MODULE II

MODULE II
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHERN

INDIA : EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDA
TEMPLES
Background :
Dravidian architecture was an architectural idiom that emerged in
the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or south India. It
consists primarily of temples with pyramid shaped towers and are Dravidian architecture is sub
constructed of sandstone, soapstone or granite. Mentioned as divided into 5 styles:
one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu
Shastras, the majority of the existing structures are located in the 1. Pallavan Style 600AD – 900AD
southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and 2. Chola Style 900AD – 1150AD
Andhra Pradesh. Various kingdoms and empires such as the 3. Pandya Style 1100AD – 1350AD
Cholas, the Chera, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the
Rashtrakutas the Chalukyas the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara 4. Vijayanagara Style 1350AD – 1565AD
empire among others have made Substantial contribution to the 5. Nayak/Madura Style 1600 AD onwards
evolution of Dravidian Architecture.
Bhakti Movement influence - 7th and 12th century
• The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged
in medieval Hinduism, the Bhakti movement even spread to the north
during late medieval ages, though the north was under the Islamic rule,
• The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential

social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused
alternative path to spirituality
• Bhakti meant undivided devotion to only one god, the most famous being
– Shiva and Vishnu.
• The Bhakti temples, which started as miniature shrines, evolved

and slowly grew into edifices like the rock cut temples built by
the Pallavas.
Classification:
• Pallavan - Rock cut and Structural Temples (7TH Century)
• Chola - Development of the Vimana (Sikhara), Walled enclosures

Gopurams
• Pandya - Evolution of the Gopuram – number, height,

embellishment high walls for enclosure for security( Muslim
invasion)
• Vijayanagara - Addition of Mandapas, Secondary halls and

Gopurams
• Nayaks - Temple cities, addition of Gopurams to existing temples

Basic Structure of Dravida or South Indian Temples
1. Dravidians being fine craftsmen, temples were
designed most elegantly with great interest to
display ornamentation and fine art that covered
every part of the temple, in Dravidian art it is not the
engineering skill but sculptors skill that is most
important.
2. Southern style temples tend to be constructed with
individual cells/layers that are typically identical
and are stacked in a pyramid form
3. The Dravidian style is the typical South Indian style
temple that is usually made from stone.
4. The temple shape may be rectangular, square,
star-shaped, or octagonal.
5. Dravidian temples (12th century onwards) were
surrounded by series of concentric protective walls
called the Prakaras.
6. With the increasing threat from invading armies,
the temple cities found it expedient to erect a
series of protective walls to safeguard and defend
their temples, palaces and cities.
1. These temples usually have Gopurams, which are
large towers over the entrances; a Vimana, which
is the tower over the sanctum (the Deities); and
large pillared halls and corridors.
2. The Gopurams were in the past always the tallest
structures in town.
3. The angle of slope from the vertical is 25˚
4. Width of the apex was 1/3 of the base
5. The premier Vaishnava temple in Srirangam,
Tamilnadu has the tallest Hindu Gopuram in the
world.
6. The most sacred place is the Pitha (altar), or
pedestal, of the Deity. The Pitha is in the sanctum
sanctorum (inner sanctum) called the
Garbhagriha (womb house) the square-room of
peace and equilibrium. This part of the temple must
be constructed first .
1. The sanctum sanctorum (central shrine) is topped
by a pyramidal tower several stories high called
Vimana or Sikhara, with the Kalasha on top of it.
2. The inner sanctum is surrounded by subsidiary
shrines, Mandapas (halls), and pillared corridors.
3. Chaultries or vast pillard halls were also a part of
most large temples and they were used to
perform Yagnas, weddings or even
dance/music performances in front of the king.
4. In front of the Garbhagriha is the MUKHA
MANTAPA, also called ARDHA MANTAPA, which
is normally used for keeping articles of worship.
5. ANTARALA is the narrow passage, which
connects GARBHA GRIHA and MUKA MANTAPA
to the hall called MANTAPA
6. All temples have a DHVAJASTAMBHA or flag post
in front of the MANTAPA. On top of this is the
LANCHANA or insignia of the deity. For example
in Vishnu temples it is GARUDA.
Dravidian Style Under the Pallavas – (600 AD – 900 AD)
The Pallavas ruled from (600–900 AD) and their greatest
Constructed accomplishments are the single rock temples in
Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now located In
Tamil Nadu. Pallavas were one of the pioneers of south Indian
Architecture. The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidian
style belong to the Badami Chalukya-Pallava period. The earliest
examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut Temples dating
from 610 – 690 AD and structural temples Between 690 – 900 AD.
The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the
rock-cut Temples at Mahabalipuram. There are excavated
pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as Rathas in
Mahabalipuram. Mention must be made here of the Shore Temple
constructed By Narasimhavarman II near Mahabalipuram.
Dravidian Style Under the Pallavas – (600 AD – 900 AD)
Varaha Cave Temple at Mahabalipuram
Pancha Ratha Temple at

Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram Mahabalipuram
Genesis of Dravidian Style Under the Pallavas – (600 AD – 900 AD)
There were two phases of architecture under the Pallavas :
1st Phase- Rock cut
•Mahendra Group (610 – 640 AD) Mandapas/ Pillared halls
•Mamalla Group (640 – 690 AD) Rathas and Mandapas (Narasimhavarma)
2nd Phase- Structural
• •Rajasimha group (690 – 800 AD) Temples
• •Nandivarman group (800 – 900 AD) Temples
In varying degrees of completion, categorized into five groups:
• Rathas: Chariot-Shaped Temples
• Mandapas: Cave temples
• Rock reliefs
• Structural temples
• Excavations
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD)
MANDAPAS – Mahabalipuram
There were a total of 10 Mandapas at Mahabalipuram
Features:
•Similar proportions to earlier Mandapas
•Width 7620 mm
•Height-4572 mm – 6096 mm ; Depth 7620 mm
•Pillars height 2744 ; Diameter- 305- 610
•Cells rectangular- 1524 -3048 side
•Shallow porticoes
Architectural treatment and sculptures combining with
architecture.
Façade contains- roll cornice decorated with KUDUS, above this a

parapet or attic member formed of miniature shrines, a long one
alternating with a short one
The executor was primarily a sculptor

Sculptures depicting
Mythological stories
Basement was so planned and executed to provide a long and Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram
narrow receptacle for water for ablutions
Pillars are the main contributions of this period

•Beginning of the Pallava order of column
•Eg. Varaha, Krishna, Mahishasuramandapa, Adivaraha
Varaha Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

The early pillars were the rudimentary type of beam and bracket
This was modified to a sophisticated design of the capital and the
shaft
Finally the introduction of an element- lion
This figure was incorporated into the lower portion of the shaft
and later at the Base, and is known as “Simha – Stambha”
This lion symbolized the ruling dynasty – Simhavishnu
Sq. shaft where the middle third is chamfered into an octagon
ht. 7‟0” ,The dia of the column – 1‟0”-2‟0”
Evolution of Pallavan Order
 Capital
 Shaft – Stambha
 PALAGAI – wide
abacus
 IDAIE- Lotus
Form
 KUMBHA –
Melon Capital
 TADI – Refined
Necking
 KALASA –
Inverted Lotus
 SIMHA-LION
 BASE
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD) : MANDAPAS - Mahabalipuram
Mahabalipuram temples are cave temples also known as Mandapas. Rock-cut cave
temples are sanctuaries or temples covered with bas-reliefs.
1. The earliest period of use of these caves as sanctuaries can be traced to the Buddhist and Jain
periods. They were excavated on rock faces which were cut and then carved using chisels and
iron mallets.
2. Of the eleven Mandapas or cave temples seen in Mahabalipuram, the most notable are the
Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, Tiger Cave Temple, Panchapandava Cave
Temple,and the Mahishasuramardini mandapa.
3. Cave temples existed prior to the 7th century, which were predominantly Buddhist, the first free
standing rock cut temples were built by the Pallava Kings in Tamil Nadu.
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD) : MANDAPAS - Mahabalipuram
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD) : RATHAS - Mahabalipuram
RATHAS are small shrines carved out of a monolithic rock. In general Ratha is known as
chariot used for carrying the image of the deity during religious
procession. But here in Pallava style it commonly refers to a monolithic shrine which contains
all the essential features of a temple including domed storey to Sikhara.
Unknown purpose of
execution
 Seven pagodas exist,

reproduced from wooden
examples
Beam heads, rafters,

purlings, all transferred into
rock
Exteriors are completed

and interiors are incomplete
Small Structures, a
maximum 42’ long 35’ wide
40’ high
Derived from the Chaitya

hall and Viharas
Acted as a prototype for

later temples
Draupadi Ratha:
• Smallest among the group dedicated to Durga and the most
finished
• A cell or Pansala square in plan
• The shape of the roof – concave pyramidal roof-indicates it
was a copy of the thatched structure – portable shrine
• The base is supported by figures of animals, a lion alternating
with an elephant
• The corner ridges were decorated with delicate carvings with
volutes
• There are niches containing high relief carvings of the Durga
Arjuna Ratha:
• Stepped pyramid structure decorate with Kudus
• The square details at the corners are termed as
Stupis and the oblong ones in the façade Shalas
• Square in plan 5m
• High relief sculptures on external walls between
pilasters
Bhima Ratha:
• Reproduces the Chaitya mode
• Keel or Barrel vaulted roof with a Chaitya Gable
end
• The structure is 2 stories high
• The front portico consists of 4 columns
• Prototype for the Gopuram of later temples with
the oblong plan, diminishing stories, keel
roof with pinnacles and gable end
• The gable end of the roof is ornamented with a central
symbol similar to the stupa
• Depicts a prayer hall with curved barge boards taking
the place of the vaulted roof. Decorative brackets simulate
the ribs of the vault
Sahadeva Nakula Ratha:
• The Ratha is based on ‘Chaitya Hall’ of Buddhist temple
with an apsidal end on the south side and double pillared
portico on the north side.
• Its plinth measures 5.5m 3.35m and rises to a ht of 5m in
four tiers. The roof is elaborately carved.
Dharmaraja Ratha:
Stupi
• Dedicated to Shiva
• Largest of the 5 Rathas
• Square in plan 10m
• Consists of 3 stories the last of which is 13m high Shala
• No internal space other than galleries with
columns at the entrance
• It is a large scale version of Arjuna Ratha with a
larger no. of miniature edifices carved in the roof Kudu
• There are 12 square Stupis at the corners and 24
Shalas on the sides- kudu
Ganesh Ratha:
• Dedicated to Shiva.
• Lion ornamenting a pier in the facade. 2 Lion pillars in the
portico
• Aedicule on either side with carved sculptures
• 3 stories with the keel roof - Prototype for the Gopuram
• In elevation it has 2 parts
• Square portion with pillared verandah below
• Paramedical Sikhara/tower formed by converted cells
• Strongly moulded stylobate ( Base)
• Turreted roof
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD) : RELIEF - Mahabalipuram
1st Phase of Pallavan Architecture – (610 – 690 AD) : STRUCTURAL TEMPLES - Mahabalipuram
SHORE TEMPLE
 The Shore Temple was constructed in 700 AD
by Narasimha Varma II Rajasimha
 Constructed of dressed Granite
 The complex consists of 2 shrines dedicated to

Shiva and 1 shrine dedicated to Vishnu
 Located near the shore of Mamallapuram the
temple was constructed with the intention of
the cellar facing the east so that the first rays
of the sun would illuminate the shrine
 Among the breakers stood a stone pillar to act

as a light house
 This concept led to the different arrangement

of the parts in the layout
SHORE TEMPLE
Planning:
 The placement of the cellar in the east left no
space for the Mandapas, forecourts and
gateway
 These were hence placed in the rear of the

shrine
 The central structure is surrounded by a

massive enclosure wall, with the entry on
the western side of the courtyard
 The layout was further complicated by the

addition of 2 shrines added asymmetrically
on the west
SHORE TEMPLE
Planning:
 The addition of the shrine on the west
with the smaller spire gives the
impression that it is the main entrance
 The 2 supplementary shrines have
converted the Shore temple into an
unconventional double towered
monument
 The central building seems to be a
development off the Rathas with a
difference in the treatment
SHORE TEMPLE
Details:
 Square lower storey
 Pyramidal tower in diminishing tiers
 Change in the shape of the tower

seeming to rid of the Vimana
Rhythmic, buoyant composition than
the Rathas giving the temple a lightness
and soaring quality
 Appearance of a pilaster- rampant lion as

a relief found wherever a structural form
with an ornament was required
SHORE TEMPLE
Details:
 The lion pillar with the Dravidian
capital projects at every angle
and is also introduced at intervals
around the lower part of the entire
structure
 As the style progressed the leogriff

motif is frequently used
 Identifying symbol of the Pallavan

period
SHORE TEMPLE
Water Chambers:
 Surrounded by an outer rectangular
enclosure Portions of the ground floor of
the enclosure consisted of a system of
shallow cisterns which could be flooded
on certain occasions
 The space could hence be resolved into a

water temple
 Some of the conduits and receptacles can

be traced
 The water was fed into the system by

means of canal and conveyed by sluices
 Overflow was carried through the rear of the

shrine to the sea
SHORE TEMPLE
Enclosure:
 Surrounding wall had a
parapet and coping
with figures of
kneeling bulls
 Bold projecting lion

pilasters on exterior
wall
 Entrance through a
richly ornamented
doorway on the
western side Leading
to a corridor
on one side
SHORE TEMPLE
KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

 The temple has retained the Pallava architecture
in its original stylized form with influence of the
later styles developed by the Chola Dynasty
and Vijayanagara Emperors
 It is of stone built architecture unlike the rock cut
architecture built into hallowed caves or
carved into rock outcrops as in
Mahabalipuram. The tall Gopuram (tower) is to
the left and the temple complex is to the right.
 The temple's foundations are made of granite,
which could withstand the weight of the
temple, while the super structure including the
carvings are all made of sandstone. Initially,
only the main sanctuary existed with pyramidal
Vimana and a detached Mandapa(main hall)

 The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has Garbhagriha
(sanctum sanctorum), Antarala (inner enclosure), Mandapa, a high
compound wall, and an entrance gate, the Gopuram. The Mandapa,
which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by
interposing an Ardhamantapa(smaller hall). The pillars of the Mandapa
have the repetitive
features of mythical lion mounts.
 The structure has a simple layout. with a tower or Sikhara at the

center of the complex. The Sikhara of the temple, above the main
shrine (sanctum sanctorum), is square in plan and rises up in a
pyramidal shape. The tower has many levels rising proportionately.
 In the top of this tower, there is a small roof in the shape of a dome.
The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes (lions on the base) are
extra features in Pallava style.

 At the entrance, the Gopuram walls are plastered.
 Its entrance wall has eight small shrines and
a Gopuram, precursor to the main Gopuram.
 The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular

layout.
 The outstanding feature of sculptures is the
profusion of depiction of the erect lions
projecting out in several directions.


Chola Architecture – (900 – 1150 AD) : Background
 The capital of the Chola dynasty was the
city of Thanjavur from 836 – 1267 AD
 The great temple of Thanjavur was
founded by Rajaraja I
 The Cholas ruled the Deccan and
emerged victorious among many other
kingdoms such as Pallavas, Pandyas,
Chalukya, Rashtrakutas Gangai konda chola
 They advanced as far as Bengal, Sri puram Temple
Lanka, Java, Sumatra and had trade links as Kambahareswara Temple
far as Indonesia
 Their military and economic power was
reflected in the grand architectural
productions under this period at Thanjavur,
Gangaikonda chola puram, Dharasuram
and Tribhuvanam Airateswara Temple
Chola Architecture – (900 – 1150 AD) : Early Temples
Typical Features:
 The temples are of modest proportions
 Built entirely of stone, well dressed granite eg. At
Pudukottai- Sundareswara at Tirukattalai, Vijayalaya at
Nartamalai
 These show the Dravidian style in its formative stages
 Pallavan influence observed in the Vimana - similar to
the Rathas
 Similarities to the Chalukyan in shape of the domical
finial of the Sikhara, which is similar to buildings at
Patadakkal
 Treatment- simplification of the exteriors compared to
the Pallavas with elimination of the details
 Absence of the lion motif and pillar
 The capital is modified to by addition of a neck
moulding padmabandham and the pot kalasa.
Chola Architecture – (900 – 1150 AD) : Structural Temples
Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

 The Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur was constructed around 1000 AD
 The largest, highest and most ambitious project at its time – a landmark in
the evolution of South Indian Architecture
 Superb architectural treatment and Proportions
 The main structure is 180‟ long above which is the tower 190‟ high


Plan
 The Garbhagriha is a mere 5m square surrounded by a thick wall with a narrow corridor
 Axial planning
 The main cellar is preceded by 2 hypostyle halls and a narrow vestibule
 Entered through a pillared portico on the west

Chola Architecture – (900 – 1150 AD) : Structural Temples : Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
Components of Vimana:
The main Vimana is a huge solid block on the western end consisting of 3 parts:
1. Square vertical base
Vertical base:
2. Tall tapering body
3. Domical finial • Square of 82‟ rising to a ht. of 50‟
• The square vertical base rises for 2
stories to accommodate the Linga
which was increased in ht.
• An upper gallery was hence added
creating a 2nd storey, with the 2 levels
of the tower receiving the same
treatment
Pyramidal portion:
• 13 diminishing stories until the width of the apex is
1/3 base
Cupola:
• On the square platform stands the cupola, the
inward curve of the neck breaking the rigid outlines
of the composition
Vimana:
 The hollow interior of the Vimana, a view from below.
Built of interlocking stones without any binding
material, the Vimana has not developed a crack or
tilted even a few centimeters in all these years
despite six earthquakes.
 The basic unit of the temple's layout, was taken from the
main deity, the linga itself. The inner sanctum, the A similar view of the hollow interior of
the Gopuram of Rajarajan Tiruvaasal.
height of the Vimana, the intermediate space
between the Vimana and the cloistered enclosure
and the distance to the two gateways were all
proportionate to the linga in a remarkable way. For
instance, the height of the Vimana is exactly twice
the width of the outer base of the adhistana (plinth) of
the sanctum. “The mathematical calculations were
advanced to a great extent at the time of Rajaraja
Chola.”
Architectural treatment:
Vertical face:
• The wall is divided into 2 stories by means of an
overhanging cornice which is the only horizontal
member
• Contains pilasters and niches with sculptures
• In the middle of each recess is a figure subject
• The mastery of the sculptors is seen in the
Dvarapalas which stand guard at the gate
• The entire periphery of the temple base consists of
mythical animals – lions
Pyramidal roof:
• The surfaces are adorned with the
horizontal lines of the diminishing tiers
• The Cupola at the summit is
contrasted with the niches on all the 4
sides

“ The key inscription on the base of the Vimana

where Rajaraja Chola says he built the stone
temple and records the gifts that he, his sister, his
queens and others gave
the temple. “

 Brihadeeswarar Temple has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the
list of ‘Great Living Chola Temples’.
 An approximate of 130,000 tons of granite was used in the formation of this temple.
 The holy shrine has a temple tower (Vimana) that is built at a height of 216 feet.
Being the tallest in the world, „Gopurams‟ or the two gateways are located at the
eastern entrance of the temple.
 The temple‟s entrance has a large statue of Nandi (sacred bull) that measures
about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. This statue has been carved out of a
single stone.
 ‘Kumbam’ is the topmost component of the holy shrine and weighs about 60 tons. It
has been also carved out from a single granite stone.
 A huge idol of Lord Shiva with three eyes is present inside the temple along with the
108 dance forms or ‘karmas’.
 The exterior part on the other end is decorated with sculptures. There are 250
lingams in the entire temple compound.
 This famous sanctuary is made up of a pillared hall and an assembly hall which is
known as mandapas and many sub-shrines.
 The inner part of the Mandapas is highly significant and is

divided into various categories with the help of
sculptures and pilasters.
 Being one of the rarest temples in India, the idols of
„Ashtadikpaalakas‟ or guardians of directions can be
found here. The six feet effigies of Agni, Varuna, Indra,
Yama, Isana, Kubera and Nirriti are placed in a
separate temple.
 Being a masterpiece in itself, the shadow of the tower over the
gateway of the shrine never falls on the ground, more
significantly in the premises of the temple.
 The altar situated at the entrance of this holy shrine has two
idols of Lord Ganesha. When a person taps on any one of
the idols, a sound occurs that travels towards the other idol
slanting through the stone at one end and the metal to
another. There are many pillars of the temple that produce
such musical sounds.
 The double portico of 450 m

perimeter running all around
the structure contains 252
lingas in black stone
arranged under corbelled
vaults carried on 400 pillars all
around
 The wall behind the portico is
beautifully painted
Pandya Architecture – (1100 – 1350 AD) : Background
Changes during the Pandya period:
• Vimana ceased to be the centre of

concentration
• The supplementary and outlying
portions were developed
• Reasons were sentimental- do not
touch God
• Walls were built/Pylons were the
centre of concentration for
architecture
• Became the main feature of South
Indian Temples
• Derivation of the Cow gate- City
gate- Temple gate-Gopuram
Pandya Architecture – (1100 – 1350 AD) : Background
The Genesis of GOPURAMS:

• Considerable political changes were
taking place. The most threatening
force was from the north -
conquering hordes of Islam.
• This threat made the Pandya rulers
hurriedly throw up makeshift
battlements around their cities and
the heart of their towns –the
temples. This called for modifying
the Temple to a Fortress which was
unacceptable
• The solution was hence to raise the
gates of the fortress to the level of
architecture. This was the genesis
of the famous Gopurams, or
entrance gateways of the temple
cities of the south.
Pandya Architecture – (1100 – 1350 AD) : Gopurams
Features of Gopuram:
 The Gopuram too resembles a Mandala; With

sculptures and carvings of Yalis and mythical
animals located in the outer enclosure.
 Humans and divine beings are in the inner
enclosures.
 The peak of the Gopuram, the Kalasha, is at
the centre
Differences between Vimana and Gopuram:

• Sikhara ,a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in
the Hindu temple architecture of North India . In South India, the equivalent term for
"shikhara" is "vimana". The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished
size.
• There existed two types as to the form of the Gopuram with respect to the appearance and
the surface treatment Second type: more ornate
First type: • Curved and concave sides
• Straight sloping • Creating an upward sweep
sides • Surface treatment is of Florid nature
• Firm and rigid • Figure subjects predominate
contours • Every portion is plastered thick with
• Geometric images
form where the • The roof is spectacular with
treatment is cornuted gables
architectural • The ridge line breaks into a row of
• Pillars and tall pinnacles forming a climax to the
pilasters were fretted and
used Type 1 pullulating mass below Type 2
Vimana Gopuram
Vimana had to be austere and carry only the Gopurams could house secular and even other
prescribed divinities associated with the IDOL in themes
the sanctum
It represents the glory of the deity who resides The Gopuram on the other hand does not usually
within it. command an equal status, mythical animals and
other beings located in the outer enclosure. The
humans and the divine beings are in the inner
enclosures
While the temple complex is designed as a It need not necessarily be square-based. Above
Mandala with the sanctum at its heart, the that
sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself rectangular base a pyramidal structure covered
regarded a Mandala. The image is located in the with brightly colored plethora of sculpture is
mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a raised to a great height, has to be towering and
square; that is, where its diagonals intersect each massive
other. This point is elevated, in a three
dimensional projection, and rendered as the
Stupis or the central point of the Vimana. The
Kalasha is installed at this point.
Nayak/Madura Architecture – (1600 AD onwards) : Background
 The Muslims started moving south which led to the shifting of

the capital south at Madurai
 The architecture flourished principally under the rule of
Tirumalai Nayak 1623 – 1659
 The Madura Style as it is also known as was a revival of the
Pandya style of architecture
The expansion of the temples corresponded to the expansion of
the temple ritual :
 The forms and ceremonies became more elaborate leading
to the arrangement of buildings for the activities
 The increase in the structural form was due to the wider
powers given to the deity
INNER AREAS :
• Consisted of flat roofed courts, one enclosed within the other
• This normally covered a fairly large rectangular space
• Within the inner of the 2 courts is the sanctum, the cupolas of which
covered in gilt projects out through the flat roofs acting as the focal
center
• There is a guarded seclusion to the inner area
OUTER AREAS:
• Concentric series of open courtyards known as „Prakarams‟
• Enclosed within high walls, open to sky as they are too large to be roofed
• Provide space for secular buildings connected with the ceremonies
EXPANSION OR GROWTH OF TEMPLES:

1. Inner Areas or Cella: Wholly covered and sacrosanct
• The Cella and the Portico form the sanctum – origin of
temple
• Cella was enclosed within another flat roofed hall to protect
the original sanctuary and to emphasize the sacredness
• Pillared aisles were added entrance through a small
Gopuram in front on the east
• Later the covered court was enclosed within a similar
structure, division of the concentric corridors by means of
pillars and pavilions
• 2 entrances on the E and W with a larger Gopuram than the
previous enclosure

2. Outer Areas:
• The entire composition was enclosed within a rectangle by
means of a high wall
• The remaining space was left to provide a wide open
courtyard or Prakaras
• The enclosure was entered by Gopurams, one on the E and W
• The Gopuram on the E was the principal doorway and largest
• Various structures were erected inside - pillared halls or
Mandapas and subsidiary shrines
• Semi religious buildings such as granaries, store rooms for
ceremonial supplies

2. Outer Areas:
• Later concentric rectangles were added contained within higher
enclosing walls leaving another open space between the inner and
the outer perimeters
• 4 entrances adorned the four walls in the center at the cardinal points
• Each consisted of a Gopuram larger than the previous one within the
outermost enclosure
• 2 large important structures were built- Thousand Pillared
Hypostyle hall and a Square Tank of water for ablutions, lined with steps
and surrounded by an arcade
• This formed the basis for temple layouts but layer temples were
sometimes disproportionately enlarged.
Eg- Srirangam which has 7 concentric rectangular enclosures the
whole resembling a town.
Concept of Temples:
Spiritual nor Architectural
“ The Gopurams induce a feeling of awe and majesty,

leading to progressive halls, smaller and dimmer than the
previous, till the mystery of the Cella or darkened shrine to
feel the presence of God “
Pandya - Nayak/Madura Architecture – Structural Temple - Meenakshi Temple
INTRODUCTION: Madurai City
• MADURAI, popularly known as the

Temple city, also called as ATHENS OF
THE EAST, City of Junction, City of
Jasmine, CITY THAT NEVER SLEEPS and
City of four junctions.
• Madurai is third major economic,

industrial, commercial, political centre
and a major transportation hub for the
southern Tamilnadu.
• The city is renowned for tourism, festivals

and vibrant cultural life in general and
is considered to be the states cultural
capital.
INTRODUCTION:
Madurai City
The city was built

around the
temple complex
as the focal point
with a
combination of a
concentric street
pattern.
TRADITIONAL PLANNING STRATEGIES:
• The old city of Madurai is considered to

be designed according to the Rajdhani
plan, described in Manasara, one of the
Shilpa sastra, and has the five fold
concentric rectangular formation with
Meenakshi-Sundareshwara Temple at a very
centre point.
• The city was a well planned one with
bazaars and many broad streets with high
and luxurious mansions on both sides.
• The city was built around the temple
complex as the focal point with a
combination of a concentric street pattern.
TRADITIONAL PLANNING STRATEGIES:
• The settlement pattern of Madurai is

planned according to the ancient system
of town planning which is based on caste
and occupational hierarchies.
• The map shows the present settlement
pattern and its relevance with the ancient
town planning system.
• Ancient south Indian temple towns are
designed by placing the temple complex
at the centre with concentric rectangle
pattern of streets around.
• This can be seen in another southern
temple town Srirangam also.
Gopuram :
Sundereswara
Temple:
Meenakshi
Temple:
Thousand
Pillared Hall:
Temple
Tank:

MODULE II - Temple Architecture of Southern India Evolution of Dravida Temples

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHERN

• The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential

• The Bhakti temples, which started as miniature shrines, evolved

• Chola - Development of the Vimana (Sikhara), Walled enclosures

• Pandya - Evolution of the Gopuram – number, height,

• Vijayanagara - Addition of Mandapas, Secondary halls and

• Nayaks - Temple cities, addition of Gopurams to existing temples

Varaha Cave Temple at Mahabalipuram

Pancha Ratha Temple at

Façade contains- roll cornice decorated with KUDUS, above this a

The executor was primarily a sculptor

Pillars are the main contributions of this period

Varaha Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

 Seven pagodas exist,

Beam heads, rafters,

Exteriors are completed

Derived from the Chaitya

Acted as a prototype for

 Constructed of dressed Granite

 The complex consists of 2 shrines dedicated to

 Among the breakers stood a stone pillar to act

 This concept led to the different arrangement

 These were hence placed in the rear of the

 The central structure is surrounded by a

 The layout was further complicated by the

 Pyramidal tower in diminishing tiers

 Change in the shape of the tower

 Appearance of a pilaster- rampant lion as

 As the style progressed the leogriff

 Identifying symbol of the Pallavan

 The space could hence be resolved into a

 Some of the conduits and receptacles can

 The water was fed into the system by

 Overflow was carried through the rear of the

 Bold projecting lion

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

 The structure has a simple layout. with a tower or Sikhara at the

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

 The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE - KANCHIPURAM

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

“ The key inscription on the base of the Vimana

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD

 The inner part of the Mandapas is highly significant and is

 The double portico of 450 m

Changes during the Pandya period:

• Vimana ceased to be the centre of

The Genesis of GOPURAMS:

 The Gopuram too resembles a Mandala; With

Differences between Vimana and Gopuram:

 The Muslims started moving south which led to the shifting of

EXPANSION OR GROWTH OF TEMPLES:

EXPANSION OR GROWTH OF TEMPLES: