UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Civil Engineering Department

TranspoEng – Transportation Engineering

MODULE 2.0. Traffic Flow Characteristics

Topic Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this module, the student must be able to:
1. Enumerate and discuss the 3 main approaches in understanding traffic flow;
2. enumerate and define the different traffic flow parameters; and
3. solve problems relating to traffic flow parameters.

A. 3 Main Approaches in Understanding Traffic Flow

1. Macroscopic Approach
- Looks at the flow in an aggregate sense
- Appropriate for studying the steady-state of flow.
2. Microscopic Approach
- Considers the response of each individual vehicle in a disaggregate manner.
3. Human Factor Approach
- Considers how driver locates himself with reference to other vehicles and to the
highway/guidance system

B. Traffic Flow Parameters

1. Speed (u)
 Rate of motion, distance per unit time.
a. Time-Mean Speed (Arithmetic-Mean Speed)
 The average speed of all vehicles passing at some designated point along the roadway.
n

∑ ui
ut = i=1
n
where: ut = time-mean speed in unit distance per unit time
ui = spot speed (the speed of the vehicle at the designated point on the highway, as might
be obtained using a radar gun) of the ith vehicle, and
n = no. of measured vehicle spot speeds

b. Space-Mean Speed (Harmonic-Mean Speed)

 the average speed of all vehicles passing through a known length of roadway.
l 1 n
u s= n = n = n

[( )] ()
1 1 1 1
∑
n i=1
ti ∑
n i=1 1
∑
i=1 ui
ti
where: us = space-mean speed in unit distance per unit time,
 l = length of roadway used for travel time measurement of vehicles
ti = time necessary for the vehicle i to travel a roadway section of length l
n = number of measured vehicle travel times.

c. Relationship b/n SMS and TMS

 It has been shown from the field data that the relationship between space-mean speed and time
mean-speed can give as
2 2
σs σt
ut =u s+ ∨u s=ut −
us ut
2
where: σs = the variance of the space-mean speed
σt2 = the variance of the time-mean speed
Note: The space-mean speed will always be lower than the time-mean speed, unless all vehicles are
travelling at exactly the same speed, in which case the two measures will be equal.

d. Example
 The speed of 25 cars was observed. 8 cars were noted to travel at 35 kph, 10 cars at 40 kph, 2
cars at 45 kph, and 5 cars at 50 kph. Assuming that each car was traveling at constant speed,
determine the time-mean speed and the space-mean speed.

Solution:
For the time-mean speed, ut:
( 8 x 35 ) + ( 10 x 40 ) + ( 2 x 45 ) +(5 x 50) 1020
ut = = =40.8 kph
25 25

For the space-mean speed, us:

25
u s= =39.42 kph
8 10 2 5
+ + +
35 40 45 45

2. Flow (q)
a. Volume (V)
 actual number of vehicles observed or predicted to be passing a point during a given time
interval.
b. Flow (q)
 represents the number of vehicles passing a point during a time interval less than 1 hour, but
expressed as an equivalent hourly rate.
n
q=
T
c. Examples
 Calculate the rate of flow of the following vehicles.
Time Period (PM) Volume (vehicles)
4:30 – 4:45 570
4:45 – 5:00 650
5:00 – 5:15 840
5:15 – 5:30 930
 Solution:
First method: Determine the rate of flow for each time interval, convert it to an hourly rate then
take the average of flow rate. Note: Time interval for each observation is every 15 mins. (0.25
hours).

Time Period (PM) Volume (veh) Flow (q, veh/hr)

4:30 – 4:45 570 2280
4:45 – 5:00 650 2600
5:00 – 5:15 840 3360
5:15 – 5:30 930 3720
Sum 11960

11960
q= =2990 veh/hr
4

Second method: We simply take the sum of the total number of observed vehicles then divide it
by the total time of observation. Make sure to express the computed flow into an hourly rate.
( 570+650+840+ 930 ) veh . 60 mins . veh
q= x =2990 .
60 mins . 1 hr . hr

3. Density or Concentration (k)

 the number of vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point in time.
 expressed in veh/km or in vehicles per kilometer per lane (vpkpl) if multiples lanes are
involved.
n
k=
L
where: k = density (veh/km or vpkpl)
n = no. of observed vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point in time
L = length of the road section.

a. Examples:
 A driver decides to measure the density on a 500-m stretch of a three lane highway. He counts 30
vehicles in front of him before leaving the highway. What is the HW density?
Solution:
Directly substitute the given to the density equation by taking into consideration the number of the
highway lanes.

n 30 veh . 1000 m veh

k= = x =20
L x no . of lanes 500 m x 3 lanes 1 km km−lane

Note: The units for the distance must be converted to km for SI units or miles if in English units.

4. Spacing (s) & Headway (h)

 a. Space headway/Spacing (s)
 the distance between successive vehicles in a traffic stream as measured from front bumper to
front bumper

1
s=
k
 Note: The unit is usually expressed in meters (SI units) or in feet (English units).

b. Time headway/headway (h)

 the corresponding time between successive vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway
n−1

∑ hi
h= i =1
n−1
For longer observation period:
n

∑ hi ≅ T ∧n−1 ≅ n ,∨ht ≅ Tn
i=1
Therefore, the average time headway and flow rate are related as follows:
1
h=
q
 Note: The unit is usually expressed in seconds or in minutes.

c. Examples:
 During morning peak hour, the average headway of UP-Katipunan jeepneys is estimated at 5-
minutes. If the passenger demand during the same period is 240, determine whether there is a
need to increase the number of jeepney units (or shorten the headway) for this route. Assume that
passenger demand is evenly distributed within that period and the average load/occupancy is 14
passengers per jeepney. (Note: This assumption may not necessarily be true due to the
fluctuation of passenger demand and variability of passenger occupancy). Source: Sigua, 2008.
Solution:
Solve first for the flow rate during the peak hour using the average headway.
1 1 60 min .
q= = x =12 jeepneys/hr
h 5 min. 1 hour
Determine the total no. of passengers that can take a ride using the average load of 14
passengers per jeepney.
Total no . of passengers=12 x 14=168 passengers
Since the computed no. of passengers that can take the ride is less than the passenger demand
(240 passengers) , there is a need for additional jeepney units to accommodate the passenger
demand during the peak period.

5. Lane Occupancy (R)

 Measure used in freeway surveillance

R=
∑ of lengths of vehicles = ∑ Li
length of roadway section D
  the ratio of the time that vehicles are present at a detection station in a traffic lane compared to
the time of sampling
total time vehicle detector is occupied ∑ t o
Lo = =
total observation time T

a. Examples:
 Four vehicles 18, 19, 22, and 24 ft. long, are distributed over a length of a freeway lane 500 ft.
long. What is the occupancy and density?
Solution:
Determine the occupancy

R=
∑ Li = 18+19+22+24 =0.166
D 500
Determine the density. Since there were only 4 vehicles that was observer over the 500 ft
freeway, then
4 veh 5280 ft
k= x =42.24 veh/mile ≈ 42 veh /mile
500 ft 1 mile
Another solution for the density is to divide the occupancy by the average length of observed
vehicles:
R 0.166 5280 ft veh
k= = x =42.24 ≈ 42 veh /mile
∑ Li 18+19+22+24
ft
1 mile mile
n 4

6. Clearance (c) & Gap (g)

 related to parameters of spacing (s) and headway (h)
 spacing is to clearance, as headway is to gap

a. Clearance
- the distance between the rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the
following vehicle.
c=s−L
or
c=g x u
b. Gap
- the measure of the time that elapses between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of
the second vehicle at the designated test point. It is measured between the rear bumper of the
leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle.
L
g=h−
u
where: c = clearance (in meters or feet)
 L = mean length of vehicles (m)
g = gap (sec.)
s = mean spacing (m or ft)
h = mean headway (sec)
u = mean speed (m/sec or ft/sec)
C. Additional Topic (Time-Space Diagram)
- The time-space diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship between the location of
vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicle progress along the highway.
Applications: Shockwaves and wave propagation
Things to consider:
- the slope of each line is equivalent to the speed of each vehicle in space. The steeper the slope,
the higher the speed or vice versa. Curved portions of the trajectories represent vehicles
undergoing speed changes (acceleration or deceleration).
- The horizontal distance between two lines represents the headway.
- The vertical distance between two line corresponds to the spacing between the two vehicles.

Example:
1. The figure below shows a time-space plot of vehicles within a time-space domain. Based on the
information contained in this figure, determine the parameters as required by the following
conditions:
a. If an observer counts six vehicles crossing line A-A’ in 25 seconds, calculate the flow of vehicles
per hour (q).
b. A timer is begun at time 0.0 sec continuing for 25 sec and the times at which the front end of
vehicles pass the observation point A-A’. The observations are noted as follows:
Vehicle Time of passing (sec)
4
5
6
7
8
9

c. What are the individual headways and the average headway (sec/vh)?
d. A speed trap consisting of a record of times when vehicles passed two points, A-A’ and B-B’,
was made as indicated on the figure. Find the average speed of vehicles 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9,
assuming the trap distance is 200 m. (What are space and time mean speeds in KPH?)
 e. At the time of observation when there are seven vehicles counted on the 1000-m section of the
roadway lane, calculate the density (k)
f. Two aerial photographs were taken, 2 sec. apart, and the positions of vehicles 1 through 7 as
shown in the figure were noted. These seven vehicles are the same vehicles as those observed in
part (d). Calculate the average travel speed (kph) and average flow (vh/hr).

D. Additional Topic (85th Percentile Speed)

The 85th percentile speed is the safe speed under prevailing roadway conditions on the assumption
that less than 15% of the drivers in any traffic stream. This is the speed at which 85% of the
vehicles are traveling slower and approximately the break point between the bulk of the
distribution and its upper tail. This speed is commonly used for setting highway speed limits.

Equations:
 Mean (Time mean speed):

ut =
∑ f i ui
∑ fi
where: ut = time mean speed
fi = number of observations in each speed group
ui = mid-value for the ith speed group
N = no. of observed values
 Standard deviation:

where: s = standard deviation

s=
√ ∑ f i ( u i−ut ) 2
N−1

***For additional information about the 85th – percentile speed, you may refer to this youtube video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U1diweMu9SE
Example:
Calculate the mean, and standard deviation for the spot speed distribution shown. Plot the cumulative
distribution curve and determine the 85th percentile speed. Interpret the results.
Speed Groups (kph) Observed
Lower Limit Upper Limit Frequency
37.6 42.5 1
42.6 47.5 1
47.6 52.5 4
52.6 57.5 10
57.6 62.5 18
62.6 67.5 21
67.6 72.5 23
72.6 77.5 22
77.6 82.5 12
82.6 87.5 6
87.6 92.5 3
92.6 97.5 2

Solution:

Speed Groups Observed Class

% Cum. %
Lower Upper Frequency Midvalue, fiui fi(ui-ut)2
Frequency Frequency
Limit Limit , fi ui
37.6 42.5 1 40 40 0.81 0.81 833.003
42.6 47.5 1 45 45 0.81 1.63 569.385
47.6 52.5 4 50 200 3.25 4.88 1423.068
52.6 57.5 10 55 550 8.13 13.01 1921.492
57.6 62.5 18 60 1080 14.63 27.64 1413.563
62.6 67.5 21 65 1365 17.07 44.72 313.182
67.6 72.5 23 70 1610 18.70 63.41 29.797
72.6 77.5 22 75 1650 17.89 81.30 828.908
77.6 82.5 12 80 960 9.76 91.06 1488.717
82.6 87.5 6 85 510 4.88 95.93 1562.651
87.6 92.5 3 90 270 2.44 98.37 1340.472
92.6 97.5 2 95 190 1.63 100.00 1366.412
Sum 123 8470 100% 13090.65

For the (time) mean speed & standard deviation:

 ut =
∑ f i ui = 8470 =68.86 kph
∑ f i 123
s=
√ ∑ f i ( u i−ut ) 2 =
N−1 √ 13090.65
123−1
=10.36 kph

85th-Percentile Speed
100.00%

90.00%

80.00%

70.00%

60.00%
% Frequency

50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Speed Limit

30 40 50 60 70 80 = 7690
kph 100

Speed, kph