIs may
prefer certain methods over others, and providing different options accommodates their
familiarity with those approaches.

5.
(b) Problems caused by the change in COBOL compiler file behavior:

When some of the old software was executed after being recompiled with the new COBOL compiler, the
lack of automatic file closure could lead to the following issues:

1. Resource Leakage: If the old software had not explicitly closed files before termination,
the new compiler’s behavior would result in resource leakage, as the files would remain
open even after program execution. This could lead to a shortage of available file
handles and other system resources.
2. Data Integrity: If the old software relied on the automatic file closure to ensure data
integrity (e.g., writing essential information during the file closing process), the lack of
closure could lead to incomplete or corrupted data in the files.

3. (a) How do you organize the data on disks? Explain with a next sketch.

(b) Suppose on organisation wishes to store a backup copy of a large mailing-list with
one million 100-byte records. if they went to store the file on a 6250-bpi tape that has
block
 gap of 0.3 inches, how much tape is needed (either in inches or feet)?

(a) Organizing data on disks:

Data on disks is organized using a hierarchical structure that consists of tracks, sectors,
and clusters (or blocks). Here’s a simplified sketch to illustrate the organization:

```
| Track 0 | Track 1 | Track 2 |
Sector 0 | Data Block | Data Block | Data Block |
Sector 1 | Data Block | Data Block | Data Block |
Sector 2 | Data Block | Data Block | Data Block |
…
```

- Tracks: The disk surface is divided into concentric rings called tracks. Each track
represents a complete revolution of the disk’s read/write head.
- Sectors: Each track is further divided into sectors, which are pie-shaped portions of the
track. Sectors provide a fixed-size area for storing data.
- Data Blocks: Sectors are typically divided into smaller units called data blocks or
clusters. These blocks are the minimum unit of storage allocation on the disk.

Data is stored in these data blocks, and the file system keeps track of the addresses
(track, sector, and block) where each file’s data is located. This organization allows for
efficient data access and retrieval on the disk.

(b) Calculation of tape length needed for storing the mailing list:

Given:
- Number of records: 1,000,000
- Record size: 100 bytes
- Tape specifications:
- Bits per inch (BPI): 6250
- Block gap: 0.3 inches

To calculate the tape length needed, we need to consider the total data size, the space
between blocks, and any additional overhead.

1. Calculate the total data size:

Total data size = Number of records × Record size
Total data size = 1,000,000 records × 100 bytes = 100,000,000 bytes

2. Convert the data size to inches:

 Data size in inches = Total data size / BPI
Data size in inches = 100,000,000 bytes / 6250 BPI

3. Calculate the additional space for block gaps:

Block gaps = (Number of records – 1) × Block gap
Block gaps = (1,000,000 – 1) × 0.3 inches

4. Calculate the total tape length needed:

Total tape length = Data size in inches + Block gaps

Substituting the values:

Total tape length = (100,000,000 bytes / 6250 BPI) + ((1,000,000 – 1) × 0.3 inches)

Performing the calculations will give you the required tape length, either in inches or
feet, depending on your preference.

4(a) Explain about various buffering strategies.

(c) How do you handle buffer bottlenecks in buffer management? (a) What is redundancy
reduction ? Explain.

(c) Explain the procedure for deleting variable-length records.

(a) Various buffering strategies:

Buffering strategies are techniques used to manage data transfer between different components or
devices efficiently. Here are some common buffering strategies:

1. Single Buffering: In single buffering, a single buffer is used to hold the data being
transferred. The data is read or written directly from/to the buffer, and the process waits
for the operation to complete before continuing.
2. Double Buffering: Double buffering involves using two buffers. While one buffer is being
read or written, the other buffer can be filled or emptied simultaneously. This technique
helps to overlap I/O operations, reducing the waiting time and increasing overall
throughput.
3. Circular Buffering: Circular buffering, also known as ring buffering, uses a fixed-size
buffer with a read pointer and a write pointer. Data is written into the buffer at the write
pointer and read from the buffer at the read pointer. Once the buffer is full, new data
overwrites the oldest data in a circular manner.
4. Prefetching: Prefetching is a strategy where data is read or loaded into a buffer ahead of
time, anticipating future access. This can help reduce access latency and improve
performance by having the data ready before it is actually needed.
5. Pipelining: Pipelining involves dividing an operation into multiple stages and using
buffers between the stages to allow concurrent execution. Each stage processes a
 portion of the data, and the buffered data moves from one stage to the next,
overlapping the processing of multiple data items.
6. Adaptive Buffering: Adaptive buffering adjusts the buffer size dynamically based on the
workload or system conditions. It can increase or decrease the buffer size to optimize
performance and resource usage.
(b) Handling buffer bottlenecks in buffer management:

Buffer bottlenecks can occur when the buffer size is insufficient to handle the volume of data being
transferred. To handle buffer bottlenecks, several techniques can be employed:

1. Increase buffer size: Increasing the buffer size can help accommodate more data,
reducing the chances of buffer overflows and improving overall performance.
2. Optimize data transfer rates: Analyze the data transfer rates between the source and
destination and ensure they are balanced. If the source is producing data faster than the
destination can consume, it can lead to buffer bottlenecks. Adjusting the data transfer
rates can help mitigate this issue.

3. Prioritize data: If the buffer is overloaded with different types of data, it may be helpful
to prioritize the data based on their importance or urgency. This way, critical data can be
processed first, reducing the impact of buffer bottlenecks.
4. Implement flow control mechanisms: Flow control mechanisms can regulate the flow of
data between components to prevent buffer overflows. Techniques like backpressure,
sliding window protocols, or congestion control algorithms can be employed to manage
data flow and prevent buffer bottlenecks.
(a) Redundancy reduction:

Redundancy reduction refers to the process of eliminating or minimizing redundant information in data
storage or transmission. Redundancy can occur when there is unnecessary duplication or repetition of
data, leading to increased storage requirements and inefficient data handling. Reducing redundancy
offers several benefits, including improved storage efficiency, faster data processing, and reduced
bandwidth usage. Techniques for redundancy reduction include:

1. Data compression: Compression algorithms eliminate redundant information by

encoding data in a more compact representation. This can be lossless compression,
which retains all original data, or lossy compression, which sacrifices some data accuracy
for further reduction.
2. Deduplication: Deduplication identifies and eliminates duplicate copies of data, storing
only a single instance. This technique is commonly used in backup systems and storage
systems to save space and reduce data redundancy.
3. Normalization: Normalization is used in database systems to eliminate data duplication
by structuring data into separate tables and defining relationships between them. It
ensures that

1,(a) What is Indexing? Why is it needed? Explain with an example.

(b) How can you improve the secondary index structure with the inverted lists?

(a) Indexing:

Indexing is a data structure or technique used in databases to improve the efficiency of data
retrieval operations. It involves creating a separate structure that maps key values to their
corresponding data records or disk addresses. The index provides a faster way to locate specific
data items based on the search criteria.

The need for Indexing arises from the following reasons:

1. Efficiency: Indexing allows for faster data retrieval by reducing the number of disk accesses
required to locate specific data. Without an index, a database system would need to scan
through the entire dataset to find the desired records, which can be time-consuming for large
datasets.
2. Performance optimization: By utilizing indexes, query performance can be significantly
improved, especially for complex search conditions or when working with large datasets.
3. Selectivity: Indexing allows for efficient filtering and selection of data based on specific
criteria, improving the overall performance of data retrieval operations.

Example: Consider a large database of student records with attributes such as student ID, name,
age, and grade. To efficiently retrieve records based on the student ID, an index can be created
on the student ID attribute. This index would store the student ID values along with the
corresponding disk addresses or pointers to the physical location of the data records. With this
index in place, searching for a specific student’s record based on their ID becomes much faster as
the database system can directly locate the record using the index without scanning the entire
dataset.

(b) Improving secondary index structure with inverted lists:

Inverted lists are a technique used to enhance the secondary index structure, specifically in
scenarios where the index key has multiple occurrences in the main dataset. The inverted list
structure maintains a list of references to all occurrences of a particular key value.

Here’s how inverted lists improve the secondary index structure:

1. Efficient handling of multiple occurrences: In a typical secondary index structure, each

key value is associated with a single record or disk address. However, if the same key
value appears multiple times in the main dataset, a secondary index structure with
inverted lists allows for capturing all occurrences efficiently.
2. Reduced index size: By using inverted lists, the index structure can avoid duplicating the
key value for each occurrence. Instead, the key value is stored once in the index, and the
inverted list associated with it contains references to all occurrences. This reduces the
index size compared to a structure that duplicates the key value for each occurrence.
 3. Fast access to individual occurrences: With inverted lists, it becomes easier to access
individual occurrences of a particular key value. The inverted list provides direct pointers
or references to the occurrences, allowing for efficient retrieval and processing.
4. Support for advanced querying: Inverted lists enable advanced querying capabilities
such as phrase searches, wildcard searches, and range queries. These operations can be
efficiently performed by leveraging the inverted lists to identify the relevant occurrences
and retrieve the corresponding records.
Overall, inverted lists enhance the secondary index structure by efficiently handling multiple
occurrences of key values, reducing index size, enabling fast access to individual occurrences,
and supporting advanced querying capabilities.

2 Explain different collision resolution strategies.

3. Explain the following:

2. Collision resolution strategies:

Collision resolution strategies are used in hash-based data structures, such as hash tables, to
handle situations where two or more keys map to the same hash value (collision). Here are some
commonly used collision resolution strategies:

1. Separate Chaining: In separate chaining, each bucket or slot in the hash table contains a
linked list or some other data structure. When a collision occurs, the colliding elements are
stored in the same bucket as a linked list. This way, multiple values can be associated with
the same hash value.

2. Open Addressing:
a. Linear Probing: In linear probing, if a collision occurs, the algorithm checks the next available
(unoccupied) slot in the hash table and places the item there. The search for an empty slot
continues sequentially until an available slot is found.
b. Quadratic Probing: Quadratic probing uses a quadratic function to determine the next probe
location in case of a collision. It searches for the next available slot by incrementing the probe
position by a quadratic value (e.g., probing sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, …).
c. Double Hashing: Double hashing uses two hash functions to calculate the probe sequence.
When a collision occurs, it calculates a new hash value using the second hash function and
probes for the next available slot based on this new hash value.

2. Cuckoo Hashing: Cuckoo hashing involves using multiple hash functions and multiple hash
tables. Each key is stored in one of the hash tables based on the output of the hash
functions. If a collision occurs, the existing key is evicted from its slot and moved to an
alternative location determined by another hash function.

3. Robin Hood Hashing: Robin Hood hashing is similar to linear probing, but it uses a technique
where colliding elements are “robbed” from slots that are further away from their ideal
 positions. This helps to achieve a more balanced distribution of elements and reduces the
worst-case search time.

4. Coalesced Hashing: Coalesced hashing is a collision resolution strategy where all the
elements are stored in a single large array. The array contains both the actual data and the
overflow areas. Each element in the array contains a pointer to the next available slot or a
linked list of colliding elements.

The choice of collision resolution strategy depends on factors such as the expected load factor,
the number of collisions anticipated, the desired time complexity for insertion and retrieval
operations, and the available memory.

3. Please provide the missing details or question for me to assist you further.

3. Explain the following:

(a) Extensible Hashing with an example

(b) Simple prefix B+tree
© Hashing files on CD-ROM.

(a) Extensible Hashing:

Extensible hashing is a dynamic hashing technique that allows for efficient insertion and retrieval
of data in hash tables, even when the number of keys is not known in advance. It dynamically
adjusts the hash table structure to accommodate increasing data without causing significant
performance degradation. Here’s how it works:

1. Initial Setup:
- Start with a small hash table with a fixed number of buckets, each identified by a global
directory entry.
- Each bucket has a local directory entry that stores the number of keys it currently holds.

2. Hashing Process:
- Keys are hashed to determine the bucket where they should be stored.
- Initially, the global directory points to the same set of local directories as the number of
buckets in the hash table.
- If a bucket becomes full upon insertion, it is split into two new buckets, and the global
directory is updated to reflect the new bucket structure.
- The splitting is done by adding an additional bit to the hash function, allowing the key
distribution to be evenly spread across multiple buckets.

3. Directory Updates:
 - When a bucket split occurs, the corresponding local directory entry is updated to point to the
new buckets.
- The global directory is also updated to include additional bits for the newly added bucket
addresses.

Example:
Suppose we have an extensible hash table with an initial size of four buckets (0, 1, 2, 3) and a
hash function that uses two bits from the key to determine the bucket. Initially, the global
directory points to the same set of local directories as the number of buckets.

- We insert keys 5, 8, 10, 12, and 14 into the hash table.

- The hash function maps key 5 to bucket 1, key 8 to bucket 0, key 10 to bucket 2, key 12 to
bucket 3, and key 14 to bucket 0 (collision).
- Since the bucket for key 14 (bucket 0) is already full, a split occurs, resulting in two new
buckets: bucket 4 and bucket 5.
- The global directory is updated to include additional bits, and the local directories are updated
accordingly.

The structure after the split may look like this:

Global Directory: (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Local Directory:
- Bucket 0: (8, 14)
- Bucket 1: (5)
- Bucket 2: (10)
- Bucket 3: (12)
- Bucket 4: ()
- Bucket 5: ()

(b) Simple Prefix B+tree:

The simple prefix B+tree is a variant of the B+tree data structure that optimizes search
operations for keys with common prefixes. It combines the advantages of the B+tree structure
for efficient range searches with prefix-based optimizations. Here's how It works:

1. Key Structure:
- Each key in the tree is divided into two parts: a common prefix and a suffix.
- The common prefix represents a sequence of characters shared by multiple keys.
- The suffix represents the unique part of each key beyond the common prefix.

2. Node Structure:
- Each node in the simple prefix B+tree consists of multiple key-value pairs and child pointers.
- The keys within each node are sorted based on the common prefix.
- Child pointers guide the search process and allow efficient navigation through the tree.
3. Searching:
- During a search operation, the common prefix is matched against the search key.
- The search process follows the child pointers based on the matching prefix until it finds the
appropriate leaf node or the point of insertion.

4. Optimization:
- The simple prefix B+tree reduces
(a) What is a File? Explain difference between physical file and logical file?
(b)Explain different file processing operations ?

(a) File:

A file is a named collection of related information or data that is stored on a computer or other
storage medium. Files are used to store and organize data in a structured manner, allowing for
easy access and retrieval. They can contain various types of data, such as text, images, audio,
video, and more.

Difference between Physical File and Logical File:

1. Physical File: A physical file refers to the actual data stored on a storage medium,
such as a hard disk, solid-state drive, or tape. It represents the tangible
representation of the file, consisting of binary data arranged in a specific format
according to the storage medium’s characteristics. The physical file includes the file
header, data blocks, metadata, and any other information required to represent the
file on the storage device.

2. Logical File: A logical file, also known as a logical view or logical representation,
refers to how the file is perceived or accessed by software applications or users. It
represents the logical organization and structure of the file, independent of the
physical representation. The logical file includes information such as file name, file
size, file type, and the arrangement of data within the file, such as records, fields, or
hierarchical structure.
In summary, the physical file represents the actual storage of data on a storage medium, while
the logical file represents the conceptual organization and structure of the file, as perceived by
software or users.

(b) Different File Processing Operations:

File processing operations involve various actions performed on files to manage, manipulate,
and retrieve data. Here are some common file processing operations:

1. File Creation: Creating a new file involves specifying a unique file name, determining
the file's attributes (such as access permissions and file type), and allocating the
necessary storage space on the storage medium.
 2. File Opening: Opening a file establishes a connection between the file and the
executing program or user. It allows for subsequent operations like reading, writing,
and seeking within the file. Opening a file involves identifying the file by its name or
file handle and obtaining the necessary access rights.

3. File Reading: Reading from a file involves retrieving data from the file and
transferring it to the executing program or user. The read operation typically involves
specifying the location (such as a specific byte or record) from where data should be
read and the amount of data to be read.

4. File Writing: Writing to a file involves storing data from the executing program or
user into the file. The write operation typically involves specifying the location
where the data should be written and the data itself. Writing may involve
overwriting existing data or appending data to the end of the file.
5. File Closing: Closing a file terminates the connection between the file and the
executing program or user. It ensures that any pending changes are saved, releases
resources associated with the file, and makes the file available for other processes or
users.

6. File Seeking: Seeking or positioning within a file involves moving the file pointer to a
specific location or offset within the file. Seeking allows for random access to
different parts of the file, enabling efficient reading or writing operations at specific
locations.

7. File Deletion: Deleting a file involves permanently removing the file from the storage
medium. It typically involves releasing the storage space occupied by the file and
updating the file system’s metadata.

These file processing operations provide the necessary functionality for managing and
manipulating data stored in files, enabling efficient data storage, retrieval, and manipulation.

5.(a) Explain the differences between magnetic tape and disk?

(c) Explain internal organization of hard disk?

(a) Differences between Magnetic Tape and Disk:

Magnetic Tape:
1. Sequential Access: Magnetic tape is designed for sequential access, meaning that data is
accessed in a sequential order from the beginning to the end of the tape. To access a specific
piece of data, the tape needs to be sequentially read until the desired location is reached.
2. Slower Access Speed: Compared to disks, magnetic tape has slower access speeds. Due to its
sequential access nature, it takes more time to locate and retrieve specific data.
3. Large Storage Capacity: Magnetic tape can store a large amount of data, typically terabytes or
even petabytes. It is commonly used for long-term archival storage of data.
4. Lower Cost: Magnetic tape is generally less expensive than disks when considering the cost
per unit of storage capacity.
5. Portability: Magnetic tape is relatively portable and can be easily transported for off-site
storage or data transfer purposes.

Disk:
1. Random Access: Disks allow for random access, meaning that data can be directly accessed
from any location on the disk without the need to sequentially read through the entire disk. This
enables faster access to specific data.
2. Faster Access Speed: Disks provide faster access speeds compared to magnetic tape. The data
can be accessed quickly due to the ability to read data from any location on the disk.
3. Smaller Storage Capacity: Although disk capacities have increased significantly over time, they
generally have smaller storage capacities compared to magnetic tapes. Disk capacities are
typically measured in terabytes.
4. Higher Cost: Disks are generally more expensive than magnetic tapes when considering the
cost per unit of storage capacity.
5. Durability: Disks are more durable than magnetic tapes and can withstand handling and
multiple read/write operations better.
6. Random Data Modification: Disks allow for random modification of data, making them
suitable for applications that require frequent data updates or modifications.
7. Commonly Used in Real-Time Systems: Disks are commonly used in real-time systems where
fast data access and updates are required.

(b) Internal Organization of Hard Disk:

A hard disk drive (HDD) consists of several components and an internal organization that allows
for data storage and retrieval. Here are the key components and their functions:

1. Platters: Hard disks have one or more circular platters coated with a magnetic
material. Data is stored on these platters in the form of magnetized regions.

2. Spindle: The platters are mounted on a spindle that rotates them at a high speed,
typically ranging from 5,400 to 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). The rotation
speed affects the data transfer rate of the hard disk.

3. Read/Write Heads: Each platter has a read/write head positioned above it. The
heads are responsible for reading data from and writing data to the platters. They
float on a thin cushion of air created by the rotating platters.
4. Actuator Arm: The actuator arm holds the read/write heads and positions them over
the desired tracks on the platters. It moves the heads radially across the platters
during data access.
 5. Tracks and Sectors: The platters are divided into concentric circles called tracks. Each
track is further divided into sectors. A sector is the smallest unit of data that can be
read from or written to the hard disk.
6. Controller and Interface: The hard disk is connected to the computer’s motherboard
through a controller and an interface, such as SATA (Serial ATA) or SCSI (Small
Computer System Interface). The controller manages data transfer between the hard
disk and the computer system.

When data is written to the hard disk, the controller sends signals to the read/write heads to
magnetize specific regions on the platters. When data is read from the hard disk, the heads