10th Maths EM
10th Maths EM
10th Maths EM
in
Mathematics Class-X
Textbook Development & Publishing Committee
CHIEF ADVISORS
Sri Chukka Ramaiah Dr. H.K.Dewan
Eminent Scholar in Mathematics, Educational Advisor, Vidya Bhavan Society
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad. Udaipur, Rajasthan
Published by:
(i)
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Printed in India
at the Andhra Pradesh Govt. Text Book Press,
Guntur, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.
(ii)
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WRITERS
Sri Tata Venkata Rama Kumar
H.M., ZPHS, Mulumudi, SPS Nellore
Sri Soma Prasada Babu
PGT. APTWRS, Chandrashekarapuram, SPS Nellore
Sri Gottumukkala V.B.S.N. Raju
SA, Mpl. High School, Kaspa, Vizianagaram.
Dr. Poondla Ramesh
Lecturer, Government lASE, SPS Nellore
CHIEF EDITOR
Dr. H.K.Dewan
Educational Advisor, Vidya Bhavan Society
Udaipur, Rajasthan
EDITORS
Sri A. Padmanabham Dr. G.S.N. Murthy
Head of the Dept. of Mathematics (Rtd.) Reader in Mathematics (Rtd.)
Maharanee College, Rajah R.S.R.K.Ranga Rao College,
Peddapuram, East Godavari Dist. Bobbili, Vizianagaram Dist. (A.P.)
(iii)
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Foreword
Education is a process of human enlightenment and empowerment. Recognizing the enormous
potential of education, all progressive societies have committed themselves to the Universalization
of Elementary Education with a strong determination to provide quality education to all. As a part
of its continuation, universalization of Secondary Education has gained momentum.
In the secondary stage, the beginning of the transition from functional mathematics studied
upto the primary stage to the study of mathematics as a discipline takes place. The logical proofs
of propositions, theorems etc. are introduced at this stage. Apart from being a specific subject, it
is connected to other subjects involving analysis and through concomitant methods. It is important
that children finish the secondary level with the sense of confidence to use mathematics in organising
experience and motivation to continue learning in High level and become good citizens of India.
I am confident that the children in our state Andhra Pradesh learn to enjoy mathematics,
make mathematics a part of their life experience, pose and solve meaningful problems, understand
the basic structure of mathematics by reading this text book.
For teachers, to understand and absorb critical issues on curricular and pedagogic perspectives
duly focusing on learning in place of marks, is the need of the hour. Also coping with a mixed class
room environment is essentially required for effective transaction of curriculum in teaching learning
process. Nurturing class room culture to inculcate positive interest among children with difference
in opinions and presumptions of life style, to infuse life in to knowledge is a thrust in the teaching
job.
The afore said vision of mathematics teaching presented in Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum
Frame work (APSCF -2011) has been elaborated in its mathematics position paper which also
clearly lays down the academic standards of mathematics teaching in the state. The text books
make an attempt to concretize all the sentiments.
The State Council for Education Research and Training Andhra Pradesh appreciates the hard
work of the text book development committee and several teachers from all over the state who have
contributed to the development of this text book. I am thankful to the District Educational Officers,
Mandal Educational Officers and head teachers for making this possible. I also thank the institutions
and organizations which have given their time in the development of this text book. I am grateful to
the office of the Commissioner and Director of School Education for extending co-operation in
developing this text book. In the endeavor to continuously improve the quality of our work, we
welcome your comments and suggestions in this regard.
“ENERGIZING TEXTBOOKS” a novel strategy which is introduced this year
textbooks has been emerged as a brainchild from Department of School Education,
Andhra Pradesh to give useful and additional information to the students and teachers by
bringing digital technology into the textbooks. I hope this will lead to enhance the
achievement levels of students by empowering teachers.
DIRECTOR
SCERT, A.P., Amaravati
(iv)
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Preface
With this Mathematics book, children would have completed the three years of
learning in the elementary classes and one year of secondary class. We hope that
Mathematics learning continues for all children in class X. However, there may be some
children from whom this would be the last year of school. It is, therefore, important that
children complete the secondary level with a sense of confidence to use Mathematics in
organizing experience and motivation to continue learning.
Mathematics is essential for everyone and is a part of the compulsory program for
school education till the secondary stage. However, at present, Mathematics learning does
not instill a feeling of comfort and confidence in children and adults. It is considered to be
extremely difficult and only for a few. The fear of Mathematics pervades not just children
and teachers but our entire society. In a context where Mathematics is an increasing part
of our lives and is important for furthering our learning, this fear has to be removed. The
effort in school should be to empower children and make them feel capable of learning
and doing Mathematics. They should not only be comfortable with the Mathematics in the
classroom but should be able to use it in the wider world by relating concepts and ideas of
Mathematics to formulate their understanding of the world.
One of the challenges that Mathematics teaching faces is in the way it is defined.
The visualization of Mathematics remains centered around numbers, complicated
calculations, algorithms, definitions and memorization of facts, short-cuts and solutions
including proofs. Engaging with exploration and new thoughts is discouraged as the
common belief is that there can be only one correct way to solve a problem and that
Mathematics does not have possibilities of multiple solutions.
Through this book we want to emphasize the need for multiple ways of attempting
problems, understanding that Mathematics is about exploring patterns, discovering
relationships and building logic. We would like all teachers to engage students in reading
the book and help them in formulating and articulating their understanding of different
concepts as well as finding a variety of solutions for each problem. The emphasis in this
book is also on allowing children to work with each other in groups and make an attempt
to solve problems collectively. We want them to talk to each other about Mathematics and
create problems based on the concepts that have learnt. We want everybody to recognize
that Mathematics is not only about solving problems set by others or learning proofs and
methods that are developed by others, but is about exploration and building new arguments.
Doing and learning Mathematics is therefore about each person coming up with her own
methods and own rules.
(v)
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Class X is the final year of secondary level students and their have already dealt
about the consolidation of initiations. They have already learnt to understand that
Mathematics consists of ideas that are applied in life situations but do not necessarily
arise from life. We would also like children to be exposed to the notion of proof and recognize
that presenting examples is not equivalent to proof with modeling aspects.
(vi)
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Mathematics Class-X
CHAPTER CONTENTS NO. OF SYLLABUS TO BE PAGE
NUMBER PERIODS COVERED DURING NUMBER
02 Sets 08 July 25 - 46
(vii)
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PLEDGE
- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao
“India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”
(viii)
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1 Real Numbers
1.1 I NTRODUCTION
Life is full of numbers. Imagine the moment you were born. Your
parents probably noted the time you were born, your weight, your length and
the most important by counted your fingers and toes. From then, numbers
accompany us throughout life.
What are the other contexts where you deal with numbers?
We use the numbers to measure our age to keep track of our income and to find the
savings after spending certain money. We measure our wealth also.
In this chapter we are going to explore the notion of the number. Numbers play a fundamental
role with in the realm of mathematics. We will come to see the richness of numbers and delve
into their surprising traits. Some collection of number fit so well together that they actually lead
to notions of aesthetics and beauty.
While walking in a garden you might have observed a swarm of bees settled on flowers.
Let us imagine a situation : If a swarm of bees settled on two flowers in equal number one
honey bee was left out. If they settled on three flowers in equal number 2 honeybees were left
out and when settled on 4 flowers 3 were left out. Similarly when they settled on 5 flowers in
equal numbers no honey bee was left out.
If there are a maximum of 50 bees, how many honey bees were there in the swarm?
If the swarm is divided in to 4 equal groups 3 will remain and it translates to x = 4b + 3 for
some natural number b.
If the swarm is divided into 3 equal groups 2 will remain and it translates to x = 3c + 2 for
some natural number c.
If the swarm is divided into 2 equal groups 1 will remain and it translates to x = 2d + 1 for
some natural number d.
That is, in each case we have x and positive integer y (in this example y takes values 5, 4,
3 and 2 respectively) which divides x and leaves remainder 'r' (in our case r is 0, 3, 2 and 1
respectively), that is smaller than y. The moment we write down such equations we are using
Euclid's division lemma.
Getting back to our puzzle. Do you have any idea how you will solve it? Yes, you must
look for the multiples of 5 which satisfy all the conditions. Because x = 5a + 0.
If a number leaves remainder 1 when it is divided by 2 you must consider odd numbers
only. In this case i.e. 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 etc. Similarly if you try for the remaining two conditions
you will get 35.
Therefore the swarm of bees contains 35 bees.
Let us verify your answer.
When 35 is divided by 2, the remainder is 1. That can be written as
35 = 2 17 + 1
When 35 is divided by 3, the remainder is 2. That can be written as
35 = 3 11 + 2
When 35 is divided by 4, the remainder is 3. That can be written as
35 = 4 8 + 3
and when 35 is divided by 5, the remainder is '0'. That can be written as
35 = 5 7 + 0
Let us conclude this. For each pair of positive integers a and b (dividend and divisor
respectively), we have found the whole numbers q and r (quotient and remainder respectively)
satifying the relation
a = bq + r, 0 < r < b
D O T HIS
Find q and r for the following pairs of positive integers a and b, satisfying a = bq + r.
(iv) a = 132, b = 11
T HINK - D ISCUSS
From the above questions in do this, what is the nature of q and r?
Notice that the remainder has become zero, and we cannot proceed any further. We claim
that the HCF of 60 and 100 is the divisor at this stage, i.e. 20. You can easily verify this by listing
all the factors of 60 and 100.
D O T HIS
Can you find the HCF of 1.2 and 0.12? Justify your answer.
Euclid's division algorithm is not only useful for calculating the HCF of
very large numbers, but also because it is one of the earliest examples of an
algorithm that a computer had been programmed to carry out.
Remarks :
1. Euclid's division lemma and algorithm are so closely interlinked that
people often call former as the division algorithm also.
2. Although Euclid's Division Algorithm is stated for only positive integers, it can be extended
for all integers a and b 0. However, we shall not discuss this aspect here.
EXERCISE - 1.1
1. Use Euclid's division algorithm to find the HCF of
(i) 900 and 270 (ii) 196 and 38220 (iii) 1651 and 2032
2. Use Euclid division lemma to show that any positive odd integer is of the form 6q + 1, or
6q + 3 or 6q + 5, where q is some integers.
3. Use Euclid's division lemma to show that the square of any positive integer is of the form
3p, 3p + 1.
4. Use Euclid's division lemma to show that the cube of any positive integer is of the form
9 m, 9m + 1 or 9m + 8.
5. Show that one and only one out of n, n + 2 or n + 4 is divisible by 3, where n is any
positive integer.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
If r = 0, then what is the relationship between a, b and q in a = bq + r of Euclid
divison lemma?
From the above discussion you might have concluded that if 'a' is divisible by 'b' then
we can say that 'b' is a factor of 'a'.
For example we know that 24 = 2 12
24 = 8 3
= 2223
We know that, if 24 = 2 12 then we can say that 2 and 12 are factors of 24. We can
also write 24 = 2 2 2 3 and you know that this is the prime factorisation of 24.
Let us take any collection of prime numbers, say 2, 3, 7, 11 and 23. If we multiply some
or all of these numbers, allowing them to repeat as many times as we wish, we can produce
infinitely many large positive integers. Let us observe a few :
2 3 11 = 66 7 11 23 = 1771
3 7 11 1 23 = 5313 2 3 7 11 1 23 = 10626
2 3 7 = 8232
3 3
2 3 7 11
2
1 23 = 21252
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes. What is
your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite number of integers or
infinitely many? In fact, there are infinitely many primes. So, if we multiply all these primes in all
possible ways, we will get an infinite collection of composite numbers.
primes, we will get powers of primes. Once we have decided that the order will be ascending,
then the way the number is factorised, is unique. For example,
27300 = 2 2 3 5 5 7 13 = 22 3 52 7 13
D O T HIS
Express 2310 as a product of prime factors. Also see how your friends have factorized
the number. Have they done it as you? Verify your final product with your friend’s result. Try
this for 3 or 4 more numbers. What do you conclude?
Let us apply fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Example 3. Consider the numbers 4n where n is a natural number. Check whether there is any
value of n for which 4n ends with the digit zero?
Solution : For the number 4n to end with digit zero for any natural number n, it should be
divisible by 2 and 5. This means that the prime factorisation of 4n should contain the prime
number 5 and 2. But it is not possible because 4n = (2)2n so 2 is the only prime in the factorisation
of 4n. Since 5 is not present in the prime factorization, there is no natural number n for which 4n
ends with the digit zero.
You have already learnt how to find the HCF (Highest Common Factor) and LCM
(Lowest Common Multiple) of two positive integers using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
in earlier classes, without realizing it! This method is also called the prime factorization method.
Let us recall this method through the following example.
Example-4. Find the HCF and LCM of 12 and 18 by the prime factorization method.
Solution : We have 12 = 2 2 3 = 22 31
18 = 2 3 3 = 21 32
Note that HCF (12, 18) = 21 31 = 6 = Product of the smallest power of each
common prime factors of the
numbers.
LCM (12, 18) = 22 32 = 36 = Product of the greatest power of each
prime factors of the numbers.
From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF (12, 18) LCM (12, 18)
= 12 18. In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b,
HCF (a, b) LCM(a, b) = a b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two positive
integers, if we have already found the HCF of the two positive integers.
D O T HIS
Find the HCF and LCM of the following given pairs of numbers by prime factorisation.
(i) 120, 90 (ii) 50, 60 (iii) 37, 49
T RY T HIS
Show that 3n 4m cannot end with the digit 0 or 5 for any natural numbers
‘n’and 'm'
EXERCISE - 1.2
1. Express each of the following number as a product of its prime factors.
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by the prime factorization method.
(i) 12, 15 and 21 (ii) 17, 23, and 29 (iii) 8, 9 and 25
(iv) 72 and 108 (v) 306 and 657
3. Check whether 6 can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
n
Now, let us use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic to explore real numbers further.
First, we apply this theorem to find out when the decimal expansion of a rational number is
terminating and when it is non-terminating, repeating. Second, we use it to prove the irrationality
of many numbers such as 2 , 3 and 5 .
Till now we have discussed some properities of integers. How can you decide the preceeding
or the succeding integers for a given integer? You might have recalled that the difference between
an integer and its preceeding or successive integer is 1. And by this property only you might have
decided required integers.
Can you expect the numbers in between 0 and 1 or 1 and 2 etc. .... and what are they
called? They are called rational numbers
In calss IX, you studied that rational numbers have either a terminating decimal expansion
or a non-terminating, repeating decimal expansion. In this section, we are going to consider a
p p
rational number, say (q 0) and explore exactly when the number has terminating
q q
decimal expansion and when it has non-terminating repeating (or recurring) decimal expansion.
We do so by considering certain examples
(iv) 12.5
10 2 5
Have you observed any pattern in the denominators of the above numbers? It appears
that when the decimal expression is expressed in its simplest rational form then p and q are
coprime and the denominator (i.e., q) has only powers of 2, or powers of 5, or both. This is
because the powers of 10 can only be products of powers of 2 and 5 as we have discussed in the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmatic.
D O T HIS
p
Write the following terminating decimals in the form of , q 0 and p, q are co-
q
primes
(i) 15.265 (ii) 0.1255 (iii) 0.4 (iv) 23.34 (v) 1215.8
What can you conclude about the denominators through this process?
L ET US CONCLUDE
From the above examples, you may see that any real number which has a decimal
expansion that terminates can be expressed as a rational number whose denominator is a power
p
of 2 or 5 or both. So, when we write such a rational number, in the form , the prime factorization
q
of q will be in the form 2n5m, where n, m are some non-negative integers.
You are probably wondering what happens the other way round. That
p
is, if we have a rational number in the form and the prime factorization of
q
q is of the form 2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers, then does
p
have a terminating decimal expansion?
q
p
So, it seems to make sense to convert a rational number of the form , where q is of the
q
a
form 2 5 , to an equivalent rational number of the form , where b is a power of 10. Let us go
n m
b
back to our examples above and work backwards.
D O T HIS
p
Write the following rational numbers in the form of , where q is of the form 2n5m
q
where n and m are non-negative integers and then write the numbers in their decimal form
3 7 51 14 80
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
4 25 64 25 100
Let us now consider rational numbers whose decimal expansions are 0.1428571
non-terminating and recurring. Once again, let us look at an example to see 7 1.0000000
7
what is going on-
1 30
Let us look at the decimal conversion of .
7 28
1
= 0.1428571428571 ..... which is a non-terminating and recurring 20
7
decimal. Notice, the block of digits '142857' is repeating in the quotient. 14
60
Notice that the denominator i.e., 7 can't be written in the form 2n5m.
56
40
D O T HIS
35
Write the following rational numbers as decimal form and find out the 50
block of repeating digits in the quotient. 49
1 2 5 10 10
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
3 7 11 13 7
30
EXERCISE - 1.3
1. Write the following rational numbers in their decimal form and also state which are
terminating and which have non-terminating, repeating decimal.
3 229 1 2 8
(i) (ii) (iii) 4 (iv) (v)
8 400 5 11 125
2. Without performing division, state whether the following rational numbers will have a
terminating decimal form or a non-terminating, repeating decimal form.
13 11 64 15 29
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
3125 12 455 1600 343
23 129 9 36 77
(vi) (vii) 2 7 5 (viii) (ix) (x)
2 5
3 2
2 5 7 15 100 210
In class IX, you were introduced irrational numbers and some of their properties. You
studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together made up the real
numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number line. However, we did not
prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will prove that 2, 3, 5 and p in
general is irrational, where p is a prime. One of the theorems, we use in our proof, is the
fundamental theorem of Arithmatic.
Recall, a real number is called irrational ("Q1" or "S") if it cannot be written in the form
p
, where p and q are integers and q 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with which you
q
are already familiar, are :
2
2, 3, 15, , , 0.10110111011110…, etc.
3
Before we prove that 2 is irrational, we will look at a statement, the proof of which is
based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Theorem-1.6 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, (where a is a positive integer),
then p divides a.
Proof : Let the prime factorization of a is as follows :
a = p1p2 … pn, where p1, p2, …., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore a2 = (p1p2 … pn) (p1p2 … pn) = p21p22 … p2n.
Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. How ever using the uniqueness part
of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only prime factors of a2 are p1 p2
… pn. So p is one of p1, p2, … pn.
Now, since a = p1p2 … pn, p divides a.
D O T HIS
Verify the statement proved above for p= 2, p = 5 and for a2 = 1, 4, 9, 25, 36, 49, 64
and 81.
We are now ready to give a proof that 2 is irrational. We will use a technique called
proof by contradiction.
Example 7. Show that 2 is irrational.
Solution : Let us assume 2 is rational.
If it is rational, then there must exist two integers
r
r and s (s 0) such that 2 = s.
If r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the common factor to
a
get 2 = , where a and b are co-prime. So, b 2 = a.
b
On squaring both sides and rearranging, we get 2b2 = a2. Therefore, 2 divides a2.
Now, by theorem 1.6, it follows that if 2 divides a2, it also divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.
This means that 2 divides b2, and so 2 divides b (again using theorem 1.6 with p= 2).
(why?)
Therefore, both a and b have 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b are co-prime.
This contradiction has arisen because of our assumption that 2 is rational. Thus our
assumption is false. So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.
In general, it can be shown that d is irrational whenever d is a positive integer which is
not the square of an integer. As such, it follows that 6, 8, 15 24 etc. are all irrational
numbers.
In earlier classes, we mentioned that :
• the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and
• the product or quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is irrational.
We prove some particular cases here.
Example-8. Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.
Solution : Let us assume that 5 – 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprimes a and b (b 0) such that 5 – 3 = .
b
a 2 b2
Since a, b are integers, is rational, and so 3 is rational.
2ab
This contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational. Hence 2 3 is irrational.
Note :
1. The sum of the two irrational numbers need not be irrational.
For example, if a = 2 and b = 2 , then both a and b are irrational, but a + b = 0
which is rational.
2. The product of two irrational numbers need not be irrational.
For example, a = 2 and b = 8 , then both a and b are irrational, but
ab = 16 = 4 which is rational.
EXERCISE - 1.4
1. Prove that the following are irrational.
1
(i) (ii) 3 + 5 (iii) 6 + 2 (iv) 5 (v) 3 + 2 5
2
2. Prove that p q is irrational, where p, q are primes.
Write the nature of y, a and x in y = ax. Can you determine the value of x for a given y?
Justify your answer.
You might have observed we are unable to decide the value of x for a given value of y
in y = a . The reason may be the relative change doesn't follow the criteria of ratio or difference.
x
For example if you want to get y = 5 in y = 10x , what should be the value of x? That
means what should be the power to which 10 must be raised to get 5? Therefore we need to
defined a new relation between x and y. Here in 5 = 10x, x is called logarithm of 5 to the
base 10 and it can be shortly written as log105 or log 5. We call the logarithm of a number to
the base 10 as common logarithm.
DO THIS
If 35 = 243 then we have seen that 5 = log3243. But if logaN = x is given, can you
represent it in expontial form?
T RY T HIS
Write the following relation in expontial form and find the values of respective variables
1
(i) log232 = x (ii) log5625 = y (iii) log1010000 = z (iv) log 7 a
343
1. You know that 21 = 2, 41 = 4, 81 = 8 and 101 = 10. What do you notice about the values
of log2 2, log4 4, log8 8 and log10 10? What can you generalise from this?
2. Does log100 exist?
P ROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS
= 6.72 106
From your estimation the result was 6 106. These two values are nearer values.
Therefore we can say that, if you make use of powers of 10. It will be easier to find their
products. Thus we can make use of logarithms to multiply numbers. Let us look at an example.
Following the addition process is more comfortable than that of direct multiplication to
find the product.
In general, we can write this as logaxy = logax + logay , [where x, y and a are positive
real numbers and a 1].
DO THIS
3214
a b = log10
2134
(Why?)
3214
log10 = log10 3214 log10 2134 (Why?)
2134
Following substraction process is more comfortable than of direct divison. To find the
quotient.
x
In general, we can write this as log10 = loga x logb y, where x, y and a are
y
positive real numbers and a 1.
DO THIS
DO THIS
T RY T HIS
(i) Find the value log232 (ii) Find the value of log c c
8
(iii) Find the value log100.001 (iv) Find the value of log 2
3 27
T HINK - D ISCUSS
We know that, if 7 = 2x then x = log27. Then what is the value of 2log2 7 ? Justify your
answer. Generalise the above by taking some more examples for a log a N
343
Example-11. Expand log
125
x
Solution : As you know, loga = logax - logay
y
343
So, log = log343 – log125
125
= log73 – log53
Since, logaxn = m logax
= 3log7 – 3log5
343
So log = 3(log7 – log5).
125
= log1125 – log32
1125 x
= log (Since logax – logay = loga )
32 y
1
Example-14. Find x if 2log5 + log9 log3 = logx
2
1
Solution : log x = 2log5 + log9 log3
2
1
= log52 + log 9 2 log3
= log25 + log 9 log3
= log25 + log3 log3
log x = log25
x = 25
EXERCISE - 1.5
2. Write the following expressions as log N and find their values wherever possible.
(i) log 2 + log 5 (ii) log216 - log2 2 (iii) 3 log64 4
(iv) 2 log 3 - 3 log 2 (v) log 10 + 2 log 3 - log 2
3. Evaluate each of the following in terms of x and y, if it is given x = log23 and
y = log25
(i) log2 15 (ii) log27.5 (iii) log260 (iv) log26750
128 p 2 q3 x3
(i) log1000 (ii) log (iii) logx y z
2 3 4
(iv) log (v) log 2
625 r y
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examinations]
1. Can the number 6n, n being a natural number, end with the digit 5? Give reason.
2. Is 7 5 3 2 + 3 a composite number? Justify your answer..
2 3 5 2 3 5 is rational or irrational.
4. If x2 + y2 = 6xy, prove that 2 log (x + y) = logx + logy + 3 log 2
5. Find the number of digits in 42013, if log10 2 = 0.3010.
Note : Ask your teacher about integral part and decimal part of a logarithm of number.
1. Euclid's division lemma : Given positive integers a and b, there exist whole numbers
q and r satisfying a = bq + r, 0 < r < b.
2. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that every composite number can be
expressed (factorized) as a product of its primes, and this factorization is unique, apart
from the order in which the prime factors occur.
4. Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then we can express x
p
in the form of , where p and q are coprime, and the prime factorization of q is of the
q
form 2 5 , where n and m are non-negative integers.
n m
p
5. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorization of q is of the form
q
2n5m, where n and m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which
terminates.
p
6. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorization of q is not of the form
q
2n5m, where n and m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which
is non-terminating and repeating (recurring).
9. Logarithms are used for all sorts of calculations in engineering, science, business and
economics.
Sets
2.1 I NTRODUCTION
D O T HIS
Consider the whole teeth set into two parts viz. lower and upper and divide each of these
teeth again into left and right jaws so that total teeth are divided into four equal parts or quad-
rants. Dental formula is written as the number of teeth of each type for one quadrant in the
sequence of incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. Therefore, now we can write human den-
tal formula as 2,1,2,3. This tells us that there are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 pre-molars and 3 molars
in each quadrant of the teeth set. Thus, eight teeth in each quadrant give us a result of 32 total
teeth.
How did you decide dental formula?
What procedure might have helped you in deciding this?
26 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
You have used “common property” to classify the teeth and divided whole teeth into four
equal parts. Thus you have expressed the numbers in a sequence of arrangement of teeth in
mouth. Hence,you finally concluded the dental formula in the form of a statement i.e. the human
dental formula is 2, 1, 2, 3.
Let us observe another mathematical statement.
You were familiar with the ordinary process of long division of one integer “a” by another
integer “b” and know that the process can be carried out until the remainder is obtained. Also,
you might have had the idea that the remainder is always less than the divisor.
Can you state this process into a mathematical statement?
Recall the Euclid division lemma from the “Real numbers” chapter earlier you studied.
“For given integers a and b, there exists a unique pair of integers q and r such that
a = bq + r and 0< r <b”
But, besides knowing processes of solving problems, we should know how to generalize
our mathematical understanding into mathematical statements with logic. And also we should be
able to combine the earlier generalized statements to form a new statement. Thus, various theorems
were proposed by great mathematicians on the basis of this process of thinking . Hence, we can
visualize the beauty in mathematics.
Is Euclid division lemma applicable to all real numbers? Or is it applicable to only integers?
In both the cases above, we have considered the “collection of things” upon which we
have to make statements. The things should have a “common property” by which they should be
conglomerated. Then, by observing the things and their other properties and applying a process
or operation, we could make general statements by using logic.
D O T HIS
Identify and write the “common property” of the following collections.
1) 2, 4, 6, 8, … 2) 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, … 3) 1, 4, 9, 16, …
4) January, February, March, April,…
5) Thumb, index finger, middle finger, ring finger, pinky
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Observe the following collections and prepare as many as generalized statements you
can describing their more properties.
1) 2, 4, 6, 8,… 2) 1, 4, 9, 16,…
Let us conclude what we have done till now. First, we specified a “common property”
among things and then we gathered up all the things which have this common property. Then
searched for more properties and tried to elicit those properties to propose new statements.
2.2 SET
A set is a collection of things that have something in common
or follow a rule. The things in the set are called “elements”. Set
notation uses braces { } with elements separated by commas. And
the "common rule" decides the elements of the set.
For example, when we want to write a set of first five prime numbers,
it can be written as {2,3,5,7,11} and set of incisors = {central incisor, lateral
incisor}
D O T HIS
Write the following sets.
1) Set of the first five positive integers.
2) Set of multiples of 5 which are more than 100 and less than 125
3) Set of first five cubic numbers.
4) Set of digits in the Ramanujan number
It is difficult to express a set in a long sentence. Therefore, generally sets can be denoted
by capital letters of English alphabet.
For example, M is a set of molars among our teeth.
We can write this set as M={first molar, second molar, third molar}.
Let us look at another example. Q is a set of quadrilaterals with at least two equal sides.
Then, We can write this set as
Q ={square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, Kite, Isosceles trapezium, dart}
Here, we are writing a set by listing the elements in it. Then, we can say that the set is
written in the “roster form”
In the above two examples, let us discuss belongingness of the elements and its repre-
sentation. Suppose, if we want to say “second molar is in the set of molars”, then we can repre-
sent this as “second molar M”. And we read this as "second molar belongs to set M"
Can we say “rhombus Q” in the above example of set of quadrlaterals? How do you
read this?
Does “square” belong to the set M in the above examples?
Then, how do we denote this? When we say “ square is not in the set M”, we denote as
“square M”. And we read this as "square does not belong to the set M"
Recall from the classes you have studied earlier that we denote natural numbers by
, set of integers by , set of rational numbers by , and set of real numbers by .
DOTHIS
Some numbers are given below. Decide the numbers to which number sets they belong
to and does not belong to and express with correct symbols.
5
i) 1 ii) 0 iii) -4 iv) v) 1.3
6
vi) 2 vii) log 2 viii) 0.03 ix) x) 4
THINK - DISCUS
You might have concluded by your earlier discussion that it is somewhat difficult to write
the set of rational numbers by showing list of elements in it. You might have also concluded that all
p
the rational numbers are in the form of (q 0 and p,q are integers).
q
When we write a set by defining its elements with a “common property”, we can say that
the set is in the “set builder form”. Set builder form should follow some syntax. Let us know it by
observing an example.
Suppose A is a set of multiples of 3 less than 20. Then, A={3,6,9,12,15,18} and this is
roster form of the set A.When we write
its set builder form, it is A={ x : x is a multiple of 3 and x<20}
A={x : x is a multiple of 3, x < 20} and
we read this as “A is a set of elements x the set all x such that x is a multiple of 3 and x<20
such that x is a multiple of 3 and x is less
than 20.
p
q
And also, we can express the rational numbers set as ={x : x = ,q 0 and p,q are integers}
Note : (i) In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial. Thus, in
example 1, we can also write {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 4, 42}.
(ii) While writing the elements of a set in roster form, an element is not repeated. For
example, the set of letters forming the word “SCHOOL” is {S, C, H, O, L} and
not {S, C, H, O, O, L}. Therefore a set contains distinct elements.
Let us observe "roster form" and "set builder form" of some sets.
Roster form Set builder form
V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x : x is a vowel in the english alphabet}
A = {-2,-1,0,1,2} A = {x : -2 x 2, x }
1 1 1 1 1
B = {1, , , , } B = {x : x = , n , n 5}
2 3 4 5 n
C = {2,5,10,17} C = {x : x = n 2 1, n , n 4 }
D O T HIS
1. List the elements of the following sets.
(i) G = {all the factors of 20}
(ii) F = {the multiples of 4 between 17 and 61 which are divisible by 7}
(iii) S = {x : x is a letter in the word 'MADAM'}
(iv) P = {x : x is a whole number between 3.5 and 6.7}
2. Write the following sets in the roster form.
(i) B is the set of all months in a year having 30 days.
(ii) P is the set of all prime numbers smaller than 10.
(iii) X is the set of the colours of the rainbow
3. A is the set of factors of 12. Which one of the following is not a member of A.
(A) 1 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 12
T RY T HIS
1. Write some sets of your choice, involving algebraic and geometrical ideas.
2. Match roster forms with the set builder form.
(i) {P, R, I, N, C, A, L} (a) {x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
(ii) {0} (b) {x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} (c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1 = 1}
(iv) {3, -3} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word PRINCIPAL}
EXERCISE - 2.1
1. Which of the following are sets? Justify your answer.
(i) The collection of all the months of a year begining with the letter “J”.
(ii) The collection of ten most talented writers of India.
(iii) A team of eleven best cricket batsmen of the world.
(iv) The collection of all boys in your class.
(v) The collection of all even integers.
2. If A={0, 2, 4, 6}, B = {3, 5, 7} and C = {p, q, r}then fill the appropriate symbol, or
in the blanks.
(i) 0 ….. A (ii) 3 ….. C (iii) 4 ….. B
(iv) 8 ….. A (v) p ….. C (vi) 7 ….. B
3. Express the following statements using symbols.
(i) The elements ‘x’ does not belong to ‘A’.
(ii) ‘d’ is an element of the set ‘B’.
(iii) ‘1’ belongs to the set of Natural numbers N.
(iv) ‘8’ does not belong to the set of prime numbers P.
4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answer
(i) 5 set of prime numbers
(ii) S = {5, 6, 7} implies 8 S.
(iii) -5 W where‘W’ is the set of whole numbers
8
(iv) Z where ‘Z’ is the set of integers.
11
5. Write the following sets in roster form.
(i) B = {x : x is a natural number smaller than 6}
(ii) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}.
(iii) D = {x : x is a prime number which is a divisor of 60}.
(iv) E = {x : x is an alphabet in BETTER}.
6. Write the following sets in the set-builder form.
(i) {3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}
(iii) {5, 25, 125, 625} (iv) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ….. 100}
7. Write the following sets in roster form.
(i) A = {x : x is a natural number greater than 50 but smaller than 100}
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer, x2 = 4}
(iii) D = {x : x is a letter in the word “LOYAL”}
Consider the teeth set that we have discussed in the incisors canines
begining of the chapter. You have classified the whole teeth set
into four more sets namely incisors, canines, premolars and
molars.
But, Are teeth in the set of molars also members of whole teeth pre-molars molars
set? or not?
Here, whole teeth set is "universal set" of above said four
teeth sets.
That is W and W R
W
W W
N N
Some of the obvious relations
among these subsets are
R and ' R, and '.
Consider a set of vowels letters , V = {a, e, i, o, u}. Also consider the set A, of all letters
in the English alphabet. A = {a, b, c, d, ….., z}. We can see that every element of set V is also
an element A. But there are elements of A which are not a part of V. In this case, V is the proper
subset of A.
In other words V A since whenever a V, then a A we may also say that V A.
D O T HIS
T RY T HIS
3. P is the set of factors of 5, Q is the set of factors of 25 and R is the set of factors of 125.
Which one of the following is false?
(A) P Q (B) Q R (C) R P (D) P R
4. A is the set of prime numbers smaller than 10, B is the set of odd numbers < 10 and C
is the set of even numbers < 10. How many of the following statements are true?
(i) A B (ii) B A (iii) A C
(iv) C A (v) B C (vi) C B
T HINK - D ISCUSS
A
1
(ii) = {1, 2, 3, …., 10} is the universal set of which, 4 3
B 5
6
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {4, 6} are subsets 2 7
9 10
and also B A. Then, the Venn-diagram is : 8
(iii) Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f }. a e
c
Then we illustrate these sets with a Venn diagram as b f
Suppose A is the set of students in your class who were absent on Tuesday and B the set
of students who were absent on Wednesday. Then,
A = {Roja, Ramu, Ravi} and
B = {Ramu, Preethi, Haneef}
Now, we want to find K, the set of students who were absent on either Tuesday or
Wednesday. Then, does Roja Ramu Ravi Haneef Preethi
Akhila
Roja, Ramu, Ravi, Haneef and Preethi all belong to K but Veera Prakash does not.
Hence, K = {Roja, Ramu, Ravi, Haneef , Preethi}
Here, the set K is the called the union of sets A and B. The A
B
union of A and B is the set which consists of all the elements of A and
B. The symbol ‘’ is used to denote the union. Symbolically, we
write A B and usually read as ‘A union B’ or A cup B.
A B = {x : xA or xB}
This example illustrates that union of sets A and its subset B is the Set A itself.
i.e, if B A, then A B = A.
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8} A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8}
D O T HIS
T RY T HIS
1. List out some sets A and B and choose their elements such that A and B are disjoint
2. If A = {2, 3, 5}, find A and A and compare.
3. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}; B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} then find A B, A B. What do you
notice about the result?
4. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Find the intersection of A and B.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
The intersection of any two disjoint sets is a null set. Justify your answer.
A B A B
1 6 1 6
4 4
2 5 7 2 5 7
3 3
A – B = {1, 2, 3} B – A = {6, 7}
D O T HIS
T HINK - D ISCUSS
The sets A – B, B – A and A B are mutually disjoint sets. Use examples to observe
if this is true.
EXERCISE - 2.2
Find A B, A C, A D, B C, B D, C D.
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}; D = {5, 10, 15, 20} find
(i) A – B (ii) A – C (iii) A – D (iv) B – A (v) C – A
(vi) D – A (vii) B – C (viii) B – D (ix) C – B (x) D – B
7. State whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify you answers.
(i) {2, 3, 4, 5} and {3, 6} are disjoint sets.
(ii) {a, e, i, o, u} and {a, b, c, d} are disjoint sets.
(iii) {2, 6, 10, 14} and {3, 7, 11, 15} are disjoint sets.
(iv) {2, 6, 10} and {3, 7, 11} are disjoint sets.
Two sets A and C are said to be equal if every element in A belongs to C (i.e.A C)
and every element in C belongs to A (i.e.C A).
If A and C are equal sets, than we write A = C. Thus, we can also write that if C A and
A C A = C. Here is the symbol for two way implication and is usually read as, if and
only if (briefly written as “iff”). If A and C contain the same elements, then they are equal i.e.
A = C.
Moreover, we can also conclude that “Every set is subset of itself”.
Example-7. If A = {p, q, r} and B = {q, p, r}, then check whether A=B or not.
Solution : The elements are same in both the sets. Therefore, A N and N A.
Therefore, both A and N are the set of Natural numbers. Therefore the sets A and N are
equal sets A = N.
Example-9. Consider the sets A = {p, q, r, s} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Are they equal?
Example-10. Let A be the set of prime numbers smaller than 6 and P the set of prime factors
of 30. Check if A and P are equal.
Since the elements of A are the same as the elements of P, therefore, A and P are equal.
The roster form of the set A = {A,S,I,N,T,O}since elements in a set cannot be repeated.
Example-12. Consider the sets , A = {1, 3}, B = {1, 5, 9}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Insert the
symbol or between each of the following pair of sets.
(i) ….. B (ii) A ….. B (iii) A ….. C (iv) B ….. C
E XERCISE - 2.3
2. Consider the following sets and fill up the blank in the statement given below with = or
so as to make the statement true.
(vii) F .... B
Can you list the number of elements in each of the sets given above? In (i), the number of
elements will be the number of students in your school. In (ii), the number of elements in set L is
4. We find that it is possible to express the number of elements of sets A and L in definite whole
numbers. Such sets are called finite sets.
Now, consider the set B of all even numbers. We can express the number of elements is
whole number i.e., we see that the number of elements of this set is not finite. We find that the
number of elements in B and J is infinite. Such sets are called infinite sets.
We can draw infinite of straight lines passing though a given point. So this set is infinite.
Similarly, it is not possible to find out the last number among the collection of all integers. Thus,
we can say a set is infinite if it is not finite.
Solution :
(i) x can take the values 1 or 2 in the given case. The set is {1,2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) x2 = 4, implies that x = +2 or 2. But x N or x is a natural number so the set
is{2}. Hence, it is finite.
(iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers. There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Hence, set is infinite.
(v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence the set is infinite.
Here,
Number of elements in set C = 4 (In the set C, the element ‘I’ repeats twice. We know
that the elements of a given set should be distinct. So, the number of distinct elements in set C
is 4).
The number of elements in a set is called the cardinal number of the set. The cardinal
number of the set A is denoted as n(A) = 3.
Note : There are no elements in a null set. The cardinal number of that set is n( ) = 0
D O T HESE
T RY T HIS
1. Which of the following sets are empty sets? Justify your answer.
(i) A = {x : x2 = 4 and 3x = 9}.
(ii) The set of all triangles in a plane having the sum of their three angles less
than 180.
2. B = {x : x + 5 = 5} is not an empty set. Why?
EXERCISE - 2.4
1. State which of the following sets are empty and which are not?
(i) The set of lines passing through a point.
(ii) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2.
(iii) {x : x is a natural number, x < 5 and x > 7}
(iv) {x : x is a common point to any two parallel lines}
(v) Set of even prime numbers.
But A B={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} does not contain 9 elements and it contains 7 elements only..
Why?
1. What is the relation between n(A), n(B), n(A B) and n(A B)
2. If Aand B are disjoint sets, then how can you find n(A B)
1. A set is a well defined collection of objects where well defined means that:
(i) There is a universe of objects which are allowed into consideration.
(ii) Any object in the universe is either an element or is not an element of the set.
2. An object belonging to a set is known as an element of the set. We use the symbol ''
to denote membership of an element and read belongs to.
3. Sets can be written in the roster form where all elements of the set are written, separated
by commas, within curly brackets(braces).
4. Sets can also be written in the set-builder form.
5. A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or a Null set, or a
void set.
6. A set is called a finite set if its cordinal number is a definite whole number.
7. We can say that a set is infinite if it is not finite.
8. The number of elements in a set is called the cardinal number of the set.
9. The universal set is denoted by '' or U. The Universal set is usually represented by
rectangles.
10. A is a subset of B if 'a' is an element of A implies that 'a' is also an element of B. This
is written as A B if a A a B, where A, B are two sets.
11. Two sets, A and B are said to be equal if every element in A belongs to B and every
element in B belongs to A.
12. A union B is written as A B = {x : x A or x B}.
13. A intersection B is written as A B = {x : x A and x B}
14. The difference of two sets A, B is denoted as A B
A B = {x : x A and x B}
15. Venn diagrams are a convenient way of showing operations between sets.
Polynomials
3.1 I NTRODUCTION
Let us observe two situations
1. A flower bed in a garden is in the shape of a triangle. The longest
side is 4 times of p, smallest side is 2 units longer than p and the
remaining side is 3 times of p. Then what’s the perimeter in terms
of p?
2. The length of a rectangular dining hall is twice its breadth. Let x represent the breadth of
the hall. What is the area of the floor of the hall in terms of x?
In the above situations, there is an unknown in each statement. In the first situation,
middle side is given as ‘p’ units.
Since, Perimeter of triangle = sum of all sides
3P P+2
Perimeter = 4p + 3p + p + 2
= 8p + 2 4P
2x
As you know, the perimeter, 8p + 2 of the triangle and area 2x2 of the rectangle are in the
form of polynomials of different degrees.
48 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
1 1 1
, , , 3x3 etc. are not polynomials.
x 2x y1
2
1
Why is not a polynomial? Discuss with your friends and teacher..
y 1
D O T HIS
State which of the following are polynomials and which are not? Give reasons.
1 1
(i) 2x3 (ii) (iii) 4 z (iv) m 2 2 m 2 (v) P 2 1
2
x 1 7
T RY T HIS
Write 3 different quadratic, cubic and 2 linear polynomials with different number of terms.
3
We can write polynomials of any degree. 7 u 6– u 4 + 4 u 2 – 8 is polynomial of
2
degree 6 and x – 3x + 4x + 2x -1 is a polynomial of degree 10.
10 8 5 2
For example, the general form of a first degree polynomial in one variable x is ax+b,
where a and b are real numbers and a 0.
T RY T HIS
1. Write a quadratic polynomial and a cubic polynomial in variable x in the general form.
2. Write a general polynomial q(z) of degree n with coefficients that are b0...bn. What are
the conditions on b0...bn?.
D O T HIS
(i) p(x) = x2 – 5x – 6, find the values of p(1), p(2), p(3), p(0), p(–1), p(–2), p(–3).
(ii) p(m) = m2 – 3m + 1, find the value of p(1) and p(–1).
We see that p(3) = 0 and p(-1) = 0. These points, x = 3 and x = –1, are called Zeroes
of the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 2x -3.
DO THIS
(i) Let p(x) = x2 – 4x + 3. Find the value of p(0), p(1), p(2), p(3) and obtain zeroes of the
polynomial p(x).
(ii) Check whether -3 and 3 are the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 9.
EXERCISE - 3.1
1. (a) If p(x) = 5x7 – 6x5 + 7x-6, find
(b) Write three more polynomials and create three questions for each of them.
2. State which of the following statements are true and which are false? Give reasons for
your choice.
(v) The degree of a polynomial is one more than the number of terms in it.
5. Check whether 3 and –2 are the zeroes of the polynomial p(x) when p(x) = x2 – x – 6.
5
For example, if k is a zero of p(x) = 2x + 5, then p(k) =0 gives 2k +5 = 0 i.e., k = .
2
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax+b, a 0.
then p(k) = ak + b = 0,
b b
i.e., k = , or the zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is .
a a
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients, including the constant
term.
Are the zeroes of higher degree polynomials also related to their coefficients? Think
about this and discuss with friends. We will come to this later.
Table 3.1
x –2 0 2
y = 2x + 3 –1 3 7
(x, y) (–2, –1) (0, 3) (2, 7)
y = 2x + 3 intersects the -5
x-axis. -6
-7
Y'
D O T HIS
Draw the graph of (i) y = 2x + 5, (ii) y = 2x – 5, (iii) y = 2x and find the point of
intersection on x-axis. Is the x-coordinates of these points also the zero of the polynomial?
Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b, a 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the
x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis.
Now, let us look for the geometrical meaning of a zero of a quadratic polynomial. Consider
the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. Let us see how the graph of y = x2 – 3x – 4 looks like. Let
us list a few values of y = x2 – 3x – 4 corresponding to a few values for x as given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6
(x, y) (– 2, 6) (– 1, 0) (0, 4) (1, – 6) (2, – 6) (3, – 4) (4, 0) (5, 6)
T RY T HIS
Draw the graphs of (i) y = x2 – x – 6 (ii) y = 6 – x – x2 and find zeroes in each case.
What do you notice?
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, the
following three cases can happen:
Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A . In this case, the
x-coordinates of A and A are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2+bx +c . The
parabola can open either upward or downward.
Y Y
A
X' X X' X
O A' A' O A
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
Case (ii) : Here, the graph touches x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident points. So,
the two points A and A of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A.
Y Y
X' A X X' X
O O A
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this case.
Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the
x-axis. So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point.
Y Y
X' O X X' O X
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
So, the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has no zero in this case.
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two distinct zeroes or
two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a polynomial of degree 2 has
atmost two zeroes.
T RY T HIS
Table 3.3
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0
(x, y) (–2, 0) (–1, 3) (0, 0) (1, –3) (2, 0)
Table 3.4
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 –8 –1 0 1 8
(x, y) (–2, –8) (–1, –1) (0, 0) (1, 1) (2, 8)
Table 3.5
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 – x2 –12 –2 0 0 4
(x, y) (–2, –12) (–1, –2) (0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 4)
Y (2, 8) Y
7 7
6 6
5 5
(2, 4)
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 (1, 1) 1
X' (0, 0) X X' (1, 0) X
0 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
(-1, -1)
(-1, -2)
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6
-7 -7
(-2, -8) Y' Y'
y = x3 y = x3 – x2
In y = x3, you can see that 0 is the x-coordinate of the only point where the graph of
y = x3 intersects the x-axis. So, the polynomial has only one distinct zero. Similarly, 0 and 1 are
the x-coordinates of the only points where the graph of y = x3 – x2 intersects the x-axis. So, the
cubic polynomial has two distinct zeros.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic polynomial.
In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.
T RY T HIS
Find the zeroes of cubic polynomials (i) – x3 (ii) x2 – x3 (iii) x3 – 5x2 + 6x without drawing
the graph of the polynomial.
Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the
x-axis at at most n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n zeroes.
Example-1. Look at the graphs in the figures given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x), where
p(x) is a polynomial. In each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x) in the given range
Y Y Y
of x.
Y'
Y' Y'
(i) (ii) (iii)
Y Y Y
X' O
X' O X X' O X X
Example-2. Find the number of zeroes of the given polynomials. And also find their values.
To find zeroes,
Let p(x) = 0
So, 2x+1=0
1
Therefore x =
2
1
The zero of the given polynomial is .
2
y2 – 1 = 0
(y + 1) (y – 1) = 0
y = -1 or y = 1
Let r(z) = 0
z3 = 0
z=0
EXERCISE – 3.2
1. The graphs
Y of y = p(x) are given in the figure
Y below, for some polynomials
Y p(x). In each
Y'
Y' Y'
X'
X' O X X' O X O X
1
4. Why are and –1 zeroes of the polynomials p(x) = 4x2 + 3x – 1?
4
(8) (coefficient of x)
We see that the sum of the zeroes = 1 + 3 = 4 = = coefficient of x2
2
6 constant term
Product of the zeroes = 1 × 3 = 3 = = coefficient of x 2
2
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial:
p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2.
By splitting the middle term we see,
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) – 1(x + 2)
= (3x – 1) (x + 2)
3x2 + 5x – 2 is zero when either 3x – 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
1
i.e., when x = or x = –2.
3
1
The zeroes of 3x2 + 5x – 2 are and –2. We can see that the :
3
1 5 (coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = + (-2) = = coefficient of x2
3 3
1 2 constant term
Product of its zeroes = × (-2) = =
3 3 coefficient of x 2
D O T HIS
Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomials given below. Find the sum and product
of the zeroes and verify relationship to the coefficients of terms in the polynomial.
(i) p(x) = x2 – x – 6 (ii) p(x) = x2 – 4x + 3
(iii) p(x) = x2 – 4 (iv) p(x) = x2 + 2x + 1
In general, if and are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
where a 0, then (x – ) and (x – ) are the factors of p(x). Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = k (x – ) (x – ), where k is a constant
= k[x2 – ( + ) x + ]
= k x2 – k ( + ) x + k
Comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get
a = k, b = – k(+) and c = k.
b
This gives + = ,
a
c
=
a
Note : and are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will
use later one more letter ‘’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.
b (coefficient of x)
So, sum of zeroes of a quadratic polynomial = + = = coefficient of x2
a
c constant term
Product of zeroes of a quadratic polynomial = = = coefficient of x 2
a
Let us consider some examples.
Example-3. Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2) (x + 5)
(7) (coefficient of x)
Now, sum of the zeroes= –2 + (–5) = – (7) = = coefficient of x2
1
10 constant term
Product of the zeroes = –2 × (–5) = 10 = = coefficient of x 2
1
Example-4. Find the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 3 and verify the relationship between the
zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : Recall the identity a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a + b).
Using it, we can write:
x2 – 3 = (x – 3 ) (x + 3)
(coefficient of x)
Sum of the zeroes = 3 + (– 3 ) = 0 = coefficient of x2
3 constant term
Product of zeroes = ( 3 ) × (– 3)=–3= = coefficient of x 2
1
Example-5. Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are – 3 and 2,
respectively.
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and its zeroes be and . We have
b
+=–3= ,
a
c
and = 2 = .
a
If we take a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 + 3x + 2.
b
Similarly, we can take 'a' to be any real number. Let us say it is k. This gives 3
k
c
or b = 3k and 2 or c = 2k. Putting the values of a, b and c, we get the polynomial is
k
kx2 + 3kx + 2k.
1
Example-6. Find a quadratic polynomial if the zeroes of it are 2 and respectively..
3
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be
ax2 + bx + c, a 0 and its zeroes be and .
1
Here = 2, =
3
1 5
Sum of the zeroes = ( + ) = 2 + =
3 3
1 2
Product of the zeroes = () = 2 =
3 3
Therefore the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c is
TRY THIS
1
(i) Find a quadratic polynomial with zeroes 2 and .
3
3
(ii) What is the quadratic polynomial whose sum of zeroes is and the product
2
of zeroes is 1.
1
We see that p(x) = 0 for x = 4, – 2, .
2
Since p(x) can have at most three zeroes, these are the zeroes
of 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8.
1 5 (5) (coefficient of x2 )
Sum of its zeroes = 4 + (–2) + = = = coefficient of 3
2 2 2 x
1 8 (constant term)
Product of its zeroes = 4 × (–2) × =–4= = coefficient of x3
2 2
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products of the
zeroes taken two at a time. We have:
1 1
= {4 (2)} (2) 4
2 2
14 constant of x
=–8–1+2=–7= = coefficient of x 3
2
In general, it can be proved that if , , are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then
b
++=
a
, ax3 bx 2 cx d is a polynomial with zeroes , , . Let us
see how , , relate to a, b, c, d.
c
+ + = , Since , , are the zeroes, the polynomial can be written as
a
( x ) ( x ) ( x )
d
= . x 3 x 2 ( ) x ( )
a
To compare with the polynomial, we multiply by 'a' and get
ax 3 x 2 a ( ) xa ( ) a .
b a ( ), c a ( ), d a
D O T HIS
If , , are the zeroes of the given cubic polynomials, find the values as given in the
table.
EXERCISE – 3.3
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x2 – 3 – 7x
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x2 – x – 4
2. Find the quadratic polynomial in each case, with the given numbers as the sum and
product of its zeroes respectively.
1 1
(i) ,–1 (ii) 2, (iii) 0, 5
4 3
1 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v) – , (vi) 4, 1
4 4
3. Find the quadratic polynomial, for the zeroes , given in each case.
1 1 3
(i) 2, –1 (ii) 3 , – 3 (iii) ,–1 (iv) ,
4 2 2
4. Verify that 1, –1 and –3 are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial x3 + 3x2 – x – 3 and
check the relationship between zeroes and the coefficients.
Step 2 : Now, to obtain the second term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of the
new dividend (i.e., – 5x2) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x2). This gives – 5. Again
carry out the division process with– 5x2 – x + 5.
Step 3 : What remains is 9x + 10. Now, the degree of 9x + 10 is less than the degree of the
divisor x2 + 2x + 1. So, we cannot continue the division any further.
So, the quotient is 3x – 5 and the remainder is 9x + 10. Also,
(x2 + 2x + 1) × (3x – 5) + (9x + 10) = (3x 3 + 6x 2 + 3x – 5x 2 – 10x – 5 + 9x + 10)
= 3x 3 + x2 + 2x + 5
Here again, we see that
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Example-11. Find all the zeroes of 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2, if you know that two of its zeroes
are 2 and – 2 .
Solution : Since two of the zeroes are 2 and – 2 , therefore we can divide by (x – 2 )
(x + 2 ) = x – 2.
2
2 x 2 3x 1
x 2 2 2 x 4 3x3 3 x 2 6 x 2 2 x4
First term of quotient is 2 2 x
2
2x4 4x2 x
3x3 x 2 6 x 2
3 x 3
3x 3
6x Second term of quotient is 3 x
x2
x2 2
x2 2 x2
Third term of quotient is 1
x2
0
EXERCISE – 3.4
1. Divide the polynomial p(x) by the polynomial g(x) and find the quotient and remainder in
each of the following :
(i) p(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 3, g(x) = x2 – 2
(ii) p(x) = x4 – 3x2 + 4x + 5, g(x) = x2 + 1 – x
(iii) p(x) = x4 – 5x + 6, g(x) = 2 – x2
2. Check in which case the first polynomial is a factor of the second polynomial by dividing
the second polynomial by the first polynomial :
(iii) x3 – 3x + 1, x5 – 4x3 + x2 + 3x + 1
3. Obtain all other zeroes of 3x4 + 6x3 – 2x2 – 10x – 5, if two of its zeroes are
5 5
and .
3 3
5. Give examples of polynomials p(x), g(x), q(x) and r(x), which satisfy the division algorithm
and
(i) deg p(x) = deg q(x) (ii) deg q(x) = deg r(x) (iii) deg r(x) = 0
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Verify that the numbers given alongside the cubic polynomials below are their zeroes.
Also verify the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients in each case:
1
(i) 2x3 + x2 – 5x + 2 ; ( , 1, –2) (ii) x3 + 4x2 + 5x – 2 ; (1, 1, 1)
2
2. Find a cubic polynomial with the sum, sum of the product of its zeroes taken two at a
time, and the product of its zeroes as 2, –7, –14 respectively.
3. If the zeroes of the polynomial x3 – 3x2 + x + 1 are a – b, a, a + b find a and b.
4. If two zeroes of the polynomial x4 – 6x3 – 26x2 + 138x – 35 are 2 3 , find other
zeroes.
5. If the polynomial x4 – 6x3 – 16x2 + 25x + 10 is divided by another polynomial
x2 – 2x + k, the remainder comes out to be x + a, find k and a.
b c
+ = – , = .
a a
6. If , , are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a 0, then
b
++= ,
a
c
+ + = ,
a
d
and = .
a
7. The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and any non-zero polynomial
g(x), there are polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),
where either r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) < degree g(x) if r(x) 0.
We can see that there can be many possible values for the price of a notebook and of a pen
so that the total cost is D80. So, how do we find cost price at which Siri and Laxmi bought them?
By only using Siri's situation, we cannot find the costs. We have to use Laxmi's situation also.
Laxmi also bought the same types of notebooks and pens as Siri. She paid D110 for 4
notebooks and 3 pens.
So, we have two situations which can be represented as follows:
(i) Cost of 3 notebooks + 2 pens = D80.
(ii) Cost of 4 notebooks + 3 pens = D110.
Does this help us find the cost of a pen and a notebook?
Consider the prices mentioned by Rubina. If the price of one notebook is D25 and the
price of one pen is D2.50 then,
The cost of 4 notebooks would be : 4 × 25 = D100
And the cost for 3 pens would be : 3 × 2.50 = D7.50
If Rubina is right then Laxmi should have paid D 100 +D 7.50 = D 107.50 but she paid D110.
Now, consider the prices mentioned by Joseph. Then,
The cost of 4 notebooks, if one is for D16, would be : 4 × 16 = D64
And the cost for 3 pens, if one is for D16, would be : 3 × 16 = D 48
If Joseph is right then Laxmi should have paid D64 + D48 = D112 but this is more than the
price she paid.
So what do we do? How to find the exact cost of the notebook and the pen?
If we have only one equation but two unknowns (variables), we can find many solutions.
So, when we have two variables, we need at least two independent equations to get a unique
solution. One way to find the values of unknown quantities is by using the Model method. In this
method, rectangles or portions of rectangles are often used to represent the unknowns. Let us
look at the first situation using the following method:
Step-1 : Represent notebooks by and pens by .
D110
Step-2 : Increase (or decrease) the quantities in proportion to make one of the quantities equal in
both situations. Here, we make the number of pens equal.
(3 books × 3) 9 books (2 pens × 3) 6 pens
D240
(3×D80)
T RY T HIS
Mark the correct option in the following questions:
1. Which of the following equations is not a linear equation?
a) 5 + 4x = y+ 3 b) x+2y = y - x
c) 3 - x = y + 4
2
d) x + y = 0
In the introductory example of notebooks and pens, how many equations did we have?
We had two equations or a pair of linear equations in two variables. What do we mean by the
solution for a pair of linear equations?
The pair of values of the variables x and y which together satisfy each one of the equations
is called the solution for a pair of linear equations.
4.2.1 G RAPHICAL METHOD OF FINDING SOLUTION OF A PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
What will be the number of solutions for a pair of linear equations in two
variables? Is the number of solutions infinite or unique or none?
Now, we will use graphs to solve the equations.
Let : a1x + b1y + c1 = 0, (a12 + b12 0) and
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0; (a22 + b22 0) form a pair of linear equation in two
variables.
The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. Ordered pairs of real
numbers (x, y) representing points on the line are solutions of the equation and ordered pairs of
real numbers (x, y) that do not represent points on the line are not solutions.
When we have a pair of equations, they represent lines in the same plane. So, if we have
two lines in the same plane, what can be the possible relations between them? What is the
significance of this relation?
When two lines are drawn in the same plane, only one of the following three situations is
possible:
i) The two lines may intersect at one point.
ii) The two lines may not intersect i.e., they are parallel.
iii) The two lines may be coincident.
(actually both are same)
Let us write the equations in the first example in terms of x and y where x is the cost of a
notebook and y is the cost of a pen. Then, the equations are 3x + 2y = 80 and 4x + 3y = 110.
For the equation 3x + 2y = 80 For the equation 4x + 3y = 110
80 3 x 110 4 x
x y= (x, y) x y= (x, y)
2 3
80 3(0) 110 4(10)
0 y= = 40 (0, 40) -10 y = = 50 (-10, 50)
2 3
80 3(10) 110 4(20)
10 y = = 25 (10, 25) 20 y = = 10 (20, 10)
2 3
80 3(20) 110 4(50)
20 y = = 10 (20, 10) 50 y = = -30 (50, -30)
2 3
80 3(30)
30 y = = -5 (30, -5)
2
Y
60
(20, 10). 40
16
Now, let us look at the first example from the think and discuss section. We want to find
15
the cost of 1kg of potatoes and the cost of 1 kg of tomatoes each. Let the cost of 1kg potatoes
14
be Dx and cost of 1kg of tomato be Dy. Then, the equations12 will become 1x+2y=30 and
13
2x+4y=66. 11
30 x 66 2 x
x y= (x, y) x y= (x, y)
2 4
30 0 66 2(1)
0 y= = 15 (0, 15) 1 y= = 16 (1, 16)
2 4
30 2 66 2(3)
2 y= = 14 (2, 14) 3 y= = 15 (3, 15)
2 4
30 4 66 2(5)
4 y= = 13 (4, 13) 5 y= = 14 (5, 14)
2 4
30 6 66 2(7)
6 y= = 12 (6, 12) 7 y= = 13 (7, 13)
2 4
Here, we observe that the situation is Y
equations.
X
solutions as both the equations are equivalent.
X
-200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
T RY THIS
In the example given above, can you find the cost of each bat and ball?
T HINK - DISCUSS
DO THIS
2 2 2
a1 b1 c1
Pair of lines a2 b2 c2 Comparison Graphical Algebraic
3 6 -3900 a1 b c
1 1 Consistant,
3. 3x+6y=3900 a2 b2 c2 Coincident
1 2 -1300 Infinite
x+2y=1300 lines (Depen- number of
dent lines) solutions
a b
Since a b , therefore they are intersecting lines and hence, consistent pair of linear equation.
1 1
2 2
5
X
4
1 (2, 1)
X
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
Y
4
XI
-2 -1 X
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
Y
Example-3. Check whether the equations 2x-3y = 5 and 4x-6y = 15 are consistent. Also verify
by graphical representation.
Solution : 4x-6y - 15 = 0
2x-3y - 5 = 0
a1 4 2 b1 6 2
a2 2 1 b2 3 1
c1 - 15 3 a1 b c
= = 1 1
c2 -5 1 a2 b2 c2
So the equations are inconsistent. They have no solutions and its graph is of parallel lines.
15 - 4 x 5 2x
x y= (x, y) x y= (x, y)
-6 3
15 - 0 - 5 5 - 2(1)
0 y= = (0, -2.5) 1 y= =-1 (1, -1)
-6 2 -3
15 - 4(3) - 1 5 - 2(4)
3 y= = (3, -0.5) 3 y= =1 (4, 1)
-6 2 -3
15 - 4(6) 3 5 - 2(7)
6 y= = (6, 1.5) 6 y= =3 (7, 3)
-6 2 -3
4
X
3
1
-3
X
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I
-1
-2
-4
DO THIS
Check each of the given systems of equations to see if it has a unique solution,
infinitely many solutions or no solution. Solve them graphically.
(i) 2x+3y = 1 (ii) x + 2y = 6 (iii) 3x + 2y = 6
3x-y = 7 2x + 4y = 12 6x + 4y = 18
T RY THIS
1. For what value of 'p' the following pair of equations has a unique solution.
2x + py = - 5 and 3x + 3y = - 6
2. Find the value of 'k' for which the pair of equations 2x - ky + 3 = 0, 4x + 6y - 5 =0
represent parallel lines.
3. For what value of 'k', the pair of equation 3x + 4y + 2 = 0 and 9x + 12y + k = 0
represent coincident lines.
4. For what positive values of 'p' the following pair of liner equations have infinitely many
solutions?
px + 3y - (p - 3) = 0
12x + py - p = 0
Let us look at some more examples.
Example-4. In a garden there are some bees and flowers. If one bee sits on each flower then
one bee will be left. If two bees sit on each flower, one flower will be left. Find the number of
bees and number of flowers.
Solution : Let the number of bees = x and
the number of flowers = y
If one bee sits on each flower then one bee will be left. So, x = y + 1
84 Class-X Mathematics
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or x-y-1=0 ... (1)
If two bees sit on each flower, one flower will be left. So, x = 2(y- 1)
or x - 2y+2 = 0 ... (2)
For the equation x - y - 1 = 0 For the equation x - 2y + 2 = 0
x2
x y=x-1 (x, y) x y= (x, y)
2
02
0 y = 0 - 1 = -1 (0, -1) 0 y= =1 (0, 1)
2
22
1 y=1-1=0 (1, 0) 2 y= =2 (2, 2)
2
42
2 y=2-1=1 (2, 1) 4 y= =3 (4, 3)
2
62
3 y=3-1=2 (3, 2) 6 y= =4 (6, 4)
2
4 y=4-1=3 (4, 3)
5
(4, 3)
4
2
X
1
X
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
www.apteachers.in
When length is increased by 2 m., then new length is l + 2. Also breadth is decreased by
1m so new breadth is b - 1.
Then, area= (l + 2) (b - 1)
Since there is no change in the area,
|
(l + 2) (b - 1) = lb
lb - l +2b - 2 = lb or lb - lb = l - 2b + 2
l - 2b + 2 = 0 ... (2)
For the equation l + b - 16 = 0 For the equation l - 2b + 2 = 0
l2
l b = 16 - l (l, b) l b= (l, b)
2
62
6 b = 16 - 6 = 10 (6, 10) 6 b= =4 (6, 4)
2
82
8 b = 16 - 8 = 8 (8, 8) 8 b= =5 (8, 5)
2
10 2
10 b = 16 - 10 = 6 (10, 6) 10 b= =6 (10, 6)
2
12 2
12 b = 16 - 12 = 4 (12, 4) 12 b= =7 (12, 7)
2
14 2
14 b = 16 - 14 = 2 (14, 2) 14 b= =8 (14, 8)
2
So, original length of the plot is 10m and its breadth is 6m.
Taking measures of length on X-axis and measure of breadth on Y-axis, we get the graph
Y (10, 6)
14
12
X
10 10 12 14 16 18
-2 -1 0 2 4 6 8 16
-1
-2
-3
-4
EXERCISE - 4.1
a1 b1 c1
1. By comparing the ratios a , b , c , find out whether the lines represented by the
2 2 2
following pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or are coincident.
a) 5x- 4y + 8 = 0 b) 9x+3y + 12 = 0 c) 6x - 3y + 10 = 0
7x+6y-9 = 0 18x+6y + 24 = 0 2x - y + 9 = 0
2. Check whether the following equations are consistent or inconsistent. Solve them graphically.
3 5
a) 3x+2y = 8 b) 2x - 3y = 8 c) x y = 7
2 3
2x - 3y = 1 4x - 6y = 9 9x - 10y=12
4
d) 5x-3y = 11 e) x +2y = 8 f) x + y = 5
3
-10x+6y = -22 2x+3y = 12 2x+2y = 10
g) x - y = 8 h) 2x + y-6 = 0 i) 2x-2y - 2 = 0
3x-3y = 16 4x-2y- 4 = 0 4x-4y- 5 = 0
3. Neha went to a 'sale' to purchase some pants and skirts. When her friend asked her how
many of each she had bought, she answered "The number of skirts are two less than twice
the number of pants purchased. Also the number of skirts is four less than three times the
number of pants purchased." Help her friend to find how many pants and skirts Neha
bought.
4. 10 students of Class-X took part in a mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4 more
than the number of boys then, find the number of boys and the number of girls who took
part in the quiz.
5. 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost D50 whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together cost D46.
Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
6. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4m more than its width, is 36m.
Find the dimensions of the garden.
7. We have a linear equation 2x + 3y - 8 = 0. Write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is intersecting lines.
Now, write two more linear equations so that one forms a pair of parallel lines and the
second forms coincident line with the given equation.
8. The area of a rectangle gets reduced by 80 sq units if its length is reduced by 5 units and
breadth is increased by 2 units. If we increase the length by 10 units and decrease the
breadth by 5 units, the area will increase by 50 sq units. Find the length and breadth of the
rectangle.
9. In X class, if three students sit on each bench, one student will be left. If four students sit on
each bench, one bench will be left. Find the number of students and the number of benches
in that class.
D O T HIS
Solve each pair of equation by using the substitution method.
1) 3x - 5y = -1 2) x+2y = - 1 3) 2x+3y = 9
x-y=-1 2x - 3y = 12 3x+4y = 5
6
4) x =6 5) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3 6) 2x + 3y = 0
y
8
3x =5 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3 3x - 8 y = 0
y
4.3.2 E LIMINATION M ETHOD
In this method, first we eliminate (remove) one of the two variables by
equating its coefficients. This gives a single equation which can be solved to
get the value of the other variable. To understand this method, let us consider
it stepwise.
Step-1 : Write both the equations in the form of ax + by = c.
Step-2 : Make the coefficients of one of the variables, say 'x', numerically
equal by multiplying each equation by suitable real numbers.
Step-3 : If the variable to be eliminated has the same sign in both equations, subtract the two
equations to get an equation in one variable. If they have opposite signs then add.
Step-4 : Solve the equation for the remaining variable.
Step-5 : Substitute the value of this variable in any one of the original equations and find the
value of the eliminated variable.
Example-7. Solve the following pair of linear equations using elimination method.
3x + 2y = 11
2x + 3y = 4
Solution : 3x + 2y = 11 (1)
2x + 3y = 4 (2) (Step 1)
Let us eliminate 'y' from the given equations. The coefficients of 'y' in the given equations are 2
and 3. L.C.M.of 2 and 3 is 6. So, multiply equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by 2.
Equation (1) × 3 9x + 6y = 33 (Step 2)
Equation (2) × 2 4x + 6y = 8
(-) (-) (-) (Step 3)
5x = 25
25
x= =5 (Step 4)
5
Substitute x = 5, in equation (1)
3(5) + 2y = 11
4
2y = 11 - 15 = - 4 y 2 (Step 5)
2
Therefore, the required solution is x = 5, y = - 2.
DO THIS
T RY T HIS
Solve the given pair of linear equations
(a - b)x + (a + b)y = a2 - 2ab - b2
(a + b) (x + y) = a2 + b2
750
y= = 15
50
x = 25 - 15 = 10
Therefore, Rubina received ten D50 notes and fifteen D100 notes.
Swetha used the elimination method to get the solution.
In the equations, coefficients of x are 1 and 50 respectively. So,
Equation (1) × 50 50x + 50y = 1250
Equation (2) × 1 50x + 100y = 2000 same sign, so subtract
(-) (-) (-)
-50y = -750
750
or y= = 15
50
Substitute y in equation (1) x + 15 = 25
x = 25 - 15 = 10
Therefore Rubina received ten D50 notes and fifteen D100 rupee notes.
Example-9. In a competitive exam, 3 marks are to be awarded for every correct answer and
for every wrong answer, 1 mark will be deducted. Madhu scored 40 marks in this exam. Had
4 marks been awarded for each correct answer and 2 marks deducted for each incorrect answer,
Madhu would have scored 50 marks. How many questions were there in the test? (Madhu
attempted all the questions)
Solution : Let the number of correct answers be x;
and the number of wrong answers be y.
When 3 marks are given for each correct answer and 1 mark deducted for each wrong
answer, his score is 40 marks.
3x - y = 40 (1)
His score would have been 50 marks if 4 marks were given for each correct answer and 2
marks deducted for each wrong answer.
4x - 2y = 50 (2)
Substitution method
From equation (1), y = 3x - 40
Substitute in equation (2) 4x - 2 (3x - 40) = 50
4x - 6x + 80 = 50
- 2x = 50 - 80 = -30
30
x= =15
2
Substitute the value of x in equation (1)
3(15) - y = 40
45 - y = 40
y = 45 - 40 = 5
Total number of questions = 15 + 5 = 20
DO THIS
Example-10. Mary told her daughter, "Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were
then. Also, three years from now, I shall be three times as old as you will be." Find the present
age of Mary and her daughter.
Solution : Let Mary's present age be x years and her daughter's age be y years.
Then, seven years ago Mary's age was x - 7 and daughter's age was y - 7.
x - 7 = 7(y - 7)
x - 7 = 7y - 49
x - 7y + 42 = 0 (1)
Three years hence, Mary's age will be x + 3 and daughter's age will be y + 3.
x + 3 = 3 (y + 3)
x + 3 = 3y + 9
x - 3y - 6 = 0 (2)
Elimination method
Equation 1 x - 7y = - 42
Equation 2 x - 3y = 6
(-) (+) (-) same sign for x, so subtract.
-4y = -48
48
y= = 12
4
Substitute the value of y in equation (2)
x-3 (12) - 6 = 0
x = 36 + 6 = 42
Therefore, Mary's present age is 42 years and her daughter's age is 12 years.`
D O T HIS
Solve example-10 by the substitution method.
EXERCISE - 4.2
Form a pair of linear equations for each of the following problems and find their solution.
1. The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their expenditures is 4 : 3. If
each of them manages to save D2000 per month, find their monthly income.
2. The sum of a two digit number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is 66. If the
digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such numbers are there?
3. The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18°. Find the angles.
4. The taxi charges in Hyderabad are fixed, along with the charge for the distance covered.
For a distance of 10 km., the charge paid is D220. For a journey of
15 km. the charge paid is D310.
i. What are the fixed charges and charge per km?
ii. How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of 25 km?
4
5. A fraction becomes if 1 is added to both numerator and denominator. If, however, 5 is
5
1
subtracted from both numerator and denominator, the fraction becomes . What is the
2
fraction?
6. Places A and B are 100 km apart on a highway. One car starts from A and another from B
at the same time at different speeds. If the cars travel in the same direction, they meet in 5
hours. If they travel towards each other, they meet in 1 hour. What are the speeds of the
two cars?
7. Two angles are complementary. The larger angle is 3° less than twice the measure of the
smaller angle. Find the measure of each angle.
8. An algebra textbook has a total of 1382 pages. It is broken up into two parts. The second
part of the book has 64 pages more than the first part. How many pages are in each part of
the book?
9. A chemist has two solutions of hydrochloric acid in stock. One is 50% solution and the
other is 80% solution. How much of each should be used to obtain 100ml of a 68%
solution.
10. Suppose you have D12000 to invest. You have to invest some amount at 10% and the rest
at 15%. How much should be invested at each rate to yield 12% on the total amount
invested?
1 1
We have 2 + 3 = 13 (1)
x y
1 1
5 - 4 = -2 (2)
x y
1 1
If we substitute = p and = q, we get the following pair of linear equations:
x y
2p + 3q = 13 (3)
5p - 4q = -2 (4)
Coefficients of q are 3 and 4 and their l.c.m. is 12. Using the elimination method:
Equation (3) × 4 8p + 12q = 52
Equation (4) × 3 15p - 12q = -6 'q' terms have opposite sign, so we add the two equations.
23p= 46
46
p= =2
23
Substitute the value of p in equation (3)
2(2) +3q = 13
3q = 13 - 4 = 9
9
q= =3
3
1 1
But, =p=2 x =
x 2
1 1
=q=3 y =
y 3
Example-13. Kavitha thought of constructing 2 more rooms in her house. She enquired about
the labour. She came to know that 6 men and 8 women could finish this work in 14 days. But she
wish to complete the work in 10 days. When she enquired, she was told that 8 men and 12
women could finish the work in 10 days. Find out that how much time would be taken to finish
the work if one man or one woman worked alone?
Solution : Let the time taken by one man to finish the work = x days.
1
Work done by one man in one day =
x
Let the time taken by one woman to finish the work = y days.
1
Work done by one woman in one day =
y
Now, 8 men and 12 women can finish the work in 10 days.
1
So work done by 8 men and 12 women in one day = (1)
10
1 8
Also, work done by 8 men in one day is 8 × . =
x x
1 12
Similarly, work done by 12 women in one day is 12 × =
y y
8 12
Total work done by 8 men and 12 women in one day = (2)
x y
8 12 1
Equating equations (1) and (2)
x y 10
8 12
10 = 1
x y
80 120
=1 (3)
x y
Also, 6 men and 8 women can finish the work in 14 days.
6 8 1
Work done by 6 men and 8 women in one day =
x y 14
6 8
14 = 1
x y
84 112
=1 (4)
x y
So one man alone can finish the work in 140 days and one woman alone can finish the
work in 280 days.
Example-14. A man travels 370 km partly by train and partly by car. If he covers 250 km by
train and the rest by car, it takes him 4 hours. But if he travels 130 km by train and the rest by car,
it takes 18 minutes more. Find the speed of the train and that of the car.
Solution : Let the speed of the train be x km. per hour and that of the car be y km. per hour.
Distance
Also, we know that time =
Speed
250
In situation 1, time spent travelling by train = hrs.
x
120
And time spent travelling by car = hrs.
y
250 120
So, total time taken = time spent in train + time spent in car = +
x y
But, total time of journey is 4 hours, so
250 120
+ =4
x y
125 60
+ =2 (1)
x y
Again, when he travels 130 km by train and the rest by car
130
Time taken by him to travel 130 km by train = hrs.
x
240
Time taken by him to travel 240 km (370 - 130) by car = hrs.
y
130 240
Total time taken = +
x y
3
18 3
But given, time of journey is 4 hrs 18 min i.e., 4 hrs. = 4 hrs.
60 10
10
130 240 43
So, + = (2)
x y 10
1 1
Substitute = a and = b in equations (1) and (2)
x y
43 80 43 37
370a = 8 - = =
10 10 10
37 1 1
a= =
10 370 100
10
1
Substitute a = in equation (3)
100
5
1
125 + 60b = 2
100
4
5 85 3
60b = 2 - = =
4 4 4
3 1 1
b= =
4 60 80
20
1 1
So a = and b =
100 80
1 1 1 1
So = and =
x 100 y 80
x = 100 km/hr and y = 80 km/hr.
So, speed of train was 100 km/hr and speed of car was 80 km/hr.
EXERCISE - 4.3
Solve each of the following pairs of equations by reducing them to a pair of linear equations.
5 1 x y
i) + =2 ii) =2
x 1 y2 xy
6 3 x y
- =1 =6
x 1 y 2 xy
2 3
iii) +
x y =2 iv) 6x+3y = 6xy
4 9
-
x y = 1 2x + 4y = 5xy
5 2 2 3
v) - = 1 vi) + = 13
x y x y x y
15 7 5 4
+ = 10 where x0, y0 - = -2 where x0, y0
x y x y x y
10 2 1 1 3
vii) + =4 viii) + =
x y x y 3x y 3x y 4
15 5 1 1 1
2 3x y 2(3x y )
- = -2 - =
x y x y 8
2. Formulate the following problems as a pair of equations and then find their solutions.
i. A boat goes 30 km upstream and 44 km downstream in 10 hours. In 13 hours it can
go 40 km upstream and 55 km downstream. Determine the speed of the stream and
that of the boat in still water.
ii. Rahim travels 600 km to his home partly by train and partly by car. He takes 8 hours
if he travels 120 km by train and rest by car. He takes 20 minutes more if he travels
200 km by train and rest by car. Find the speed of the train and the car.
iii. 2 women and 5 men can together finish an embroidery work in 4 days while 3 women
and 6 men can finish it in 3 days. Find the time taken by 1 woman alone and 1 man
alone to finish the work.
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
2x y x 1 y 1
(i) + =2 (ii) + =8
a b 2 3
x y x 1 y 1
- =4 + =9
a b 3 2
x y
(iii) + =5 (iv) 3x + 2y = 3
7 3
x y
- =6 5x + 3 y = 3
2 9
ax by
(v) - =a+b (vi) 2x + 3y = 17
b a
ax - by = 2ab 2x+2 - 3y+1 = 5
1. Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables.
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 (a12 + b12 0)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 (a22 + b22 0)
Where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are real numbers.
2. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be solved using various methods.
3. The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
i. If the lines intersect at a point then the point gives the unique solution of the two equations.
In this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
ii. If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions - each point on the line
being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent and consistant.
iii. If the lines are parallel then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the pair
of equations is inconsistent.
4. We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s) of a pair of linear
equations.
i. Graphical Method
ii. Algebraic methods - Substitution method and Elimination method.
5. There exists a relation between the coefficients and nature of system of equations.
a b
i. If a b then the pair of linear equations is consistent.
1 1
2 2
a1 b c
ii. If = 1 1 then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b c
iii. If = 1 = 1 then the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
6. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we can alter them so that they will be reduced to a pair
of linear equations.
5 Quadratic Equations
x
spectators? Would it be enough?
Suppose the width of the space be 29 m .
x meter. So from the figure length of the 29+2x m .
plot would be (29 + 2x) meter.
And, breath of the rectangular plot would be = (16 + 2x) m.
Therefore, area of the rectangular plot will be = length × breadth
= (29 + 2x) (16 + 2x)
Since the area of the plot is = 558 m2
(29 + 2x) (16 + 2x) = 558
4x + 90x + 464
2
= 558
4x + 90x - 94
2
=0 (dividing by 2)
2x2 + 45x - 47 =0
2x + 45 x - 47 = 0
2
..... (1)
In previous class we solve the linear equations of the form ax + b = c to find the value of
‘x’. Similarly, the value of x from the above equation will give the possible width of the space for
spectators.
Can you think of more such examples where we have to find the quantities like in above
example and get such equations.
Let us consider another example:
Rani has a square metal sheet. She removed squares of side 9 cm. from each corner of this
sheet. Of the remaining sheet, she turned up the sides to form an open box as shown. The
capacity of the box is 144 cc. Can we find out the dimensions of the metal sheet?
102 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
Suppose the side of the square piece of metal sheet
be ‘x’ cm.
Then, the dimensions of the box are 9 cm. 9 cm.
9 cm. × (x-18) cm. × (x-18) cm.
x cm.
Since volume of the box is 144 cc
9 (x-18) (x-18) = 144 9 cm. 9 cm.
(x-18) = 16
2
x2 - 36x + 308 = 0
x cm.
So, the side ‘x’ of the metal sheet will satisfy the
equation.
x2 - 36x + 308 = 0 ..... (2) 9 cm.
Let us observe the L.H.S of equation (1) and (2)
Are they quadratic polynominals? x - 18
8
-1
x
We studied such quadratic polynomials of the form ax2 + bx + c,
a 0 in the previous chapter.
Since, the LHS of the above equations are quadratic polynomials they are called quadratic
equations.
In this chapter we will study quadratic equations and methods to find their roots.
T RY T HIS
Check whether the following equations are quadratic or not ?
(i) x2 6x 4 = 0 (ii) x3 6x2 + 2x 1 = 0
1
(iii) 7x = 2x2 (iv) x 2 2
x2
(v) (2x + 1) (3x + 1) = b(x 1) (x 2) (vi) 3y2 = 192
Artificial
Satellite
Earth
Earth Sun
.
2x + 10x - 600
2
=0
x2 + 5x - 300 =0
x
Value of x from the above equation will give the possible value of length of sides of the
given right angled triangle.
i.e., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
It is in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
ii. Here LHS = x(x + 1) + 8 = x2 + x + 8
and RHS = (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4
Therefore, x2 + x + 8 = x2 – 4
x2 + x + 8 - x2 + 4 = 0
i.e., x + 12 = 0
It is not in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is not a quadratic equation.
iii. Here, LHS = x (2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
So, x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 can be rewritten as
2x2 + 3x = x2 + 1
Therefore, we get x2 + 3x – 1 = 0
It is in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
iv. Here, LHS = (x + 2)3 = (x + 2)2 (x + 2)
= (x2 + 4x + 4) (x + 2)
= x3 + 2x2 + 4x2 + 8x + 4x + 8
= x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
Therefore, (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4 can be rewritten as
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 = x3 – 4
i.e., 6x2 + 12x + 12 = 0 or, x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
It is in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
Remark : In (ii) above, the given equation appears to be a quadratic equation, but it is not a
quadratic equation.
In (iv) above, the given equation appears to be a cubic equation (an equation of degree
3) and not a quadratic equation. But it turns out to be a quadratic equation. As you can see, often
we need to simplify the given equation before deciding whether it is quadratic or not.
EXERCISE - 5.1
We have learnt in Class-IX, how to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting their middle
terms. We shall use this knowledge for finding the roots of a quadratic equation. Let us see.
T RY T HIS
3
Verify that 1 and are the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0.
2
1 1
Example 4 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation x- =
3x 6
1 1
Solution : We have x- = 6x2 - x - 2 = 0
3x 6
6x2 – x – 2 = 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2
= 3x (2x + 1) – 2 (2x + 1)
= (3x – 2)(2x + 1)
The roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are the values of x for which (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0
Therefore, 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0,
2 1
i.e., x = or x =
3 2
2 1
Therefore, the roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are and .
3 2
2 1
We verify the roots, by checking that and satisfy 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.
3 2
Example-5. Find the width of the space for spectators discussed in section 5.1.
Solution : In Section 5.1, we found that if the width of the space for spectators is x m., then x
satisfies the equation 2x2 + 45x - 47 = 0. Applying the factorisation method we write this equation
as:-
2x2 - 2x + 47x - 47 = 0
2x (x - 1) + 47 (x - 1) = 0
i.e., (x - 1) (2x + 47) = 0
47
So, the roots of the given equation are x = 1 or x = . Since ‘x’ is the width of space
2
of the spectators it cannot be negative.
Thus, the width is 1 m.
EXERCISE - 5.2
In the previous section, we have learnt method of factorisation for obtaining the roots of a
quadratic equation. Is method of factorization applicable to all types of quadratic equation? Let
us try to solve x2 + 4x - 4 = 0 by factorisation method
To solve the given equation x2 + 4x - 4 = 0 by factorization method.
We have to find ‘p’ and ‘q’ such that p + q = 4 and
p × q = -4
But it is not possible. So by factorization method we cannot solve the given equation.
Therefore, we shall study another method.
(x + 2)2 = 8 x + 2 = 8
x = –2 2 2
Now consider the equation 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0. Note that the coefficient of x2 is not 1. So
we divide the entire equation by 3 so that the coefficient of x2 is 1
5 2
x2 x 0
3 3
5 2
x2 x
3 3
5 2
x 2 2.x.
6 3
5 5 2 5
2 2 5
2
x 2.x.
2
add both side
6 6 3 6 6
5 2 25
2
x
6 3 36
5
2
12 2 25 1
x =
6 36
5 24 25
2
x =
6 36
5 1
2
2
Therefore, the roots of the given equation are 1 and .
3
From the above examples we can deduce the following algorithm for completing the square.
Algorithm : Let the quadratic equation by ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step-1 : Divide each side by ‘a’
Step-2 : Rearrange the equation so that constant term c/a is on the right side. (RHS)
1 b
2
Example-6. Find the roots of the equation 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0 by the method of completing the
square.
Solution : Given : 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0
Now we follow the Algoritm
6 2
Step-1 : x x 0 (Dividing both sides by 5)
2
5 5
6 2
Step-2 : x x
2
5 5
6 3 2 3
2 2 3
2
Step-3 : x x
2
Adding to both sides
5 5 5 5 5
3 2 9
2
Step-4 : x
5 5 25
3 19
2
Step-5 : x
5 25
3 19
x
5 25
3 19 3 19
x or x
5 5 5 5
3 19 3 19
x or x
5 5
Example-7. Find the roots of 4x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 by the method of completing the square.
Solution : Given 4x2 + 3x + 5 = 0
3 5
x2 x 0
4 4
3 5
x2 x
4 4
3 3 5 3
2 2
x x
2
4 8 4 8
3 5 9
2
x
8 4 64
3 71
2
x 0
8 64
3
2
But x cannot be negative for any real value of x (Why?). So, there is no real value
8
of x satisfying the given equation. Therefore, the given equation has no real roots.
DO THIS
We have solved several examples with the use of the method of ‘completing the square.’
Now, let us apply this method in standard form of quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 (a0).
Step 1 : Dividing the equation through out by ‘a’ we get
b c
x2 x 0
a a
b c
Step 2 : x 2 x
a a
b 1 b c 1 b
2 2 1 b
2
Step 3 : x x adding both sides
2 a
2
a 2 a
a 2 a
b b c b
2 2
x 2 x
2
2 a 2a a 2a
b b 2 4ac
2
Step 4 : x
2a 4a 2
b b2 4ac
x
2a 2a
b b 2 4ac
Therefore, x
2a
b b 2 4ac b b 2 4ac
So, the roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are and ,
2a 2a
if b2 – 4ac > 0.
Thus, if b2 – 4ac > 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
b b 2 4ac
given by .
2a
This formula for finding the roots of a quadratic equation is known as the quadratic formula.
Let us consider some examples by using quadratic formula.
1 1 4(2)(528) 1 4225 1 65
x
4 4 4
64 66
i.e., x or x
4 4
33
i.e., x = 16 or x =
2
Since x cannot be negative. So, the breadth of the plot is 16 metres and hence, the length
of the plot is (2x + 1) = 33m.
You should verify that these values satisfy the conditions of the problem.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
We have three methods to solve a quadratic equation. Among these three, which
method would you like to use? Why?
Example-9. Find two consecutive odd positive integers, sum of whose squares is 290.
Solution : Let first odd positive integers be x. Then, the second integer will be x + 2. According
to the question,
x2 + (x + 2)2 = 290
i.e., x2 + x2 + 4x + 4 = 290
i.e., 2x2 + 4x – 286 = 0
i.e., x2 + 2x – 143 = 0
which is a quadratic equation in x.
b b 2 4ac
Using the quadratic formula x =
2
2 4 572 2 576 2 24
we get, x
2 2 2
i.e., x = 11 or x = – 13
But x is given to be an odd positive integer. Therefore, x – 13, x = 11.
Thus, the two consecutive odd integers are 11 and (x + 2) = 11 + 2 = 13.
Check : 112 + 132 = 121 + 169 = 290.
Example-10. A rectangular park is to be designed whose breadth is 3 m less than its length. Its
area is to be 4 square metres more than the area of a park that has already been made in the
shape of an isosceles triangle with its base as the breadth of the rectangular park and of altitude
12 m (see Fig. 5.3). Find its length and breadth.
Solution : Let the breadth of the rectangular park be x m.
So, its length = (x + 3) m.
Therefore, the area of the rectangular park = x(x + 3) m2 = (x2 + 3x) m2.
Now, base of the isosceles triangle = x m.
1
Therefore, its area = × x × 12 = 6 x m2.
2
According to our requirements, 12
x2 + 3x = 6x + 4
i.e., x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
Using the quadratic formula, we get
x+3
3 25 3 5
x = = 4 or – 1
2 2
But x – 1 (Why?). Therefore, x = 4. x
So, the breadth of the park = 4m and its length will be x + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7m.
Verification : Area of rectangular park = 28 m2,
area of triangular park = 24 m2 = (28 – 4) m2
Example-11. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, using
the quadratic formula:
So, b2 – 4ac = 8 – 8 = 0
2 2 0 2 1
Therefore, x 0 i.e., x = .
4 2 2
1 1
So, the roots are , .
2 2
1 1 1
(i) x 3, x 0 (ii) 3, x 0, 2
x x x2
Solution :
1
(i) x 3 . Multiplying whole by x, we get
x
x2 + 1 = 3x
i.e., x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
Here, a = 1, b = – 3, c = 1
So, b2 – 4ac = 9 – 4 = 5 > 0
3 5
Therefore, x (why ?)
2
3 5 3 5
So, the roots are and .
2 2
1 1
(ii) 3, x 0, 2.
x x2
As x 0, 2, multiplying the equation by x (x – 2), we get
(x – 2) – x = 3x (x – 2)
= 3x2 – 6x
So, the given equation reduces to 3x2 – 6x + 2 = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
Here, a = 3, b = – 6, c = 2. So, b2 – 4ac = 36 – 24 = 12 > 0
6 12 6 2 3 3 3
Therefore, x .
6 6 3
3 3 3 3
So, the roots are and .
3 3
Example-13. A motor boat whose speed is 18 km/h in still water. It takes 1 hour more to go
24 km upstream than to return downstream to the same spot. Find the speed of the stream.
Solution : Let the speed of the stream be x km/h.
Therefore, the speed of the boat upstream = (18 – x) km/h and the speed of the boat
downstream = (18 + x) km/h.
distance 24
The time taken to go upstream = = hours.
speed 18 x
24
Similarly, the time taken to go downstream = hours.
18 x
According to the question,
24 24
1
18 x 18 x
i.e., 24(18 + x) – 24(18 – x) = (18 – x) (18 + x)
i.e., x2 + 48x – 324 = 0
Using the quadratic formula, we get
EXERCISE - 5.3
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, by the method of completing
the square:
i. 2x2 + x – 4 = 0 ii. 4 x 2 4 3x 3 0
iii. 5x2 7x 6 = 0 iv. x2 + 5 = 6x
2. Find the roots of the quadratic equations given in Q.1 above by applying the quadratic
formula.
3. Find the roots of the following equations:
1 1 1 11
(i) x 3, x 0 (ii) , x 4, 7
x x 4 x 7 30
4. The sum of the reciprocals of Rehman’s ages, (in years) 3 years ago and 5 years from now
1
is . Find his present age.
3
5. In a class test, the sum of Moulika’s marks in Mathematics and English is 30. If she got 2
marks more in Mathematics and 3 marks less in English, the product of her marks would
have been 210. Find her marks in the two subjects.
6. The diagonal of a rectangular field is 60 metres more than the shorter side. If the longer
side is 30 metres more than the shorter side, find the sides of the field.
7. The difference of squares of two numbers is 180. The square of the smaller number is 8
times the larger number. Find the two numbers.
8. A train travels 360 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 5 km/h more, it would
have taken 1 hour less for the same journey. Find the speed of the train.
3
9. Two water taps together can fill a tank in 9 hours. The tap of larger diameter takes 10
8
hours less than the smaller one to fill the tank separately. Find the time in which each tap
can separately fill the tank.
10. An express train takes 1 hour less than a passenger train to travel 132 km between Mysore
and Bangalore (without taking into consideration the time they stop at intermediate stations).
If the average speed of the express train is 11km/h more than that of the passenger train,
find the average speed of the two trains.
11. Sum of the areas of two squares is 468 m2. If the difference of their perimeters is 24 m, find
the sides of the two squares.
1
12. If a polygon of ‘n’ sides has n (n3) diagonals. How many sides will a polygon having
2
65 diagonals? Is there a polygon with 50 diagonals?
In the previous section, we have seen that the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
given by
b b 2 4ac
x
2a
Now let us try to understand the nature of roots.
Remember that zeros are those points where value of polynomial becomes zero or we can say
that the curve of quadratic polynomial cuts the X-axis.
Similarly, roots of a quadratic equation are those points where the curve cuts the X-axis.
Case-1 : If b2 - 4ac > 0;
b b 2 4ac b b2 4ac
We get two distinct real roots ,
2a 2a
In such case if we draw graph for the given quadratic equation we get the following figures.
Figure shows that the curve of the quadratic equation cuts the x-axis at two distinct points
Case-2 : If b2 - 4ac = 0
b 0
x=
2a
b b
So, x = ,
2a 2a
Figure shows that the curve of the quadratic equation touching X-axis at one point.
In this case graph neither intersects nor touches the X-axis at all. So, there are no real
roots.
Since b2 – 4ac determines whether the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots
or not, b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
So, a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
i. two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0,
ii. two equal real roots, if b2 – 4ac = 0,
iii. no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.
Example-15. A pole has to be erected at a point on the boundary of a circular park of diameter
13 metres in such a way that the differences of its distances from two diametrically opposite fixed
gates A and B on the boundary is 7 metres. Is it possible to do so? If yes, at what distances from
the two gates should the pole be erected?
Solution : Let us first draw the diagram. B
Let P be the required location of the pole. Let the distance of the 13
pole from the gate B be x m, i.e., BP = x m. Now the difference of the
A
distances of the pole from the two gates = AP – BP (or, BP – AP)= 7 m.
P
Therefore, AP = (x + 7) m.
Now, AB = 13m, and since AB is a diameter,
APB = 900 (Why?)
Therefore, AP2 + PB2 = AB2 (By Pythagoras theorem)
i.e., (x + 7)2 + x2 = 132
i.e., x2 + 14x + 49 + x2 = 169
i.e., 2x2 + 14x – 120 = 0
So, the distance ‘x’ of the pole from gate B satisfies the equation
x2 + 7x – 60 = 0
So, it would be possible to place the pole if this equation has real roots. To see if this is so or not,
let us consider its discriminant. The discriminant is
b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4 × 1 × (– 60) = 289 > 0.
So, the given quadratic equation has two real roots, and it is possible to erect the pole on
the boundary of the park.
Solving the quadratic equation x2 + 7x – 60 = 0, by the quadratic formula, we get
7 289 7 17
x
2 2
Therefore, x = 5 or – 12.
Since x is the distance between the pole and the gate B, it must be positive.
Therefore, x = – 12 will have to be ignored. So, x = 5.
Thus, the pole has to be erected on the boundary of the park at a distance of 5m from the
gate B and 12m from the gate A.
T RY T HIS
1. Explain the benefits of evaluating the discriminant of a quadritic equation before attempting
to solve it. What does its value signifies?
2. Write three quadratic equations one having two distinct real solutions, one having no real
solution and one having exactly one real solution.
1
Example-16. Find the discriminant of the equation 3 x 2 2 x = 0 and hence find the nature
3
of its roots. Find them, if they are real.
1
Solution : Here a = 3, b = – 2 and c =
3
1
Therefore, discriminant b 2 4ac ( 2)2 4 3 4 4 0.
3
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two equal real roots.
b b 2 2 1 1
The roots are , , i.e., , , i.e., , .
2a 2 a 6 6 3 3
EXERCISE - 5.4
1. Find the nature of the roots of the following quadratic equations. If real roots exist, find
them:
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Some points are plotted on a plane. Each point joined with all remaining points by line
segments. Find the number of points if the number of line segments are 10.
2. A two digit number is such that the product of the digits is 8. When 18 is added to the
number they interchange their places. Determine the number.
3. A piece of wire 8 m. in length, cut into two pieces, and each piece is bent into a
square. Where should the cut in the wire be made if the sum of the areas of these
squares is to be 2 m2?
x y
2 2
x 8 x
2 2
Hint : x y 8, 2 2
4 4 4 4
4. Vinay and Praveen working together can paint the exterior of a house in 6 days. Vinay by
himself can complete the job in 5 days less than Praveen. How long will it take vinay to
complete the job by himself.
b
5. Show that the sum of roots of a quadratic equation is ‘ ’.
a
c
6. Show that the product of the roots of a quadratic equation is ‘ ’.
a
7. The denominator of a fraction is one more than twice the numerator. If the sum of the
16
fraction and its reciprocal is 2 , find the fraction.
21
8. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the top of a building of height 29.4m and with an
initial vetocity 24.5m/sec. If the height H of the ball from the ground level is given by
H = 29.4 + 24.5t 4.9t2, then find the time taken by the ball to reach the ground.
b b 2 4 ac
.
2a
6. A quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0,
(ii) two equal roots (i.e., coincident roots), if b2 – 4ac = 0, and
(iii) no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.
Progressions
6.1 I NTRODUCTION
You must have observed that in nature, many things follow a certain
pattern such as the petals of a sunflower, the holes of a honeycomb,
the grains on a maize cob, the spirals on a pineapple and on a pine cone etc.
Can you see a pattern in each of the given example? We can see the
natural patterns have a repetition which is not progressive. The identical
petals of the sunflower are equidistantly grown. In a honeycomb identical hexagonal shaped
holes are arranged symmetrically around each hexagon. Similarly, you can find out other natural
patterns in spirals of pineapple....
You can look for some other patterns which occur in our day-to-day life. Some examples
are:
(i) List of the last digits (digits in unit place) taken from the values of 4, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46 .....
is
4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 6, ......
(ii) Mary is doing problems on patterns as part of preparing for a bank exam. One of them
is “find the next two terms in the following pattern”.
1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 22 .......
(iii) Usha applied for a job and got selected. She has been offered a job with a starting
monthly salary of D 8000, with an annual increment of D500. Her salary (in rupees) for
to 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... years will be 8000, 8500, 9000 ..... respectively.
(iv) The lengths of the rungs of a ladder decrease uniformly by 2 cm from bottom to top. The
bottom rung is 45 cm in length. The lengths (in cm) of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, .... 8th rung from
the bottom to the top are 45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31 respectively.
Can you see any relationship between the terms in the pattern of numbers written above?
Pattern given in example (i) has a relation of two numbers one after the other i.e. 4 and
6 are repeating alternatively.
126 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
Now try to find out pattern in exampled (ii). In examples (iii) and (iv), the relationship
between the numbers in each list is constantly progressive. In the given list 8000, 8500, 9000, ....
each succeeding term is obtained by adding 500 to the preceding term.
Where as in 45, 43, 41, ..... each succeeding term is obtained by adding ‘-2’ to each
preceding term. Now we can see some more examples of progressive patterns.
5
(a) In a savings seheme, the amount becomes times of itself after 3 years.
4
The maturity amount (in Rupees) of an investment of D8000 after 3, 6, 9 and 12 years
will be respectively. 10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25.
(b) The number of unit squares in squares with sides 1, 2, 3, .... units are respectively.
12, 22, 32, ....
(c) Hema put Rs. 1000 into her daughter’s money box when she was one year old and
increased the amount by Rs. 500 every year. The amount of money (in Rs.) in the box on
her 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th ........ birthday would be.
1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, ..... respectively.
(d) The fraction of first, second, third ..... shaded regions of the squares in the following
figure will be respectively.
1 1 1 1
, , , , ....
4 16 64 256
(e) A pair of rabbits are too young to produce in their first month. In the second, and every
subsequent month, they produce a new pair. Each new pair of rabbits produce a new
pair in their second month and in every subsequent month (see the figure below). Assuming
no rabbit dies, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, ....., 6th
month, respectively are :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
In the examples above, we observe some patterns. In some of them, we find that the
succeeding terms are obtained by adding a fixed number or in other by multiplying with a fixed
number or in another, we find that they are squares of consecutive numbers and so on.
In this chapter, we shall discuss some of these patterns in which succeeding terms are
obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding terms or multiplying preceding terms by a
fixed number. We shall also see how to find their nth term and the sum of n consecutive terms,
and use this knowledge in solving some daily life problems.
History : Evidence is found that Babylonians some 400 years ago, knew of Arithmetic and
geometric progressions. According to Boethins (570 AD), these progressions were known to
early Greek writers. Among the Indian mathematicians, Aryabhata (470 AD) was the first to
give formula for the sum of squares and cubes of natural number in his famous work
Aryabhatiyam written around 499 A.D. He also gave the formula for finding the sum of n
terms of an Arithmetic Progression starting with pth term. Indian mathematician Brahmagupta
(598 AD), Mahavira (850 AD) and Bhaskara (1114-1185 AD) also considered the sums of
squares and cubes.
TRY THIS
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. Think how each of the list given above form an AP Discuss with your friends.
2. Find the common difference of each of the above lists? Think when is it positive?
3. Make a positive Arithmetic progression in which the common difference is a small
positive quantity.
4. Make an AP in which the common difference is big(large) positive quantity.
5. Make an AP in which the common difference is negative.
General form of AP : Can you see that all AP’s can be written as.
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
This is called general form of an A.P where ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common
difference
For example in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ....
The first terms is 1 and the common difference is also 1.
In 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 ..... What is the first term and common difference?
A CTIVITY
(i) Make the following figures with match sticks
(ii) Write down the number of match sticks required for each figure.
(iii) Can you find a common difference in members of the list?
(iv) Does the list of these numbers form an AP?
DO THIS
Write three examples for finite AP and three for infinite AP.
Now, to know about an AP, what is the minimum information that you need? Is it enough
to know the first term? Or, is it enough to know only the common difference?
We can see that we will need to know both – the first term a and the common difference
d. These two parameters are sufficient for us to complete the Arithmetic Progression.
For instance, if the first term a is 6 and the common difference d is 3, then the AP is
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
and if a is 6 and d is – 3, then the AP is
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .
Similarly, when
a = – 7, d = – 2, the AP is – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .
1 1 1
a = 0, d=1 , the AP is 0, 1 , 3, 4 , 6, . . .
2 2 2
a = 2, d = 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP.
Let us try other way. If you are given a list of numbers, how can you say whether it is an
A.P. or not?
For example, for any list of numbers :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
We check the difference of the succeeding terms. In the given list we have a2 – a1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
We see that a2 a1 a3 a2 a4 a3 ... 3
Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the given list is an
AP whose first term a is 6 and common difference d is 3.
For the list of numbers : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . .,
a2 – a1 = 3 – 6 = – 3,
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
a2 a1 a3 a2 a4 a3 3
Similarly, this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference is –3.
So, we see that if the difference between succeeding terms is constant then it is an Arithmetic
Progression.
In general, for an AP a1, a2, . . ., an, we can say
d = ak + 1 – ak where k N
where ak + 1 and ak are the (k + 1)th and the kth terms respectively.
Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the
difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP.
Note : To find d in the AP : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . ., we have subtracted 6 from 3 and not 3 from 6.
We have to subtract the kth term from the (k + 1) th term even if the (k + 1)th term is smaller and
to find ‘d’ in a given A.P. we need not find all of a2 a1, a1 a2 .... . It is enough to find only one
of them
D O T HIS
1. Take any Arithmetic Progression.
2. Add a fixed number to each and every term of AP. Write the resulting numbers as a
list.
3. Similarly subtract a fixed number from each and every term of AP. Write the resulting
numbers as a list.
4. Multiply and divide each term of AP by a fixed number and write the resulting numbers
as a list.
5. Check whether the resulting lists are AP in each case.
1 1 3 5
Example-1. For the AP : , , , ........, write the first term a and the common
4 4 4 4
difference d. And find the 7th term
1 1 1 1
Solution : Here, a = ; d=
4 4 4 2
Remember that we can find d using any two consecutive terms, once we know that the
numbers are in AP.
5 1 1 1 11
The seventh term would be
4 2 2 2 4
Example-2. Which of the following forms an AP? If they form AP then write next two terms?
a3 – a2 = 16 – 10 = 6
a4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = 6.
(ii) a2 – a1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a3 – a2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = – 2.
(iii) a2 – a1 = 2 – (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
a3 – a2 = – 2 – 2 = – 4
As a2 – a1 a3 – a2, the given list of numbers do not form an AP..
(iv) a2 – a1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Here, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 a4 – a3.
So, the given list of numbers do not form an AP.
(v) We have a2 – a1 = 2x – x = x
a3 – a2 = 3x – 2x = x
a4 – a3 = 4x – 3x = x
i.e., ak+1 – ak is same every time.
So, the given list form an AP.
The next two terms are 4x + x = 5x and 5x + x = 6x.
EXERCISE - 6.1
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved make an arithmetic
progression, and why?
(i) The taxi fare after each km when the fare is 20 for the first km and rises by
8 for each additional km.
1
(ii) The amount of air present in a cylinder when a vacuum pump removes of the
4
air remaining in the cylinder at a time.
(iii) The cost of digging a well, after every metre of digging, when it costs 150 for
the first metre and rises by 50 for each subsequent metre.
(iv) The amount of money in the account every year, when 10000 is deposited at
compound interest at 8 % per annum.
2. Write first four terms of the AP, when the first term a and the common difference d are
given as follows:
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d = 0
1
(iii) a = 4, d = – 3 (iv) a = – 1, d =
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
3. For the following APs, write the first term and the common difference:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
1 5 9 13
(iii) , , , ,.... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
3 3 3 3
4. Which of the following are APs ? If they form an AP, find the common difference d and
write three more terms.
5 7
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . (ii) 2, , 3, ,....
2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .
(v) 3, 3 2, 3 2 2,3 3 2,.... (vi) 0.2, 0.22, 0.222, 0.2222, . . .
1 1 1 1
(vii) 0, – 4, – 8, –12, . . . (viii) , , , ,....
2 2 2 2
(ix) 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . (x) a, 2a, 3a, 4a, . . .
(xi) a, a2, a3, a4, . . . (xii) 2, 8, 18, 32,.....
(xiii) 3, 6, 9, 12,.....
= (8000 + 3 × 500)
= [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (for the 4th year)
= 9500
Salary for the 5th year = (9500 + 500)
= (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= (8000 + 4 × 500)
= [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (for the 5th year)
= 10000
Observe that we are getting a list of numbers
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
These numbers are in Arithmetic Progression.
Looking at the pattern above, can we find her monthly salary in the 6th year? The 15th year?
And, assuming that she is still working in the same job, what would be her monthly salary in the
25th year? Here we can calculate the salary of the present year by adding 500 to the salary of
previous year. Can we make this process shorter? Let us see. You may have already got some
idea from the way we have obtained the salaries above.
Salary for the 15th year = Salary for the 14th year + 500
= 8000 500
500
500 500 ... 500
13 times
= [8000 + 14 × 500]
= [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = 15000
i.e., First salary + (15 – 1) × Annual increment.
In the same way, her monthly salary for the 25th year would be
[8000 + (25 – 1) × 500] = 20000
= First salary + (25 – 1) × Annual increment
This example has given us an idea about how to write the 15th term, or the 25th term. By using
the same idea, now let us find the nth term of an AP.
Let a1, a2, a3, . . . be an AP whose first term a1 is a and the common difference is d.
Then,
the second term a2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
Example-5. Determine the AP whose 3rd term is 5 and the 7th term is 9.
Solution : We have
a3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
and a7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
Solving the pair of linear equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 3, d = 1
Hence, the required AP is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .
Example-6. Check whether 301 is a term of the list of numbers 5, 11, 17, 23, . . .
Solution : We have :
a2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a3 – a2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
As (ak + 1 – ak) is the same for k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the given list of numbers is an AP.
Now, for this AP we have a = 5 and d = 6.
We choose to begin with the assumption that 301 is a term, say, the nth term of the this AP.
We will see if an ‘n’ exists for which an = 301.
We know
an = a + (n – 1) d
So, for 301 to be a term we must have
301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
or 301 = 6n – 1
302 151
So, n=
6 3
But n should be a positive integer (Why?).
So, 301 is not a term of the given list of numbers.
we have 99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3
87
i.e., n–1= 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
So, there are 30 two-digit numbers divisible by 3.
Example-8. Find the 11th term from the last of the the AP series given below :
AP : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62.
Solution : Here, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
where l = a + (n – 1) d
To find the 11th term from the last term, we will find the total number of terms in the AP.
So, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., n – 1 = 24
or n = 25
So, there are 25 terms in the given AP.
The 11th term from the last will be the 15th term of the series. (Note that it will not be the
14th term. Why?)
So, a15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
i.e., the 11th term from the end is – 32.
Note : The 11th term from the last is also equal to 11th term of the AP with first term – 62 and the
common difference 3.
Example-9. A sum of 1000 is invested at 8% simple interest per year. Calculate the interest
at the end of each year. Do these interests form an AP? If so, find the interest at the end of 30
years.
Solution : We know that the formula to calculate simple interest is given by
PR T
Simple Interest =
100
1000 8 1
So, the interest at the end of the 1st year = = 80
100
1000 8 2
The interest at the end of the 2nd year = = 160
100
1000 8 3
The interest at the end of the 3rd year = = 240
100
Similarly, we can obtain the interest at the end of the 4th year, 5th year, and so on. So, the
interest (in Rs) at the end of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . . years, respectively are
80, 160, 240, . . .
It is an AP as the difference between the consecutive terms in the list is 80,
i.e., d = 80. Also, a = 80.
So, to find the interest at the end of 30 years, we shall find a30.
Now, a30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
So, the interest at the end of 30 years will be 2400.
Example-10. In a flower bed, there are 23 rose plants in the first row, 21 in the second, 19 in
the third, and so on. There are 5 rose plants in the last row. How many rows are there in the
flower bed?
Solution : The number of rose plants in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., rows are :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
It forms an AP (Why?).
Let the number of rows in the flower bed be n.
Then a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
As, an = a + (n – 1) d
We have, 5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., n = 10
So, there are 10 rows in the flower bed.
EXERCISE - 6.2
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common
difference and an the nth term of the AP:
S. No. a d n an
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 105 ...
2. Find the
(i) 30th term of the A.P. 10, 7, 4 ......
1
(ii) 11th term of the A.P. : 3, , 2,.....
2
3. Find the respective terms for the following APs.
(i) a1 = 2; a3 = 26 find a2 (ii) a2 = 13; a4 = 3 find a1, a3
1
(iii) a1 = 5; a4 = 9 find a2, a3 (iv) a1 = 4; a6 = 6 find a2, a3, a4, a5
2
(v) a2 = 38; a6 = 22 find a1, a3, a4, a5
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15
2
6. Check whether, –150 is a term of the AP : 11, 8, 5, 2 . . .
7. Find the 31st term of an AP whose 11th term is 38 and the 16th term is 73.
8. If the 3rd and the 9th terms of an AP are 4 and – 8 respectively, which term of this AP is
zero?
9. The 17th term of an AP exceeds its 10th term by 7. Find the common difference.
10. Two APs have the same common difference. The difference between their 100th terms
is 100, what is the difference between their 1000th terms?
11. How many three-digit numbers are divisible by 7?
12. How many multiples of 4 lie between 10 and 250?
13. For what value of n, are the nth terms of two APs: 63, 65, 67, . .. and 3, 10, 17, . . .
equal?
14. Determine the AP whose third term is 16 and the 7th term exceeds the 5th term by 12.
15. Find the 20th term from the end of the AP : 3, 8, 13, . . ., 253.
16. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is
44. Find the first three terms of the AP.
17. Subba Rao started work in 1995 at an annual salary of 5000 and received an increment
of 200 each year. In which year did his income reach 7000?
6.4 S UM OF FIRST n T ERMS IN A RITHMETIC P ROGRESSION
Let us consider the situation again given in Section 6.1 in
which Hema put 1000 money box when her daughter was one
year old, 1500 on her second birthday, 2000 on her third
birthday and will continue in the same way. How much money will
be collected in the money box by the time her daughter is 21 years
old?
Here, the amount of money (in Rupees) put in the money
box on her first, second, third, fourth . . . birthday were respectively
1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, . . . till her 21st birthday. To find the
total amount in the money box on her 21st birthday, we will have to write each of the 21 numbers
in the list above and then add them up. Don’t you think it would be a tedious and time consuming
process? Can we make the process shorter?
This would be possible if we can find a method for getting this sum. Let us see.
When he added these two he got 2S as both the sums have to be equal. So he work,
2S = (100 + 1) + (99 + 2) + . . . + (3 + 98) + (2 + 99) + (1 + 100)
= 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 (100 times) (check this out and discuss)
100 101
So, S= = 5050, i.e., the sum = 5050.
2
We will now use the same technique that was used by transs to find the sum of the first n
terms of an AP :
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the A.P. Whose nth term is
an = a + (n 1) d
Sn = a + a + d + a + 2d + ... + a + (n -1)d
n n n n
Sn [2a ( n 1) d ] [a a (n 1)d ] [first term + nth term] (a an )
2 2 2 2
If the first and last terms of an A.P. are given and the common difference is not given then
n
Sn ( a an ) is very useful to find Sn.
2
21
= [12000] 126000
2
So, the amount of money collected on her 21st birthday is 12600.
We use Sn in place of S to denote the sum of first n terms of the AP so that we know how
many terms we have added. We write S20 to denote the sum of the first 20 terms of an AP. The
formula for the sum of the first n terms involves four quantities Sn, a, d and n. If we know any
three of them, we can find the fourth.
Remark : The nth term of an AP is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the sum to first
(n – 1) terms of it, i.e., an = Sn – Sn – 1.
D O THIS
Find the sum of indicated number of terms in each of the following A.P.s
(i) 16, 11, 6 .....; 23 terms (ii) 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, .....; 10 terms
1 3
(iii) 1, , ....., 10 terms
4 2
or n2 – 17n + 52 = 0
or (n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
or n = 4 or 13
Both values of n are admissible. So, the number of terms is either 4 or 13.
Remarks :
1. In this case, the sum of the first 4 terms = the sum of the first 13 terms = 78.
2. Two answers are possible because the sum of the terms from 5th to 13th will be zero.
This is because a is positive and d is negative, so that some terms are positive and some
are negative, and will cancel out each other.
n
Using the formula Sn = (a l ) for the sum of the first n terms of an AP, we have
2
1000
S1000 = (1 1000) = 500 × 1001 = 500500
2
So, the sum of the first 1000 positive integers is 500500.
(ii) Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
Here a = 1 and the last term l is n.
n(1 n) n(n 1)
Therefore, Sn = (or) Sn =
2 2
So, the sum of first n positive integers is given by
n( n 1)
Sn =
2
Example-14. Find the sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers whose nth term is given by
an = 3 + 2n
Solution : As an = 3 + 2n,
so, a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a2 = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
a3 = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9
List of numbers becomes 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
Here, 7 – 5 = 9 – 7 = 11 – 9 = 2 and so on.
So, it forms an AP with common difference d = 2.
To find S24, we have n = 24, a = 5, d = 2.
24
Therefore, S24 = [2 5 (24 1) 2] 12(10 46) 672
2
So, sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers is 672.
Example-15. A manufacturer of TV sets produced 600 sets in the third year and 700 sets in the
seventh year. Assuming that the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year,
find :
(i) the production in the 1st year (ii) the production in the 10th year
(iii) the total production in first 7 years
Solution : (i) Since the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year, the number
of TV sets manufactured in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., years will form an AP.
Let us denote the number of TV sets manufactured in the nth year by an.
Then, a3 = 600 and a7 = 700
or, a + 2d = 600
and a + 6d = 700
Solving these equations, we get d = 25 and a = 550.
Therefore, production of TV sets in the first year is 550.
(ii) Now a10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
So, production of TV sets in the 10th year is 775.
7
(iii) Also, S7 = [2 550 (7 1) 25]
2
7
[1100 150] 4375
2
Thus, the total production of TV sets in first 7 years is 4375.
EXERCISE - 6.3
1. Find the sum of the following APs:
(i) 2, 7, 12, . . ., to 10 terms. (ii) –37, –33, –29, . . ., to 12 terms.
1 1 1
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . ., to 100 terms. (iv) , , , .....,to 11terms.
15 12 10
2. Find the sums given below :
1
(i) 7 10 14 .... 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
3. In an AP:
(i) given a = 5, d = 3, an = 50, find n and Sn.
(ii) given a = 7, a13 = 35, find d and S13.
(iii) given a12 = 37, d = 3, find a and S12.
(iv) given a3 = 15, S10 = 125, find d and a10.
(v) given a = 2, d = 8, Sn = 90, find n and an.
(vi) given an = 4, d = 2, Sn = –14, find n and a.
(vii) given l = 28, S = 144, and there are total 9 terms. Find a.
4. The first and the last terms of an AP are 17 and 350 respectively. If the common difference
is 9, how many terms are there and what is their sum?
5. Find the sum of first 51 terms of an AP whose second and third terms are 14 and 18
respectively.
6. If the sum of first 7 terms of an AP is 49 and that of 17 terms is 289, find the sum of first
n terms.
7. Show that a1, a2, . . ., an, . . . form an AP where an is defined as below :
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
Also find the sum of the first 15 terms in each case.
8. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 4n – n2, what is the first term (remember the first
term is S1)? What is the sum of first two terms? What is the second term? Similarly, find
the 3rd, the 10th and the nth terms.
9. Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers divisible by 6.
10. A sum of 700 is to be used to give seven cash prizes to students of a school for their
overall academic performance. If each prize is 20 less than its preceding prize, find the
value of each of the prizes.
11. In a school, students thought of planting trees in and around the school to reduce air
pollution. It was decided that the number of trees, that each section of each class will
plant, will be the same as the class, in which they are studying, e.g., a section of Class I
will plant 1 tree, a section of Class II will plant 2 trees and so on till Class XII. There are
three sections of each class. How many trees will be planted by the students?
12. A spiral is made up of successive semicircles, with
centres alternately at A and B, starting with centre
at A, of radii 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, . . .
14. In a bucket and ball race, a bucket is placed at the starting point, which is 5 m from the
first ball, and the other balls are placed 3 m apart in a straight line. There are ten balls in
the line.
5m 3m 3m
A competitor starts from the bucket, picks up the nearest ball, runs back with it, drops it
in the bucket, runs back to pick up the next ball, runs to the bucket to drop it in, and she
continues in the same way until all the balls are in the bucket. What is the total distance
the competitor has to run?
[Hint : To pick up the first ball and the second ball, the total distance (in metres) run by
a competitor is 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]
then a2 a3 ...... an r
a1 a2 an 1
A list of numbers a1, a2, a3 .... an ... is called a geometric progression (GP), if each
term is non zero and
an
r
an 1
Where nis a natural number and n > 2.
D O T HIS
Find which of the following are not G.P.
1. 6, 12, 24, 48, ..... 2. 1, 4, 9, 16, ......
3. 1, 1, 1, 1, ..... 4. 4, 20, 100, 500, .....
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. Explain why each of the lists above is a G.P.
2. To know about a G.P. what is minimum information that we need ?
Now let us learn how to construct a GP. when the first term ‘a’ and common ratio ‘r’ are
given. And also learn how to check whether the given list of numbers is a G.P.
Example-16. Write the GP. if the first term a = 3, and the common ratio r = 2.
Solution : Since ‘a’ is the first term it can easily be written
We know that in GP. every succeeding term is obtained by multiplying the preceding
term with common ratio ‘r’. So to get the second term we have to multiply the first term a = 3
by the common ratio r = 2.
Second term = ar = 3 ×2 = 6
Similarly the third term = second term × common ratio
= 6 × 2 = 12
If we proceed in this way we get the following G.P.
3, 6, 12, 24,..... .
1
Example-17. Write GP. if a = 256, r =
2
Solution : General form of GP = a, ar, ar2, ar3, .....
1 1 1
2 3
1
Example-18. Find the common ratio of the GP 25, 5, 1, .
5
Solution : We know that if the first, second, third .... terms of a GP are a1, a2, a3 .... respectively
a2 a3
the common ratio r .....
a1 a2
5 1 1
So common ratio r .
25 5 5
1 1 1
(iii) , , ,......
64 32 8
Solution : (i)We know that a list of numbers a1, a2, a3, .....an ..... is called a GP if each term is
a2 a3 an
non zero and a a ..... a r
1 2 n 1
So, the given list of number form a G.P. which contain ratio 2.
(ii) All the terms are non zero.
a2 32 1
a1 64 2
a3 16 1
and
a1 32 2
a2 a3 1
a1 a2 2
1
So, the given list of numbers form a GP with common ratio .
2
(iii) All the terms are non zero.
1
a2 32
2
a1 1
64
1
a3
8 4
a2 1
32
a2 a3
Here a a
1 2
EXERCISE - 6.4
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved in form a GP.?
(i) Salary of Sharmila, when her salary is 5,00,000 for the first year and expected
to receive yearly increase of 10% .
(ii) Number of bricks needed to make each step, if the stair case has total 30 steps.
Bottom step needs 100 bricks and each successive step needs 2 brick less than
the previous step.
(iii) Perimeter of the each triangle,
when the mid points of sides of an
equilateral triangle whose side is 24 24
24 cm are joined to form another
triangle, whose mid points in turn
are joined to form still another
triangle and the process continues
indefinitely. 24
2. Write three terms of the GP when the first term ‘a’ and the common ratio ‘r’ are given?
1
(i) a = 4; r=3 (ii) a 5; r
5
1 1
(iii) a = 81; r = (iv) a ; r=2
3 64
3. Which of the following are GP? If they are GP. Write three more terms?
1 1 1
(i) 4, 8, 16 ..... (ii) , , .....
3 6 12
(iii) 5, 55, 555, .... (iv) 2, 6, 18 .....
1 1 1
(v) , , ..... (vi) 3, 32, 33, .....
2 4 6
1 1 8
(vii) x, 1, ,..... (viii) , 2, .....
x 2 2
30 (3 3 ... 3)
19 terms
= 30 × 319 = 30 × 3(20-1)
This example would have given you some idea about how to write the 25th term. 35th
term and more generally the nth term of the GP.
Let a1, a2, a3 ..... be in GP whose ‘first term’ a1 is a and the common ratio is r
5
5 1
Solution : Here a = and r 4
2 5 2
2
51 5
19
51
n 1
5
and an ar n 1
22 2n
2 2
Solution : Here a = 2 r = 2
2
Let 128 be the nth term of the GP.
Then an = arn1 = 128
( 2) n1 64
n1
(2) 2 26
n 1
6
2
n = 13.
Hence 128 is the 13th term of the GP.
Example-22. In a GP the 3rd term is 24 and 6th term is 192. Find the 10th term.
Solution : Here a3 = ar2 = 24 ...(1)
a6 = ar = 195
5
...(2)
ar 5 195
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
ar 2 24
r3 = 8 = 2 3
r =2
Substituting r = 2 in (1) we get a = 6.
a10 = ar9 = 6(2)9 = 3072.
E XERCISE -6.5
1. For each geometric progression find the common ratio ‘r’, and then find an
3 3 3
(i) 3, , , ......... (ii) 2, 6, 18, 54
2 4 8
4 8
(iii) 1, 3, 9, 27 .... (iv) 5, 2, , .........
5 25
2. Find the 10th and nth term of GP. : 5, 25, 125, .....
1 1
(i) a1 = 9; r ; find a7 (ii) a1 = 12; r ; find a6
3 3
1 1 1 1
(iii) , , ..... is ?
3 9 27 2187
5. Find the 12th term of a GP. whose 8th term is 192 and the common ratio is 2.
2 16
6. The 4th term of a geometric progression is and the seventh term is . Find the
3 81
geometric series.
2 2 2
7. If the geometric progressions 162, 54, 18 ..... and , , .... have their nth term
81 27 9
equal. Find the value of n.
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Which term of the AP : 121, 117, 113, . . ., is the
first negative term?
[ Hint : Find n for an < 0]
25 cm
2. The sum of the third and the seventh terms of an
AP is 6 and their product is 8. Find the sum of
first sixteen terms of the AP.
250
[Hint : Number of rungs = 1]
25 25 cm
5. A small terrace at a football ground comprises of 15 steps each of which is 50 m long and
built of solid concrete.
1 1
Each step has a rise of m and a tread of m. (see Fig. 5.8). Calculate the total volume
4 2
of concrete required to build the terrace.
1 1
[Hint : Volume of concrete required to build the first step = 50 m ]
3
4 2
1
m
2
50m
1
m
4
6. 150 workers ware engaged to finish a piece of work in a certain number of days. Four
workers dropped from the work in the second day. Four workers dropped in third day
and so on. It took 8 more days to finish the work. Find the number of days in which the
was and completed.
x8
150 x [2 150 ( x 8 1)(4)]
2
[Ans. x = 17 x + 8 = 17 + 8 = 25]
1
7. A machine costs 5,00,000. If the value depreciates 15% in the first year, 13 % in the
2
second year, 12% in the third year and so on. What will be its value at the end of 10
years, when all the percentages will be applied to the original cost?
1
[Total depreciation = 15 + 13 +12+....10 terms.
2
10
Sn [30 13.5] 82.5%
2
after 10 year original cost =100 82.5 = 17.5 i.e., 17.5% of 5,00,000
2. A given list of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . is an AP, if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3,
. . ., give the same value, i.e., if ak + 1 – ak is the same for different values of k.
3. In an AP with first term a and common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
Coordinate Geometry
7.1 I NTRODUCTION
You know that in chess, the Knight moves in ‘L’ shape or two and a half steps (see figure).
It can jump over other pieces too. A Bishop moves diagonally, as many steps as are free in front
of it.
Find out how other pieces move. Also locate Knight,
Bishop and other pieces on the board and see how they
move.
A B
Consider that the Knight is at the origin (0, 0). It can move H C
in 4 directions as shown by dotted lines in the figure. Find
the coordinates of its position after the various moves
G D
shown in the figure.
F E
D O THIS
i. From the figure write coordinates of the points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H.
ii. Find the distance covered by the Knight in each of its 8 moves i.e. find the distance of A,
B, C, D, E, F, G and H from the origin.
iii. What is the distance between two points H and C? and also find the distance between
two points A and B
7.2 D ISTANCE B ETWEEN T WO P OINTS
The two points (2, 0) and (6, 0) lie on the X-axis as shown in figure.
It is easy to see that the distance between two points A and B as 4 units.
We can say the distance between points lying on X-aixs is the difference between the
x-coordinates.
160 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
negative values. -1
-2
DO THIS
1. Where do these following points lie (4, 0), (2, 0), (6, 0), (8, 0).
TRY THIS
1. Where do these following points lie (0, 3), (0, 8), (0, 6), (0, 4)
2. What is the distance between (0, 3), (0, 8) and justify that the distance between two
points on Y-axis is |y2 y1|.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
How will you find the distance between two points in which x or y coordinates are same
but not zero?
DO THIS
Find the distance between the following pairs of points
i. (3, 8), (6, 8) ii. (4,3), (8,3) iii. (3, 4), (3, 8) (iv) (5, 8), (5, 12)
Example-2. A and B are two points given by (8, 3), (4, 3). Find the distance between
A and B.
Solution : Here x1 and x2 are lying in two different quadrants and y-coordinate are equal.
Distance AB = |x2 x1| = |4 8| = |12| = 12 units
X
Y
Let A and B denote the points
-9
9
Then distance AB = ?
-2
-3
AB2 = 42 + 32
-8
-9
Y
D O THIS
Find the distance between the following points (i) A = (2, 0) and B(0, 4) (ii) P(0, 5) and
Q(12, 0)
T RY T HIS
Find the distance between points ‘O’ (origin) and ‘A’ (7, 4).
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. How can you find distance between two points located in different quadrants ?
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be any two points (on a line) in a plane as shown in figure.
Draw AP and BQ perpendiculars to X-axis
Draw a perpendicular ARfrom the point A on BQ to meet at the point R.
Then OP = x1, OQ = x2 9
So PQ = OQ OP = x2 x1 B (x2, y2)
8
X
-9 7
6
Observe the shape of APQR. It is a 5
(y - y )
A (x1, y1)
rectangle. 4 R
3 (x2 - x1)
So PQ = AR = x2 x1. 2
1
Also QB = y2, QR = y1, X
1
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 P 4 5 6 Q 8 9
So BR = QB QR = y2 y1
-1
-2 (x2 - x1)
i.e., AB = ( x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 )2
d= ( x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 )2 .
this is called the distance formula.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. Ramu says the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is x 2 y 2 . Do
you agree with Ramu or not? Why?
Example-3. Let’s find the distance between two points A(4, 3) and B(8, 6)
Solution : Compare these points with (x1, y1), (x2, y2)
x1 = 4, x2 = 8, y1 = 3, y2 = 6
Using distance formula
distance AB = d = ( x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 )2
= (8 4)2 (6 3)2 42 32
16 9 25 = 5 units.
D O THIS
Find the distance between the following pairs of points
(i) (7, 8) and (2, 3) (ii) (8, 6) and (2, 0)
TRY THIS
Find the distance between A(1, 3) and B(4, 4) and rounded off to two decimals.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Sridhar calculated the distance between T(5, 2) and R(4, 1) to the nearest tenth is
9.5 units.
Now you find the distance between P (4, 1) and Q (-5, -2). Do you get the same
answer that sridhar got? Why?
9 2 3 2 units.
AC = (9 4)2 (7 2) 2 52 52 25 25 50
25 2 5 2 units.
Now AB + BC = 3 2 2 2 5 2 = AC. Therefore, that the three points (4, 2), (7, 5) and
(9, 7) lie on a straight line. (Points that lie on the same line are called collinear points).
Example-5. Are the points (3, 2), (2, 3) and (2, 3) form a triangle?
Solution : Let us apply the distance formula to find the distances PQ, QR and PR, where
P(3, 2), Q(2, 3) and R(2, 3) are the given points. We have
Since the sum of any two of these distances is greater than the third distance, therefore, the
points P, Q and R form a triangle and all the sides of triangle is unequal.
Example-6. Show that the points (1, 7), (4, 2), (1, 1) and (4, 4) are the vertices of a
square.
Solution : Let A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(1, 1)and D(4, 4) be the given points.
One way of showing that ABCD is a square is to use the property that all its sides should
be equal and both its digonals should also be equal. Now
DA = 4 1 4 7 = 25 9 = 34 units
2 2
BD = (4 4) 2 (2 4)2 64 4 68 units
ABCD are equal and its diagonals AC and BD are also equal. Therefore, ABCD is square.
4 B
6 3 4 1 = 9 9 = 18 = 3 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AB=
2 2
3
units
2
A
1
B C = (8 - 6) + (6 - 4) = 4 + 4 = 8 = 3 2
2 2
0
units
AC= 8 3 6 1 = 25 25 = 50 = 5 2 units
2 2
-8x + 8y = -16
i.e., x – y = 2 which is the required relation.
Example-9. Find a point on the y-axis which is equidistant from both the points A(6, 5) and
B(– 4, 3).
Solution : We know that a point on the Y-axis is of the form (0, y). So, let the point
P(0, y) be equidistant from A and B. Then
PA = 6 0 5 y
2 2
PB = (-4 - 0)2 + (3 - y) 2
PA2 = PB2
So, (6 – 0)2 + (5 – y)2 = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – y)2
i.e., 36 + 25 + y2 – 10y = 16 + 9 + y2 – 6y
i.e., 4y = 36
i.e., y = 9
So, the required point is (0, 9).
EXERCISE 7.1
(iii) (2, 3) and (3, 2) (iv) (a, b) and (a, b)
2. Find the distance between the points (0, 0) and (36, 15).
3. Verify that the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (2, 1) are collinear or not.
4. Check whether (5, 2), (6, 4) and (7, 2) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Why ? 2
7. Prove that the points (7, 3), (5, 10), (15, 8) and (3, 5) taken in order are the corners
of a parallelogram.
8. Show that the points (4, 7), (1, 2), (8, 5) and (5, 4) taken in order are the vertices of
a rhombus. And find its area.
1
(Hint : Area of rhombus = product of its diagonals)
2
9. Name the type of quadrilateral formed, if any, by the following points, and give reasons for
your answer.
(i) (1, 2), (1, 0), (1, 2), (3, 0) (ii) (3, 5), (1, 10), (3, 1), (1, 4)
10. Find the point on the X-axis which is equidistant from (2, 5) and (2, 9).
11. If the distance between two points (x, 7) and (1, 15) is 10, find the value of x.
12. Find the values of y for which the distance between the points P(2, 3) and Q(10, y) is 10
units.
13. Find the radius of the circle whose centre is (3, 2) and passes through (5, 6).
14. Can you draw a triangle with vertices (1, 5), (5, 8) and (13, 14) ? Give reason.
15. Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x, y) is equidistant from the points
(2, 8) and (3, 5)
AP AQ PQ
Therefore, .....(2)
PB PC BC
Now, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
m1 x x1 y y1 AP m1
from(1)
m2 x2 x y2 y PB m2
m1 x x1 m x m2 x1
Taking , we get x 1 2
m2 x2 x m1 m2
m1 y y1 m1 y2 m2 y1
Similarly, taking , we get y
m2 y2 y m1 m2
So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), internally in the ratio m1 : m2 are
m1 x2 m2 x1 m1 y2 m2 y1
, .....(3)
m1 m2 m1 m2
This can also be derived by drawing perpendiculars from A, P and B on the Y-axis and
proceeding as above.
If the ratio in which P divides AB is k : 1, then the coordinates of the point P are
kx2 x1 ky2 y1
, .
k 1 k 1
Special Case : The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio 1 : 1.
Therefore, the coordinates of the mid-point P of the join of the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are
1.x1 1.x2 1. y1 1. y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
, , .
11 11 2 2
Let us solve few examples based on the section formula.
Example-10. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segement joining the
points (4, 3) and (8, 5) in the ratio 3 : 1 internally.
Solution : Let P(x, y) be the required point. Using the section formuls
m x m2 x1 m1 y 2 m2 y1
P( x, y ) 1 2 , , we get
m1 m2 m1 m2
3(8) 1(4) 24 4 28
x 7,
3 1 4 4
3(5) 1(3) 15 3 12
y 3
3 1 4 4
Example-11. Find the mid point of the line segment joining the points (3, 0) and (-1, 4)
Solution : The mid point M(x, y) of the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
x1 x2 y1 y2
M(x, y) = ,
2 2
The mid point of the line segment joining the points (3, 0) and (1, 4) is
3 ( 1) 0 4 2 4
M(x, y) = , , (1, 2) .
2 2 2 2
D O THIS
1 Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (3, 5) and (8, 10) internally
in the ratio 2 : 3
2. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (2, 7) and (12, 7).
T RY T HIS
3. Find the points which divide the line segment BE in the ratio 2 : 1 and also that divide the
line segment CF in the ratio 2 : 1.
L et A ( x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) be the vertices of the triangle ABC.
x x y y3 A(x1,y1)
D 2 3, 2
2 2
2
Now the point G on AD which divides it
internally in the ratio 2 : 1, is the centroid. G 1
If (x, y) are the coordinates of G, then B
D
C
(x3,y3)
(x2,y2)
x2 x3 y y3
2 2 1( x1 ) 2 2 1( y1 )
2
G(x, y) = ,
2 1 2 1
x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3
= ,
3 3
x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3
, .
3 3
Example-12. Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 5), (7, 4), (10, 2)
x x x y y2 y3
1 2 3, 1
3 3
D O THIS
Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (4, 6), (2, 2) and (2, 5) respectively.
T RY T HIS
The points (2, 3), (x, y), (3, 2) are vertices of a triangle. If the centroid of this triangle
is origin find (x, y).
Example-13. In what ratio does the point (– 4, 6) divide the line segment joining the points
A(– 6, 10) and B(3, – 8)?
Solution : Let (– 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2. Using the section formula, we get
3m1 6m2
Now, 4 gives us
m1 m2
m1 2
=
m2 7
i.e., m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
2 16
8 10 10
7 7 16 70 54
2 = 9 = = =6
1 9 9
7 7
Therefore, the point (4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(6, 10) and
B (3, 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
The line joining points A(6, 9) and B(6, 9) are given
(a) In which ratio does origin divide AB ? And what it is called for AB ?
Example-14. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (The points which divide a line
segment into 3 equal parts are said to be the Trisectional points) of the line segment
joining the points A(2,2) and B(7, 4).
Solution : Let P and Q be the points of trisection of AB i.e., AP=PQ=QB (see figure below).
m x m2 x1 m1 y 2 m2 y1
P( x, y ) 1 2 ,
m1 m2 m1 m2
7 4 4 4 3 0
i.e., , , 1, 0
3 3 3 3
Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2:1.
So,the coordinates of Q are
14 2 8 2 12 6
i.e., , , 4, 2
3 3 3 3
Therefore, the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment are P(-1, 0) and
Q(-4, 2)
D O THIS
1. Find the trisectional points of line joining (2, 6) and (4, 8).
2. Find the trisectional points of line joining (3, 5) and (6, 8).
Example-15. Find the ratio in which the y-axis divides the line segment joining the points
(5, 6) and (1, 4). Also find the point of intersection.
Solution : Let the ratio be K : 1. Then by the section formula, the coordinates of the point which
divides AB in the ratio K : 1 are
K 5 4K 6
i.e., ,
K 1 K 1
This point lies on the y-axis, and we know that on the y-axis the abscissa is 0.
K 5
Therefore, 0
K 1
-K + 5 = 0 K = 5.
So, the ratio is K : 1 = 5 : 1
Putting the value of K = 5, we get the point of intersection as
Example-16. Show that the points A(7, 3), B(6, 1), C(8, 2) and D(9, 4) taken in that order are
vertices of a parallelogram.
Solution : Let the points A(7, 3), B(6, 1), C(8, 2) and D(9, 4) are vertices of a parallelogram.
We know that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
So the midpoints of the diagonals AC and DB should be equal.
x1 x2 y1 y2
Now, we find the mid points of AC and DB by using , formula.
2 2
7 8 3 2 15 5 D(9, 4) C(8, 2)
midpoint of AC = , ,
2 2 2 2
9 6 4 1 15 5
midpoint of DB = , ,
2 2 2 2
B(6, 1)
A(7,3)
Hence, midpoint of AC = midpoint of DB.
Therefore, the points A, B, C, D are vertices of a parallelogram.
Example-17. If the points A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) and D(p, 3) are the vertices of a
parallelogram, taken inorder, find the value of P.
Solution : We know that diagonals of parallelogram bisect each other.
So, the coordinates of the midpoint of AC = Coordinates of the midpoint of BD.
6 9 1 4 8 p 5
i.e., , ,
2 2 2 2
15 5 8 p 5
, ,
2 2 2 2
15 8 p
2 2
15 = 8 + p p = 7.
EXERCISE - 7.2
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (1, 7) and (4, 3) in the ratio
2 : 3.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining (4, 1) and
(2, 3).
3. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (3, 10) and (6, 8)is divided by
(1, 6).
4. If (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) and (3, 5) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order, find
x and y.
5. Find the coordinates of a point A, where AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is
(2, 3) and B is (1, 4).
6. If A and B are (2, 2) and (2, 4) respectively. Find the coordinates of P such that
3
AP = AB and P lies on the segment AB.
7
7. Find the coordinates of points which divide the line segment joining A(4, 0) and B(0, 6)
into four equal parts.
8. Find the coordinates of the points which divides the line segment joining A(2, 2) and
B(2, 8) into four equal parts.
9. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points
(a + b, a b) and (a b, a + b) in the ratio 3 : 2 internally.
10. Find the coordinates of centroid of the following:
i. (-1, 3), (6, -3) and (-3, 6) ii. (6, 2), (0, 0) and (4, -7)
iii. (1, -1), (0, 6) and (-3, 0)
4 units
AOB is right angle triangle and the base is 6 units (i.e., x 6 units B(6, 0)
coordinate) and height is 4 units (i.e., y coordinate).
1
Area of AOB = base height
2
1
= 6 4 =12 square units.
2
TRY THIS
Take a point A on X-axis and B on Y-axis and find area of the triangle AOB. Discuss
with your friends what did they do?
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Y
Let A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3). A(x1,y1)
Then find the area of the following triangles in a plane.
And discuss with your friends in groups about the area X' X
C(x3,y3) B(x2,y2)
of that triangle.
(i)
Y'
Y Y Y
A
B A
A B C
B
X' X X' X X' X
C
C
(iv)
(ii) (iii)
Y' Y' Y'
y 2 + y1 x1 + x 2 + y1 + y3 x 3 + x1 - y3 + y 2 x 3 + x 2
1 1 1
=
2 2 2
x1 y 2 - y3 + x 2 y3 - y1 + x 3 y1 - y 2
1
=
2
Example-18. Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are (1, 1), (4, 6) and (3, 5).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(1, 1), B(4, 6) and C(3, 5), by
using the formula above
1
= x1 ( y2 y3 ) x2 ( y3 y1 ) x3 ( y1 y2 )
2
is given by
1
1(6 5) ( 4) ( 5 1) ( 3)( 1 6)
2
1
11 16 21 24
2
So the area of the triangle is 24 square units.
Example-19. Find the area of a triangle formed by the points A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and C(7, 4).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and C(7, 4) is given
by
1
= 5(7 4) 4( 4 2) 7(2 7)
2
1 4
55 24 35 2
2 2
Since area is a measure, which cannot be negative, we will take the numberical value of -
2 or absolute value i.e., |2| = 2.
Therefore, the area of the triangle = 2 square units.
D O T HIS
Example-20. If A(5, 7), B(4,5), C(1, 6) and D(4,5) are the vertices of a quadrilateral.
Then, find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Solution : By joining B to D, you willl get two triangles ABD, and BCD.
The area of ABD A D
44 10 4 19 Square units
1
2
Area of ABD + area of BCD
So, the area of quadrilateral ABCD = 53+19 = 72 square units.
TRY THIS
Find the area of the square formed by (0, 1), (2, 1) (0, 3) and (2, 1) taken inorder are
as vertices.
T HINK - DISCUSS
7.8.1. C OLLINEARITY
Suppose the points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are lying on a line. Then, they can
not form a triangle. i.e. area of ABC is zero.
When the area of a triangle is zero then the three points said to be collinear points.
Example-21. The points (3, 2) (2, 8) and (0, 4) are three points in a plane. Show that these
points are collinear.
Solution : By using area of the triangle formula
1
= 3(8 4) ( 2)(4 ( 2)) 0(( 2) 8)
2
1
= 12 - 12 = 0
2
The area of the triangle is 0. Hence the three points are collinear or the lie on the same line.
D O T HIS
For this Heron, a Ancient Greek mathematician, derived a formula for a triangle whose
lengths of sides are a, b and c.
abc
A S(S a)(S b)(S c) , where S
2
For example, we find the area of the triangle whose lengths of sides
are 12m, 9m, 15m by using Heron’s formula we get
abc
A S(S a)(S b)(S c) , where S
2
12 9 15 36
S 18m
2 2
Then S a = 18 12 = 6m
S b = 18 9 = 9m
S c = 18 15 = 3m
D O THIS
(i) Find the area of the triangle whose lengths of sides are 15m, 17m, 21m (use
Heron’s Formula)
(ii) Find the area of the triangle formed by the points (0, 0), (4, 0), (4, 3) by using
Heron’s formula.
Example-22. Find the value of ‘b’ for which the points are collinear.
Solution : Let given points A(1, 2), B(1, b), C(3, 4)
Then x1 = 1, y1 = 2; x2 = 1, y2 = b; x3 = 3, y3 = 4
1
We know, area of ABC = x1 ( y2 y3 ) x2 ( y3 y1 ) x3 ( y1 y2 )
2
1
1(b 4) ( 1)( 4, 2) ( 3)(2 b) 0 ( The given points are collinear)
2
|b + 4 + 6 6 + 3b| = 0
|4b + 4| = 0
4b + 4 = 0
b = 1
EXERCISE - 7.3
1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
(i) (2, 3) (1, 0), (2, 4) (ii) (5, 1), (3, 5), (5, 2)
(iii) (0, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 2)
2. Find the value of ‘K’ for which the points are collinear.
(i) (7, 2) (5, 1) (3, K) (ii) (8, 1), (K, 4), (2, 5)
(iii) (K, K) (2, 3) and (4, 1).
3. Find the area of the triangle formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of the triangle
whose vertices are (0, 1), (2, 1) and (0, 3). Find the ratio of this area to the area of the
given triangle.
4. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices, taken inorder, are (4, 2), (3, 5),
(3, 2) and (2, 3).
5. Find the area of the triangle formed by the points by using Heron’s formula.
i) (1, 1), (1, 4) and (5, 1) ii) (2, 3), (1, 3) and (2, 1)
3y = 12 - 2x 8
7
D(-3,6)
12 2 x 6
y=
3
5
4
A(0,4) X
-9
Meena : Can you write these solutions 3
2
B(3,2)
in order pairs 1
C(6,0)
X
Bharadwaj : Yes, (0, 4), (3, 2), (6, 0), -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O
-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(3, 6) -2
-3
Meena, can you plot these points -4
on the coordinate plane. -5
-6
Meena : I have done like this. -7
-8
Bharadwaj : What do you observe? -9
Y
D O T HIS
Plot these points on the coordinates axis and join Them:
1. A(1, 2), B(3, 4), C(7, 1)
2. P(3, 5) Q(5, 1), R(2, 1), S(1, 2)
Which gives a straight line? Which is not? why?
T HINK - D ISCUSS
You might have seen a slider in a park. Two sliders have been given here. On which slider
you can slide faster?
X O X
O
A CTIVITY
Consider the line given in the figure indentify the points on the line and fill the table below.
x coordinate 1 - - 4 -
y coordinate 2 3 4 - 6
change in y
So, ...............
change in x
Then can you try other points on the line choose any two points and fill in the table.
change in y
Points y-coordinates Change in y x-coordinates Change in x change in x
y1 y2 (y2 y1) x1 x2 (x2 x1)
(1, 2) and 2
2 4 42=2 1 3 31=2 =1
(3, 4) 2
What can you conclude from above activity?
Therefore, there is a relation between the ratio of change in y to change in x on a line has
relation with angle made by it with X-axis.
You will learn the concept of tan from trigonametry
Oppositeside of angle Change in y
i.e., tan
adjecent side of angle Change in x
y2 y1
Slope of AB = m = x x
2 1 2)
2 ,y
x
2 1
B(
y -y
Slope will be denoted by ‘m’ and the line
1)
1 ,y
Example-23. The end points of a line are (2, 3), (4, 5). Find the slope of the line.
Solution : Points of a line are (2, 3), (4, 5) then slope of the line
y2 y1 5 3 2
m 1
x2 x1 4 2 2
Slope of the given line is 1.
D O T HIS
Find the slope of AB with the given end points.
1. A(4, 6) B(7, 2) 2. A(8, 4), B(4, 8)
3. A(2, 5), B(1, 7)
T RY T HIS
Find the slope of AB with the points lying on
1. A(2, 1), B(2, 6) 2. A(4, 2), B(4, 2)
3. A(2, 8), B(2, 2)
4. Justify that the line AB line segment formed by given points is parallel to Y-axis.
What can you say about their slope? Why?
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Find the slope AB with the points lying on A(3, 2), (8, 2)
When the line AB parallel to X-axis ? Why ?
Think and discuss with your friends in groups.
Example-24. Determine x so that 2 is the slope of the line through P(2, 5) and Q(x, 3).
Solution : Slope of the line passing through P(2, 5) and Q(x, 3) is 2.
Here, x1 = 2, y1 = 5, x2 = x, y2 = 3
y2 y1 3 5 2 2
Slope of a PQ 2
x2 x1 x 2 x 2 x2
2 = 2x 4 2x = 2 x=1
EXERCISE - 7.4
1. Find the slope of the line joining the two given points
(i) (4, 8) and (5, 2)
1 1
(vii) A 3 , 3 , B 7, 2
2 2
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Centre of the circle Q is on the Y-axis. And the circle passes through the points (0, 7) and
(0, 1). Circle intersects the positive X-axis at (P, 0). What is the value of ‘P’.
2. A triangle ABC is formed by the points A(2, 3), B(2, 3), C(4, 3). What is the point
of intersection of side BC and angular bisector of A.
3. The side of BC of an equilateral triangle ABC is parallel to X-axis. Find the slopes of
line along sides BC, CA and AB.
4. A right triangle has sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ where a > b. If the right angle is bisected then find the
distance between orthocentres of the smaller triangles using coordinate geometry.
5. Find the centroid of the triangle formed by the line 2x + 3y 6 = 0. With the coordinate
axes.
1. The distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is x2 x1 y2 y1 .
2 2
3. The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x1, y2) on a line parallel to Y-axis is |y2 - y1|.
4. The distance between two point (x1, y1) and (x2, y1) on a line parallel to X-axis is |x2 - x1|.
5. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points
m1 x2 m2 x1 m1 y2 m2 y1
A (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) internally in the ratio m1 : m2 are , .
m 1 m2 m1 m2
6. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
x1 x2 y1 y2
, .
2 2
7. The point that divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1 is the centroid of a triangle.
8. The centroid of a triangle is the point of intersection of its medians. Hence the coordinates
x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3
of the centroid are , .
3 3
9. The point which divides a line segment into three equal parts is said to be the trisectional
point (i.e; either 1:2 or 2:1)
10. The area of the triangle formed by the points (x1, y1) (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is the numerical
1
value of the expression |x (y - y ) + x2 (y3 - y1) + x3 (y1 - y2)|
2 1 2 3
abc
A = S S-a S-b S-c S=
2
(a, b, c are three sides of ABC)
y2 y1
12. Slope of the line containing the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is m = x x
2 1
Similar Triangles
8.1 I NTRODUCTION D
There is a tall tree in the
A
backyard of Snigdha’s house.
She wants to find out the height
of that tree but she is not sure
about how to find it.
Meanwhile, her uncle arrives at
home. Snigdha requests her B C E
uncle to help her to find the
height of the tree. He thinks for a while and then ask her to bring a mirror. He places it on the
ground at a certain distance from the base of the tree. He then asked Snigdha to stand on the
otherside of the mirror at such a position from where she is able to see the top of the tree in that
mirror.
When we draw the figure from (AB) girl to the mirror (C) and mirror to the tree (DE) as
above, we observe triangles ABC and DEC. Now, what can you say about these two triangles?
Are they congruent? No, because although they have the same shape but their sizes are different.
Do you know what we call the geometrical figures which have the same shape, but are not
necessarily of the same size? They are called similar figures.
Can you guess how the heights of trees, mountains or distances of far-away, objects such
as the Sun have been found out? Do you think these can be measured directly with the help of a
measuring tape? The fact is that all these heights and distances have been found out using the idea
of indirect measurements which is based on the principle of similarity of figures.
8.2 SIMILAR FIGURES
If the length in fig.(i) is kept the same and its breadth is doubled, it appears as in fig.(iii).
Now, what can you say about fig.(ii) and (iii)? Do they resemble fig.(i)? We find that the
figure is distorted. Can you say that they are similar? No, they have same shape, yet they are not
similar.
Think what a photographer does when she prints photographs of different sizes from the
same film (negative) ? You might have heard about stamp size, passport size and post card size
photographs. She generally takes a photograph on a small size film, say 35 mm., and then
enlarges it into a bigger size, say 45 mm (or 55 mm). We observe that every line segment of the
smaller photograph is enlarged in the ratio of 35 : 45 (or 35 : 55). Further, in the two photographs
of different sizes, we can see that the angles are equal. So, the photographs are similar.
Similarly in geometry, two polygons of the same number of sides are similar if their
corresponding angles are equal and their corresponding sides are in the same ratio or proportion.
A polygon in which all sides and angles are equal is called a regular polygon.
The ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as scale factor (or representative factor).
In real life, blue prints for the construction of a building are prepared using a suitable scale factor.
Can you give some more examples from your daily life where scale factor is used.
All regular polygons having the same number of sides are always similar. For example, all
squares are similar, all equalateral triangles are similar and so on.
Circles with same radius are congruent and those with different radii are not congruent.
But, as all circles have same shape, they are all similar.
We can say that all congruent
figures are similar but all similar figures
need not be congruent.
Similar Similar equilateral Similar
Squares triangles Circles
To understand the similarity of figures more clearly, let us perform the following activity.
A CTIVITY
O
Place a table directly under a lighted bulb, fitted in the ceiling in
your classroom. Cut a polygon, say ABCD, from a plane cardboard
and place it parallel to the ground between the bulb and the table. Then, A B
a shadow of quadrilateral ABCD is cast on the table. Mark the outline C
D
A B
of the shadow as quadrilateral A B C D .
D C
Now this quadrilateral A B C D is enlargement or magnification
of quadrilateral ABCD. Further, A lies on ray OA where ‘O’ is the bulb, B on OB , C on
different sizes.
T HINK - D ISSUSS
Can you say that a square and a rhombus are similar? Discuss with your friends.
Write why the conditions are not sufficient.
D O T HIS
In the example we had drawn two triangles, those two triangles showed the property of
similarity. We know that, two triangles are similar if their
(i) Corresponding Angles are equal and
(ii) Corresponding sides are in the same ratio (in proportion) D
In ABC and DEC in the introduction, A
A = D , B = E , ACB = DCE
DE EC DC
Also = = = K (scale factor) B C E
AB BC AC
then ABC is similar to DEC
Symbolically we write ABC ~ DEC
(Symbol ‘~’ is read as “Is similar to”)
As we have stated K is a scale factor, So
if K > 1 we get enlarged figures,
K = 1 We get congruent figures and
K < 1 gives reduced (or diminished) figures
Further, in triangles ABC and DEC, corresponding angles are Basic proportionality
equal. So they are called equiangular triangles. The ratio of any two theorem?
corresponding sides in two equiangular triangles is always the same.
For proving this, Basic Proportionality theorem is used. This is also
known as Thales Theorem.
To understand Basic proportionality theorem or Thales theorem,
let us do the following activity.
A CTIVITY
Take any ruled paper and draw a triangle on that with base A
on one of the lines. Several lines will cut the triangle ABC. Select
P Q
any one line among them and name the points where it meets the
sides AB and AC as P and Q.
AP AQ B C
Find the ratio of and . What do you observe?
PB QC
The ratios will be equal. Why ? Is it always true? Try for different lines intersecting the
triangle. We know that all the lines on a ruled paper are parallel and we observe that every
time the ratios are equal.
AP AQ
So in ABC, if PQ || BC then = .
PB QC
This is known as the result of basic proportionality theorem.
8.3.1 B ASIC P ROPORTIONALITY T HEOREM (T HALES T HEOREM )
Theorem-8.1 : If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides
in distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
Given : In ABC, DE || BC which intersects sides AB and
A C at D and E respectively.
AD AE
RTP: =
DB EC
Construction : Join B, E and C, D and then draw
A
DM AC and EN AB. N M
1 D E
Proof : Area of ADE = AD EN
2
1
Area of BDE = BD EN B C
2
1
AD EN
ar(ADE) 2 AD
So ...(1)
ar(BDE) 1
BD EN BD
2
1
Again Area of ADE = AE DM
2
1
Area of CDE = EC DM
2
1
AE DM
ar(ADE) 2 AE
ar(CDE) 1 EC DM EC ...(2)
2
Observe that BDE and CDE are on the same base DE and between same parallels BC
and DE.
So ar(BDE) = ar(CDE) ...(3)
From (1) (2) and (3), we have
AD AE
=
DB EC
Hence proved.
Is the converse of the above theorem also true? To examine this, let us perform the
following activity.
A CTIVITY
Draw an angle XAY on your note book and on ray AX, mark points B1, B2, B3, B4 and
B such that
AB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4 = B4B = 1cm (say)
Similarly on ray AY, mark points C1, C2, C3, C4 and C such that
AC1 = C1C2 = C2C3 = C3C4 = C4C = 2 cm (say)
Join B1, C1 and B, C.
AB1 AC1 1
Observe that B B = C C 4 and B1C1 || BC
1 1
AB4 AC4 4
= and B4C4 || BC
B4 B C4 C 1
From this we obtain the following theorem called converse of the Thales theorem
Theorem-8.2 : If a line divides two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to
the third side.
AD AE
Given : In ABC, a line DE is drawn such that
DB EC
RTP : DE || BC
A
Proof : Assume that DE is not parallel to BC then draw the line
DE1 parallel to BC E
1
D E
AD AE
So (why ?)
DB EC
B C
AE AE
(why ?)
EC EC
Adding 1 to both sides of the above, you can see that E and E must coincide (why ?)
TRY THIS
1. E and F are points on the sides PQ and PR respectively of PQR. For each of the
following, state whether. EF ||QR or not?
(i) PE = 3.9 cm EQ = 3 cm PF = 3.6 cm and FR = 2.4 cm
(ii) PE = 4 cm, QE = 4.5 cm, PF = 8 cm and RF = 9 cm.
(iii) PQ = 1.28 cm PR = 2.56 cm PE = 1.8 cm and PF = 3.6 cm
1.8
.
1c
cm
c
D E
m.
E
m.
1.5
D
m.
5.4
c
m.
7.2
cm
3c B C
.
B C
A B A1
3. Using the
A1 same compass
A2
A3 setting and with X
A4
A X A1 as centre draw another arc and locate A2.
4. Like this locate 5 points (=m + n) A1, A2, A3, A4, A5
3 C 2
such that AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = A3A4 = A4A5 A B
A4
AB at C and obeserve that AC : CB = 3 : 2. A5 X
Now let us solve some examples on Thales theorem and its converse.
AD 3
Example-1. In ABC, DE || BC and .
DB 5
A
AC = 5.6cm. Find AE.
Solution : In ABC, DE || BC
AD AE E
D
(by B.P.T)
DB EC
AD 3 AE 3
but So
DB 5 EC 5 B C
16.8
AE = 2.1cm.
8
AL = x 3, AC = 2x, BM = x 2
M
and BC = 2x + 3 find the value of x
Solution : In ABC, LM || AB
AL BM
(by B.P.T) C
L
A
LC MC
x 3 x2
2 x ( x 3) (2 x 3) ( x 2)
x3 x2
= (cross multiplication)
x3 x5
(x 3) (x + 5) = (x 2) (x + 3)
x2 + 2x 15 = x2 + x 6
Þ 2x x = 6 + 15
x=9
D O T HIS
C
1. What value(s) of x will make DE || AB, in the given figure ?
AD = 8x + 9, CD = x + 3 D E
BE = 3x + 4, CE = x.
C A B
2. In ABC, DE || BC. AD = x, DB = x 2, E
AE = x + 2 and EC = x 1.
Example-3. The diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect each other at point ‘O’ such that
AO CO
= . Prove that ABCD is a trapezium.
BO DO
AO CO
Solution : Given : In quadrilateral ABCD , = .
BO DO
RTP : ABCD is a trapezium.
Construction : Through ‘O’ draw a line parallel to AB which meets DA at X.
Proof : In DAB, XO || AB (by construction)
DX DO
= (by basic proportionality theorem)
XA OB
D C
AX BO
= ..... (1)
XD OD X
O
AO CO
again = (given)
BO DO A B
AO BO
= ..... (2)
CO OD
From (1) and (2)
AX AO
=
XD CO
AX AO
In ADC, XO is a line such that =
XD OC
XO || DC (by converse of the basic the proportionality theorem)
AB || DC
In quadrilateral ABCD, AB || DC
ABCD is a trapezium (by definition)
Hence proved.
Example-4. In trapezium ABCD, AB || DC. E and F are points on non-parallel sides AD and
AE BF
BC respectively such that EF || AB. Show that = .
ED FC
Solution : Let us join AC to intersect EF at G.
AB || DC and EF || AB (given)
EF || DC (Lines parallel to the same line are parallel to each other)
In ADC, EG || DC A B
AE AG
So = (by BPT) ...(1) E F
ED GC G
Similarly, In CAB, GF || AB D C
CG CF AG BF
= (by BPT) i.e., = ...(2)
GA FB GC FC
AM AN
N Prove that =
AB AD
D
A
B C
F E
4. Prove that a line drawn through the mid-point of one side of a triangle parallel to another
side bisects the third side (Using basic proportionality theorem).
5. Prove that a line joining the midpoints of any two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third
side. (Using converse of basic proportionality theorem)
P
O
Q R
P
7. In the adjacent figure, A, B and C are points on OP, OQ
and OR respectively such that AB || PQ and AC||PR. A
Show that AO = CO .
BO DO
9. Draw a line segment of length 7.2 cm and divide it in the ratio 5 : 3. Measure the two parts.
Use a protractor and ruler to draw two non congruent triangles so that each triangle has
a 40° and 60° angle. Check the figures made by you by measuring the third angles of two
triangles.
It should be each 80° (why?)
Measure the lengths of the sides of the triangles and compute the ratios of the lengths of the
corresponding sides.
Are the triangles similar? P
A
° ° 40° 60°
B
40 60 C Q R
This activity leads us to the following criterion for similarity of two triangles.
Theorem-8.3 : In two triangles, if the corresponding angles are equal, then the sides opposite to
the equal angles are in the same ratio (or proportional) and hence the two triangles are similar.
Given : In triangles ABC and DEF,
A = D , B = E and C = F
AB BC AC
RTP : A
DE EF DF
Construction : Locate points P and Q on DE and DF respectively,
such that AB = DP and AC = DQ. Join PQ.
B C
Proof : ABC DPQ (why ?)
This gives B = P = E and PQ || EF (How ?) D
DP DQ
(why ?)
PE QF
AB AC
i.e., (why ?) P Q
DE DF
AB BC AB BC AC
Similarly and So .
DE EF DE EF DF
Hence proved. E F
Note : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of another triangle, then
by the angle sum property of a triangle, third angles will also be equal.
So AA similarity criterion is stated as if two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to
the two angles of another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
What about the converse of the above statement ?
If the sides of a triangle are respectively proportional to the corresponding sides of another
triangle, is it true that their corresponding angles are equal ?
Let us exercise it through an activity.
A CTIVITY
Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 3 cm, BC = 6 cm, CA = 8 cm,
DE = 4.5 cm, EF = 9 cm and FD = 12 cm.
D
A
B C E F
AB BC CA 2
So you have .
DE EF FD 3
Now measure the angles of both the triangles. What do you observe? What can you say
about the corresponding angles? They are equal, so the triangles are similar. You can verify
it for different triangles.
From the above activity, we can propose the following criterion for similarity of two
triangles.
RTP : A = D , B = E , C = F
Construction : Locate points P and Q on DE and DF respectively B C
such that AB = DP and AC = DQ. Join PQ. D
DP DQ
Proof : and PQ || EF (why ?)
PE QF
So P = E and Q = F (why ?) P Q
DP DQ PQ
DE DF EF
E F
DP DQ BC
So (why ?)
DE DF EF
So BC = PQ (Why ?)
ABC DPQ (why ?)
So A = D , B = E and C = F (How ?)
We studied that for similarity of two polygons any one condition is not sufficient. But for
the similarity of triangles, there is no need for fulfillment of both the conditions as one automatically
implies the other. Now let us look for SAS similarity criterion. For this, let us perform the
following activity.
ACTIVITY
Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 2 cm, A =500 AC = 4cm,
DE = 3 cm, D = 500 and DF = 6cm.
B C E F
AB AC 2
Observe that and A = D = 500.
DE DF 3
BC 2
Observe that B = E and C = F also .
EF 3
So, the two triangles are similar. Repeat the same for triangles with different measurements,
which gives the following criterion for similarity of triangles.
AB AC
( 1) and A
DE DF P Q
A = D
So A = D , B = P , C = Q
ABC ~ DEF (why ?)
T RY T HIS
1. Are the triangles similar? If so, name the criterion of similarity. Write the similarity
relation is symbolic form. L
F P
(i) I
(ii)
N
P
M
H
Q R
G K
A
A
(iii) (iv) 3 2
2 2 P J
X Y 5 31
3
3 3
B C
B C
A
P
(v) (vi) 40°
60°
A O
B
m . 10
2 cm.
. c m.
6 cm .
B 2 cm. CQ R
4 cm. B C
2. Explain why the triangles are similar and then find the value of x.
(i) P S (ii) A
4.5
T
P
5 5
x
°x
70° 110
Q B C
3 R L 3 Q 3
R
A
Dx 6
(iii) x (iv)
24 14 A 9 B
C 2
22
E S T
B x
P X
4 x
A
(v) M
5
N (vi) 12 B
x 7.5
Q R Z Y
15 18
E A
A
5 cm.
x
(vii) (viii) E
1.6 cm
x 4 cm.
B D
1.5 cm C 15cm B C
6 cm.
Construction : To construct a triangle similar to a given triangle as per given scale factor.
a) Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal
3 3
to of corresponding sides of ABC (scale factor )
4 4
Steps : 1. Draw a ray BX, making an acute angle
with BC on the side opposite to vertex A
A. A 1
A
h m.
1.65 m.
B R
1.8 m. C Q 5.4 m.
1.65 1.8
PQ 5.4
1.65 5.4
PQ 4.95m
1.8
The height of the lamp post is 4.95m.
Example-6. A man sees the top of a tower in a mirror which is at a distance of 87.6m from the
tower. The mirror is on the ground facing upwards. The man is 0.4m away from the
mirror and his height is 1.5m. How tall is the tower?
Solution : In ABC & EDC
ABC EDC 90 E
Example7. Gopal is worrying that his neighbour can see into his living room from the top floor
of his house. He has decided to build a fence that is high enough to block the view from
their top floor window. What should be the height of the fence? The measurements are
given in the figure.
Solution : In ABD & ACE
E
B = C = 90°
D
A = A (common angle) 12 m.
AB BD 2 BD
1.5 m. 1.5 m. 1.5 m.
AC CE 8 1.2
R Q 2m. P
2 ×12 24 8 m.
BD = = = 3m
8 8
Total height of the fence required is 1.5 m. + 3 m. = 4.5m to block the neightbour’s view.
EXERCISE - 8.2
A
1. In the given figure, ADE B
E
(i) Show that ABC ~ ADE
(ii) If AD = 3.8 cm, AE = 3.6cm D
BE = 2.1 cm BC = 4.2 cm
B C
find DE.
2. The perimeters of two similar triangles are 30 cm and 20 cm respectively. If one side of
the first triangle is 12 cm, determine the corresponding side of the second triangle.
3. A girl of height 90 cm is walking away from the base of a lamp post at a speed of
1.2 m/sec. If the lamp post is 3.6m above the ground, find the length of her shadow after
4 seconds.
4. CM and RN are respectively the R
medians of similar triangles ABC and
PQR. Prove that
(i) AMC ~ PNR
CM AB
(ii) A B P Q
RN PQ M N
7. A flag pole 4m tall casts a 6 m., shadow. At the same time, a nearby building casts a
shadow of 24m. How tall is the building ?
8. CD and GH are respectively the bisectors of ACB and EGF such that D and H lie
on sides AB and FE of ABC andFEG respectively. If ABC ~FEG then show
that
CD AC
(i) (ii) DCB ~HGE (iii) DCA ~HGF
GH FG
9. AX and DY are altitudes of two similar triangles ABC and DEF. Prove that AX : DY =
AB : DE.
5
10. Construct a triangle shadow similar to the given ABC, with its sides equal to of the
3
corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
11. Construct a triangle of sides 4cm, 5 cm and 6 cm. Then, construct a triangle similar to it,
2
whose sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
3
12. Construct an Isosceles triangle whose base is 8cm and altitude is 4 cm. Then, draw another
1
triangle whose sides are 1 times the corresponding sides of the isosceles triangle.
2
8.5 A REAS OF SIMILAR T RIANGLES
ACTIVITY
ar(ABC) AB BC CA
2 2 2
RTP : .
ar(PQR) PQ QR RP
1
BC AM
ar(ABC) 2 BC AM
Proof : ar(PQR) 1 QR PN ...(1)
QR PN
2
B = Q ( ABC ~ PQR)
M N 900
AM AB
...(2)
PN PQ
AB BC AC
...(3)
PQ QR PR
ar(ABC) AB AB
from (1), (2) and (3)
ar(PQR) PQ PQ
AB
2
.
PQ
Now by using (3), we get
ar(ABC) AB BC AC
2 2 2
ar(PQR) PQ QR PR
Hence proved.
Now let us see some examples.
Example-8. Prove that if the areas of two similar triangles are equal, then they are congruent.
Solution : ABC ~ PQR
ar(ABC) AB BC AC
2 2 2
So
ar(PQR) PQ QR PR
ar(ABC)
But 1 ( areas are equal)
ar(PQR)
AB BC AC
2 2 2
PQ QR PR 1
So AB2 = PQ2
BC2 = QR2
AC2 = PR2
From which we get AB = PQ
BC = QR
AC = PR
ABC PQR (by SSS congruency)
Example-9. ABC ~ DEF and their areas are respectively 64cm2 and 121 cm2.
If EF = 15.4 cm., then find BC.
ar( ABC) BC
2
Solution :
ar( DEF) EF
64 BC
2
121 15.4
8 BC 8 15.4
BC 11.2cm .
11 15.4 11
Example-10. Diagonals of a trapezium ABCD with AB || DC, intersect each other at the point
‘O’. If AB = 2CD, find the ratio of areas of triangles AOB and COD.
Solution : In trapezium ABCD, AB || DC also AB = 2CD.
D C
In AOB and COD
O
AOB = COD (vertically opposite angles)
OAB OCD (alternate interior angles) A B
ar(AOB) AB2
ar(COD) DC2
(2DC)2 4
(DC) 2 1
ar(AOB) : ar(COD) = 4 : 1.
EXERCISE - 8.3
1. Equilateral triangles are drawn on the three sides of a right angled triangle. Show that the
area of the triangle on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of triangles on the
other two sides.
2. Prove that the area of the equilateral triangle described on the side of a square is half the
area of the equilateral triangles described on its diagonal.
3. D, E, F are mid points of sides BC, CA, AB of ABC. Find the ratio of areas of DEF
and ABC.
4. In ABC, XY || AC and XY divides the triangle into two parts of equal area. Find the
AX
ratio of .
XB
5. Prove that the ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of
their corresponding medians.
6. ABC ~ DEF. BC = 3cm EF = 4cm and area of ABC = 54 cm2. Determine the area
of DEF.
7. ABC is a triangle and PQ is a straight line meeting AB in P and AC in Q. If AP = 1 cm. and
BP = 3cm., AQ = 1.5 cm., CQ = 4.5 cm.
1
Prove that (area of APQ) = (area of ABC).
16
8. The areas of two similar triangles are 81cm2 and 49 cm2 respectively. If the attitude of the
bigger triangle is 4.5 cm. Find the corresponding attitude fo the smaller triangle.
Theorem-8.7 : If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to
the hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the whole
triangle and to each other.
Proof: ABC is a right triangle, right angled at B. Let BD be the perpendicular to hypotenuse AC.
In ADB and ABC B
A = A
And ADB ABC (why ?)
So ADB ~ ABC (How ?) ...(1)
Similarly, BDC ~ ABC (How ?) ...(2) A C
So from (1) and (2), triangles on both sides of the perpendicular BD are similar to the
whole triangle ABC.
Also since ADB ~ ABC
BDC ~ ABC
So ADB ~ BDC
This leads to the following theorem.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
For a right angled triangle with integer sides atleast one of its measurements must be
an even number. Why? Discuss this with your friends and teachers.
CD BC
BC AC
CD . AC = BC2 ...(2)
On adding (1) & (2)
AD . AC + CD . AC = AB2 + BC2
AC (AD + CD) = AB2 + BC2
AC . AC = AB2 + BC2
B = Q (by cpct)
M
AC
2
So BL
2
AB ( L is the midpoint of AC)
2
2
AC 2
BL2 AB2 A
4 C
L
4BL2 = AC2 + 4AB2 ...(2)
In CMA, CM2 = AC2 + AM2
AB
2
CM = AC
2
( M is the mid point of AB)
2
2
AB2
CM2 = AC 2
4
4CM2 = 4AC2 + AB2 ...(3)
On adding (2) and (3), we get
4(BL2 + CM2) = 5(AC2 + AB2)
4(BL2 + CM2) = 5BC2 from (1).
PQ AB & PQ DC ( B = C = 90°)
So, BPQ 90 & CQP 90 P Q
O
D O THIS
C
1. In ACB, C = 90 and CD AB
0
BC2 BD
Prove that .
AC2 AD
A B
2. A ladder 15m long reaches a window which is 9 m above the ground on one side of a
street. Keeping its foot at the same point, the ladder is turned to other side of the street
to reach a window 12m high. Find the width of the street.
B A
Example-14. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 6m more than twice of the shortest side. If
the third side is 2 m., less than the hypotenuse, find the sides of the triangle.
Solution : Let the shortest side be x m.
Then htypotenuse = (2x + 6)m and third side = (2x + 4)m.
by Pythagores theorem, we have
(2x + 6)2 = x2 + (2x + 4)2
4x2 + 24x + 36 = x2 + 4x2 + 16x + 16
x2 - 8x 20 = 0
(x 10) (x + 2) = 0
x = 10 or x = 2
but x can’t be negative as side of a triangle
x = 10
Hence, the sides of the triangle are 10m, 26m and 24m.
1 1
cp ab
2 2
cp = ab ...(1)
(ii) Since ABC is a right triangle right angled at C.
AB2 = BC2 + AC2
c2 = a2 + b2
ab
2
a b
2 2
p
1 a2 + b2 1 1
= 2 2 = 2 + 2.
p 2
ab a b
EXERCISE - 8.4
A
1. Prove that the sum of the squares of the sides of a rhombus
is equal to the sum of the squares of its diagonals.
D
2. ABC is a right triangle right angled at B. Let D and E be
any points on AB and BC respectively.
B E C
Prove that AE2 + CD2 = AC2 + DE2.
3. Prove that three times the square of any side of an equilateral triangle is equal to four times
the square of the altitude.
4. PQR is a triangle right angled at P and M is a point on QR such that PM QR .
Show that PM2 = QM . MR.
5. ABD is a triangle right angled at A and AC BD
C
Show that (i) AB2 = BC.BD.
(ii) AC2 = BC.DC
(iii) AD2 = BD.CD. B A
8. A wire attached to veritical pole of height 18m is 24m long and has a stake attached to the
other end. How far from the base of the pole should the stake be driven so that the wire
will be taut?
9. Two poles of heights 6m and 11m stand on a plane ground. If the distance between the
feet of the poles is 12m find the distance between their tops.
1
10. In an equilateral triangle ABC, D is a point on side BC such that BD = BC. Prove that
3
9AD = 7AB .
2 2
A
B C
D E
A D
12. ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled
at B. Equilateral triangles ACD and ABE
are constructed on sides AC and AB. Find E
the ratio between the areas of ABE and
ACD.
B C
8.7 D IFFERENT FORMS OF THEORITICAL STATEMENTS
1. Negation of a statement :
We have a statement and if we add “Not” after the statement,
we will get a new statement; which is called negation of the statement.
p : Triangle ABC is equilateral and its negation will be “Triangle ABC is not equilateral”.
Negation of statement p is denoted by p; and read as negation of p. the statement p
negates the assertion that the statement p makes.
When we write the negation of the statements we would be careful that there should no
confusion in understanding the statement.
Observe this example carefully
p : All irrational numbers are real numbers. We can write negation of p like these ways.
2. Converse of a statement :
A sentence which is either true or false is called a simple statement. If we combine two
simple statements then we will get a compound statement. Connecting two simple statements
with the use of the words “If and then” will give a compound statement which is called
implication (or) conditional.
Combining two simple statements p & q using if and then, we get p implies q which can be
denoted by p q. In this p q, suppose we interchange p and q we get q p. This
is called its converse.
3. Proof by contradiction :
In this proof by contradiction, we assume the negation of the statement is true; which we
have to prove. In the process of proving we get contradiction somewhere. Then, we
realize that this contradiction occur because of our wrong assumption which is negation is
true. Therefore we conclude that the original statement is true.
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination] T
1. In the given figure,
P
QT QR and
1 2
PR QS
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parllel to the
third side.
6. In in two triangles, angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in the same ratio
and hence the two triangles are similar (AAA similarity)
7. If two angles of a triangle are equal to the two angles of another triangle, then third angles
of both triangles are equal by angle sum property of a triangle.
8. In two triangles, if the corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the triangles are similar. (SSS similarity)
9. If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including
these angles are in the same ratio then the triangles are similar. (SAS similarity)
10. The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides.
11. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of a right triangle on both sides of the
perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle and also to each other.
12. In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides (Pythogoras Theorem).
13. In a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides,
then the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle.
Puzzle
Draw a triangle. Join the mid-point of the sides of the triangle. You get 4 triangles Again
join the mid-points of these triangles. Repeat this process. All the triangles drawn are
similar triangles. Why ? think and discuss with your friends.
Similarly, what happens when a curve and a line is given in a plane? You know a curve may
be a parabola as you have seen in polynomials or a simple closed curve “circle” which is a
collection of all those points on a plane that are at a constant distance from a fixed point.
Y
You might have seen circular objects rolling on a plane creating a path. For example; riding
a bicycle, wheels of train on the track etc., where it seems to be a circle and a line. Does there
a relation exist between them?
Let us see what happens, if a circle and a line are given in a plane.
O O O A
B
(i) Q (ii) Q (iii) Q
226 Class-X Mathematics
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In Fig.(i), the line PQ and the circle have no common point. In this case PQ is a non-
intersecting line with respect to the circle.
In Fig.(ii), the line PQ intersects the circle at two points A and B. It forms a chord on the
circle AB with two common points. In this case the line PQ is a secant of the circle.
In Fig.(iii), There is only one point A, common to the line PQ and the circle. This line is
called a tangent to the circle.
You can see that there cannot be any other position of the line with respect to the circle.
We will study the existence of tangents to a circle and also study their properties and constructions.
Do yo know?
The word ‘tangent’ comes from the latin word ‘tangere’, which means to touch and was
introduced by Danish mathematician Thomas Fineke in 1583.
D O T HIS
q l
i. Draw a circle with any radius. Draw four tangents at different p
m
points. How many tangents can you draw to this circle ?
ii. How many tangents you can draw to circle from a point away
from it.
iii. Which of the following are tangents to the circles
ACTIVITY A
Take a circular wire and attach a straight wire AB at a point P of
the circular wire, so that the system rotate about the point P in a plane.
P
The circular wire represents a circle and B O
A A A
the straight wire AB represents a line
intersects the circle at point P.
Put the system on a table and gently rotate the wire AB about
the point P to get different positions of the straight wire as shown
P
in the figure. The wire intersects the circular wire at P and at
B
one more point through the points Q1, Q2 or Q3 etc. So while
it generally intersects circular wire at two points one of which is
B B P in one particular position, it intersects the circle only at the
point P (See position A B of AB). This is the position of a tangent at the point P of the
circle. You can check that in all other positions of AB it will intersect the circle at P and at
another point, A B is a tangent to the circle at P..
We see that there is only one tangent to the circle at point P.
Moving wire AB in either direction from this position makes it cut the circular wire in two
points. All these are therefore secants. Tangent is a special case of a secant where the two
points of intersection of a line with a circle coincide.
D O T HIS
P
Draw a circle and a secant PQ of the circle on a paper as
shown below. Draw various lines parallel to the secant on both
sides of it.
A
What happens to the length of chord coming closer and closer
to the centre of the circle?
What is the longest chord? Q
How many tangents can you draw to a circle, which are parallel to each other ?
The common point of the tangent and the circle is called the point of contact and the
tangent is said to touch the circle at the common point.
Observe the tangents to the circle in the figures given below:
How many tangents can you draw to a circle at a point? How many tangents can you
obtain to the circle in all? See the points of contact. Draw radii from the points of contact. Do
you see anything special about the angle between the tangents and the radii at the points of
contact. All appear to be perpendicular to the corresponding tangents. We can also prove it.
Let us see how.
Theorem-9.1 : The tangent at any point of a circle is A
perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
Given : A circle with centre ‘O’ and a tangent XY to the
O
circle at a point P.
To prove : OP is perpendicular to XY. (i.e OP XY)
Proof : Here, we will use the method that assumes that the
P Y
T RY T HIS
How can you prove the converse of the above theorem.
“If a line in the plane of a circle is perpendicular to the radius at its endpoint on the circle,
then the line is tangent to the circle”.
We can find some more results using the above theorem
(i) Since there can be only one perpendicular OP at the point P, it follows that one and only
one tangent can be drawn to a circle at a given point on the circumference.
(ii) Since there can be only one perpendicular to XY at the point P, it follows that the
perpendicular to a tangent at its point of contact passes through the centre.
Think about these. Discuss these among your friends and with your teachers.
T RY T HIS X
Q
How can you draw the tangent to a circle at a given point when the
centre of the circle is not known?
R P
Hint : Draw equal angles QPX and PRQ . Explain the
construction.
Y
EXERCISE - 9.1
1. Fill in the blanks
(i) A tangent to a circle intersects it in ................ point (s).
(ii) A line intersecting a circle in two points is called a .............
(iii) The number of tangents drawn at the end points of the diameter is ................
(iv) The common point of a tangent to a circle and the circle is called ...............
(v) We can draw ............. tangents to a given circle.
2. A tangent PQ at a point P of a circle of radius 5 cm meets a line through the centre O at a
point Q so that OQ = 13 cm. Find length of PQ.
3. Draw a circle and two lines parallel to a given line such that one is a tangent and the other,
a secant to the circle.
4. Calculate the length of tangent from a point 15 cm. away from the centre of a circle of
radius 9 cm.
5. Prove that the tangents to a circle at the end points of a diameter are parallel.
To get an idea of the number of tangents from a point on a circle, Let us perform the
following activity.
A CTIVITY
Theorem-9.2 : The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.
Given : A circle with centre O, P is a point lying outside the circle and PA and PB are two
tangents to the circle from P. (See figure)
To prove : PA = PB
Proof : Join OA, OB and OP.
OAP OBP 900 (Angle between radii and tangents
Now in the two right triangles according to theorem 9.1)
OAP and OBP, A
OA = OB (radii of same circle)
OP = OP (Common)
Therfore, By R.H.S. Congruency axiom, O P
OAP OBP
This gives PA = PB (CPCT)
B
Hence Proved.
T RY T HIS
Use pythagoras theorem and write proof of above theorem.
You saw that if a point lies outside the circle, there will be exactly two
tangents to the circle from this point. We shall now see how to draw these
tangents.
Construction : To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it.
Given : We are given a circle with centre ‘O’ and a point P outside it. We
have to construct two tangents from P to the circle.
Steps of construction :
Step(i) : Join PO and draw a perpendicular
bisector of it. Let M be the midpoint
of PO.
Step (ii) : Taking M as centre and PM or MO P O
M
as radius, draw a circle. Let it intersect
the given circle at the points A and B.
OQ = OR (Radii)
OP is common. O P
Hence, the centre lies on the bisector of the angle between the two tangents.
Statement-2 : In two concentric circles, such that a chord of the bigger circle, that touches the
smaller circle is bisected at the point of contact with the smaller circle.
Can you see how is this?
Proof : We are given two concentric circles C1 and C2 with centre
O and a chord AB of the larger circle C1, touching the smaller circle
C2 at the point P (See figure) we need to prove that AP = PB. C1
C
2
Join OP. O
Let PAQ =
A O
1
APQ AQP (180 )
2
1
= 90
2
Also, by Theorem 9.1,
OPA 90
So, OPQ OPA APQ
1 1 1
90 90 PAQ
2 2 2
1
This gives OPQ PAQ .
2
PAQ 2 OPQ. Similarly PAQ 2OQP
Statement-4 : If a circle touches all the four sides of a quadrilateral ABCD at points
PQRS. Then AB+CD = BC + DA C
R
Can you think how do we proceed? AB, CD, BC, DA are all D
chords to a circle.
Q
For the circle to touch all the four sides of the quadrilateral at S
points P, Q, R, S, it has to be inside the quadrilateral. (See figure)
A
How do we proceed further? P B
Proof : The circle touched the sides AB, BC, CD and DA of Quadrilateral ABCD at the points
P, Q, R and S respectively as shown
Since by theorem 9.2, the two tangents to a circle drawn from a point outside it, are equal,
AP = AS
BP = BQ
DR = DS
and CR = CQ
On adding, We get
AP + BP + DR + CR = AS + BQ + DS + CQ
or (AP + PB) + (CR + DR) = (BQ + QC) + (DS + SA)
or AB + CD = BC + DA.
Let us do an example of analysing a situation and know how we would construct something.
60 o O 60° P
OPA = OPB = = 30o ( OAP OBP)
2 5 cm.
Now ln OAP,
Opp. side OA B
sin 30o =
Hyp OP
1 5
= (From trigonometric ratio) A
2 OP
OP = 10 cm.
Now we can draw a circle of radius 5 cm with centre ‘O’. O
10 cm.
P
We then mark a point at a distance of 10 cm from the centre M
of the circle. Join OP and complete the construction as
given in construction 9.2. Hence PA and PB are the required B
pair of tangents to the given circle.
You can also try this construction without using trigonometric ratio.
T RY T HIS
Draw a pair of radii OA and OB such that BOA = 120o. Draw the bisector of
BOA and draw lines perpendiculars to OA and OB at A and B. These lines meet on the
bisector of BOA at a point which is the external point and the perpendicular lines are the
required tangents. Construct and Justify.
EXERCISE - 9.2
(ii) From a point Q, the length of the tangent to a circle is 24 cm. and the distance of Q from
the centre is 25 cm. The radius of the circle is
(a) 7cm (b) 12 cm (c) 15cm (d) 24.5cm
(iii) If AP and AQ are the two tangents a circle with centre O so that A
5. Draw a circle of radius 6cm. From a point 10 cm away from its centre, construct the pair
of tangents to the circle and measure their lengths. Verify by using Pythogoras Theorem.
6. Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 4cm from a point on the concentric circle of radius
6cm and measure its length. Also verify the measurement by actual calculation.
7. Draw a circle with the help of a bangle, Take a point outside the circle. Construct the pair
of tangents from this point to the circle measure them. Write conclusion.
Hint : The distance of two points to the point of contact is the same.
D O T HIS
What shapes can they be broken into that we can find area easily?
Make some more pictures and think of the shapes they can be divided into different
parts.
Lets us recall how to find the area of the following geometrical figures as given in the table.
S.No. Figure Dimentions Area
1. length = l A = lb
b
breadth = b
l
2. s Side = s A = s2
s
base = b 1
3. h
height = h A= bh
2
b
r
4. radius = r A = r2
l A B
l A
(i) (ii) (iii)
As you know a segment is a region, bounded by the arc and a chord, we can see the area
that is shaded ( ) in fig.(i) is a minor segment, semicircle in fig.(ii) and major segment in
fig.(iii). Q
How do we find the area of the segment? Do the following activity.
Take a circular shaped paper and fold it along with a chord less
O
than the diameter and shade the smaller part as shown in in the figure.
What do we call this smaller part? It is a minor segment (APB). What do
A B
Q we call the unshaded portion of the circle?
Obviously it is a major segment (AQB). P
You have already come across the sector and segment in earlier classes.
O The portion of some unshaded part and shaded part (minor segment) is a
r x r sector which is the combination of a triangle and a segment.
A B
Let OAPB be a sector of a circle with centre O and radius ‘r’ as shown
P in the figure. Let the angle measure of AOB be ‘x’.
x
= × r2 - area of OAB
360
T RY T HIS
How can you find the area of major segment using area of minor segment?
D O T HIS
1. Find the area of sector, whose radius is 7 cm. with the given angle:
i. 60° ii. 30° iii. 72° iv. 90° v. 120°
2. The length of the minute hand of a clock is 14 cm. Find the area swept by the minute hand
in 10 minutes.
120 0
22
21 21 cm2
B
Now, area of the sector OAYB =
360 0
7
= 462 cm2 ...(1)
For finding the area of OAB, draw OM AB as shown in the figure:-
Note OA = OB. Therefore, by RHS congruence,AMO BMO
AM 3 3
sin 60
2
0
=
21 2
21 3
So, AM = cm.
2
2 21 3
Therefore AB = 2AM = cm. = 21 3 cm
2
1
So, Area of OAB AB OM
2
1 21
21 3 cm2.
2 2
441
3 cm . ...(2)
2
4
441 2
Therefore, area of the segment AYB = 462 3 cm .
4
( from (1), (2) ]
21
4
88 21 3 cm 2
= 271.047 cm2
Example-2. Find the area of the segments shaded in figure, if PQ = 24 cm., PR = 7 cm. and
22
QR is the diameter of the circle with centre O (Take = )
7
Solution : Area of the segments shaded = Area of sector OQPR - Area of triangle PQR.
Since QR is diameter, QPR = 90° (Angle in a semicircle)
So, using pythagoras Theorem
In QPR, QR2 = PQ2 + PR2
P
= 242 + 72 cm .
24
= 576 + 49
7c
Q O
R
m.
= 625
QR = 625 = 25 cm.
1
Then radius ofthe circle = QR
2
1 25
= (25) = cm.
2 2
1
Now, area of semicircle OQPR = r2
2
1 22 25 25
=
2 7 2 2
= 245.53 cm2 ..... (1)
1
Area of right angled triangle QPR = × PR × PQ
2
1
= × 7 × 24
2
= 84 cm2 ..... (2)
From (1) and (2),
Area of the shaded segments = 245.53 - 84
= 161.53 cm2
Example-3. A round table top has six equal designs as shown in the figure. If the radius of the
table top is 14 cm., find the cost of making the designs with paint at the rate of D5 per cm2. (use
3 = 1.732)
Solution : We know that the radius of circumscribing circle of a regular hexagon is equal to the
length of its side.
Each side of regular hexagon = 14 cm.
Therefore, Area of six design segments = Area of circle - Area of the regular hexagon.
Now, Area of circle = r2
22
= × 14 × 14 = 616 cm2 ..... (1)
7 .
cm
14 r
3 2
Area of regular hexagon = 6 × a
4
3
=6× × 14 × 14
4
= 509.2 cm2 ..... (2)
Hence, area of six designs = 616 - 509.21 (from (1), (2)
= 106.79 cm2.
Therefore, cost of painting the design at the rate of D5 per cm2
= D106.79 × 5
= D533.95
EXERCISE - 9.3
1. A chord of a circle of radius 10 cm. subtends a right angle at the centre. Find the area of
the corresponding: (use = 3.14)
i. Minor segment ii. Major segment
2. A chord of a circle of radius 12 cm. subtends an angle of 120° at the centre. Find the area
of the corresponding minor segment of the circle (use = 3.14 and 3 = 1.732)
3. A car has two wipers which do not overlap. Each wiper has a D C
blade of length 25 cm. sweeping through an angle of 115°.
Find the total area cleaned at each sweep of the blades. (use
22
)
7
4. Find the area of the shaded region in figure, where ABCD is a
square of side 10 cm. and semicircles are drawn with each A B
10 cm.
side of the square as diameter (use = 3.14)
D
C 6. In figure, OACB is a quadrant
of a circle with centre O and A B
2 cm radius 3.5 cm. If OD = 2 cm.,
find the area of the shaded region. O
22
(use )
.
O B
7 cm
3.5 cm 30°
7
C D
7. AB and CD are respectively arcs of two concentric circles of radii
21 cm
21 cm. and 7 cm. with centre O (See figure). If AOB = 30°, find
.
22
the area of the shaded region. (use )
7
D C A B
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Prove that the angle between the two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle is
supplementary to the angle subtended by the line segment joining the points of contact at
the centre.
2. PQ is a chord of length 8cm of a circle of radius 5cm. The
tangents at P and Q intersect at a point T (See figure). Find . O
5 cm
the length of TP. P
8 cm.
Q
3. Prove that opposite sides of a quadrilateral circumscribing a
circle subtend supplementary angles at the centre of the circle.
4. Draw a line segment AB of length 8cm. Taking A as centre,
draw a circle of radius 4cm and taking B as centre, draw
another circle of radius 3cm. Construct tangents to each circle
from the centre of the other circle. T
Mensuration
10.1 I NTRODUCTION
In classes VIII and IX, we have learnt about area, surface area and
volume of solid shapes. We did many exercises to understand what they
mean. We used them in real life situations and identified what we needed
and what was to be measured or estimated. For example, to find the quantity
of paint required to white wash a room, we need the surface area and not
the volume. To find the number of boxes that would contains a quantity of
grain, we need the volume and not the area.
T RY T HIS
1. Consider the following situations. In each find out whether you need volume or area and
why?
i. Quantitiy of water inside a bottle. ii. Canvas needed for making a tent.
iii. Number of bags inside the lorry. iv. Gas filled in a cylinder.
v. Number of match sticks that can be put in the match box.
2. Write 5 more such examples and ask your friends to choose what they need?
We see so many things of different shapes (combination of two or more) around us. Houses
stand on pillars, storage water tanks are cylindrical and are placed on cuboidal foundations, a
cricket bat has a cylindrical handle and a flat main body, etc. Think of different things around you.
Some of these are shown below:
246 Class-X Mathematics
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Of these objects like football have shapes where we know that the surface area and volume.
We can however see that other objects can be seen as combinations of the solid shapes. So,
their surface area and volume we now have to find. The table of the solid shapes, their areas and
volumes are given later.
T RY T HIS
1. Break the pictures in the previous figure into solids of known shapes.
2. Think of 5 more things around you that can be seen as a combination
of shapes. Name the shapes that combine to make them.
Let us recall the surface areas and volumes of different solid shapes.
Now, let us see some examples to illustrate the shapes in the table.
Example-1. The radius of a conical tent is 7 meters and its height is 10 meters. Calculate the
22
length of canvas used in making the tent if width of canvas is 2m. Use
7
= 49 100
= 149 = 12.2 m.
22
7 12.2 m 2
7
= 268.4 m2.
Area of canvas used = 268.4m2
It is given the width of the canvas = 2m
Area 268.4
Length of canvas used = 134.2m
width 2
Example-2. An oil drum is in the shape of a cylinder having the following dimensions: diameter
is 2 m. and height is 7 meters. The painter charges D3 per m2 to paint the drum. Find the
total charges to be paid to the painter for 10 drums ?
Solution : It is given that diameter of the (oil drum) cylinder = 2 m.
d 2
Radius of cylinder = 1 m
2 2
Total surface area of a cylinderical drum = 2 r(r + h)
22
2 1(1 7 )
7
22
=2 8
7
352 2
= m . = 50.28 m2
7
So, the total surface area of a drum = 50.28 m2
Painting change per 1m2 = D3.
Cost of painting of 10 drums = 50.28 3 10
= D1508.40
Example-3. A sphere, a cylinder and a cone are of the same radius and same height. Find the
ratio of their curved surface areas?
Solution : Let r be the common radius of a sphere, a cone and cylinder.
Height of sphere = its diameter = 2r.
Then, the height of the cone = height of cylinder = height of sphere.
= 2r.
= r 2 (2r )2 5r
S1 : S2 : S3 = 4r2 : 4r2: 5 r
2
=4:4: 5
Example-4. A company wanted to manufacture 1000 hemispherical basins from a thin steel
sheet. If the radius of hemisperical basin is 21 cm., find the required area of steel sheet to
manufacture the above hemispherical basins?
Solution : Radius of the hemisphesical basin (r) = 21 cm
Surface area of a hemispherical basin
= 2r2
22
2 21 × 21
7
= 2772 cm2.
Example-5. A right circular cylinder has base radius 14cm and height 21cm.
Find: (i) Area of base or area of each end (ii) Curved surface area
(iii) Total surface area and (iv) Volume of the right circular cylinder.
Solution : Radius of the cylinder (r) = 14cm
Height of the cylinder (h) = 21cm
22
Now (i) Area of base(area of each end) r2 = (14)2 = 616 cm2
7
22
(ii) Curved surface area = 2rh = 2 14 21 = 1848cm .
2
7
(iii) Total surface area = 2 area of the base + curved surface area
= 2 616 + 1848 = 3080 cm2.
(iv) Volume of cylinder = r2h = area of the base height
= 616 21 = 12936 cm3.
22
Example-6. Find the volume and surface area of a sphere of radius 2.1cm ( = )
7
Solution : Radius of sphere(r) = 2.1 cm
Surface area of sphere = 4r2
22 22 21 21
= 4 (2.1) 2 4
7 7 10 10
1386
55.44 cm 2
25
4 3 4 22
Volume of sphere = r (2.1)3
3 3 7
4 22
2.1 2.1 2.1 38.808 cm3.
3 7
Example-7. Find the volume and the total surface area of a hemisphere of radius 3.5 cm.
22
7
7
Solution : Radius of sphere (r) is 3.5 cm = cm
2
2 3
Volume of hemisphere = r
3
2 22 7 7 7 539
89.83 cm3
3 7 2 2 2 6
Total surface area = 3r2
22 7 7 231
3 = = 115.5 cm2
7 2 2 2
EXERCISE - 10.1
1. A joker’s cap is in the form of right circular cone whose base radius is 7cm and height is 24
cm. Find the area of the sheet required to make 10 such caps.
2. A sports company was ordered to prepare 100 paper cylinders without caps for shuttle
cocks. The required dimensions of the cylinder are 35 cm length /height and its radius is
7 cm. Find the required area of thin paper sheet needed to make 100 cylinders?
3. Find the volume of right circular cone with radius 6 cm. and height 7cm.
4. The lateral surface area of a cylinder is equal to the curved surface area of a cone. If the
radius be the same, find the ratio of the height of the cylinder and slant height of the cone.
5. Aself help group wants to manufacture joker’s caps (conical caps) of 3cm. radius and
4 cm. height. If the available colour paper sheet is 1000 cm2, than how many caps can be
manufactured from that paper sheet?
6. A cylinder and cone have bases of equal radii and are of equal heights. Show that their
volumes are in the ratio of 3:1.
7. A solid iron rod has a cylinderical shape. Its height is 11 cm. and base diameter is 7cm.
Then find the total volume of 50 rods?
8. A heap of rice is in the form of a cone of diameter 12 m. and height 8 m. Find its volume?
How much canvas cloth is required to cover the heap ? (Use = 3.14)
9. The curved surface area of a cone is 4070 cm2 and its diameter is 70 cm. What is its slant
height?
10.2 S URFACE A REA OF THE C OMBINATION OF S OLIDS
We have seen solids which are made up of combination
of solids known like sphere cylinder and cone. We can observe
in our real life also like wooden things, house items, medicine
capsules, bottles, oil-tankers etc., We eat ice-cream in our daily
life. Can you tell how many solid figures are there in it? It is
usually made up of cone and hemisphere.
Lets take another example of an oil-tanker/
water-tanker. Is it a single shaped object? You
may guess that it is made up of a cylinder with
two hemisphere at it ends.
If, for some reason you wanted to find the
surface areas or volumes or capacities of such
objects, how would you do it? We cannot classify these shapes under any of the solids you have
already studied.
As we have seen, the oil-tanker was made up of a cylinder with two hemispheres stuck at
either end. It will look like the following figure:
First, he should take a cone and hemisphere and bring their flat faces together. Here, of
course, he should take the base radius of the cone equal to the radius of the hemisphere, for the
toy is to have a smooth surface. So, the steps would be as shown below:
At the end, he got a nice round-bottomed toy. Now, if he wants to find how much paint he
should be required to colour the surface of the toy, what should he know? He needs to know the
surface area of the toy, which consists of the CSA of the hemisphere and the CSA of the cone.
So, we can say that
TSA of the toy = CSA of Hemisphere + CSA of cone
T RY T HIS
- Use known solid shapes and make as many objects (by combining more than two) as
possible that you come across in your daily life.
[Hint : Use clay, or balls, pipes, paper cones, boxes like cube, cuboid etc]
T HINK - D ISCUSS
A sphere is inscribed in a cylinder. Is the surface of the sphere equal to
the curved surface of the cylinder? If yes, explain how?
Example-8. A right triangle, whose base and height are 15 cm. and 20 cm. respectively is
made to revolve about its hypotenuse. Find the volume and surface area of the double cone so
formed (Use =3.14).
Solution : Let ABC be the right angled triangle such that
AB = 15cm and AC = 20 cm
Using Pythagoras theorem in ABC we have
BC2 = AB2 + AC2
BC = 625 = 25 cm.
Let OA = x and OB = y.
In triangles ABO and ABC, we have BOA = BAC and ABO = ABC
So , by angle - angle - criterion of similarity, we have BOA ~ BAC
BO OA BA
Therefore, A
BA AC BC
. 20
cm cm
y x 15 .
15 x
15 20 25 y
B O 25 cm. C
y x 3
15 20 5
m.
.
c
cm
20
y 3 x 3
15
and
15 5 20 5 A|
3 3
y 15 and x 20
5 5
y = 9 and x = 12.
Thus, we have
OA = 12 cm and OB = 9cm
When the ABC is revolved about the hypotenuse. we get a double cone as shown in
figure.
Volume of the double cone = volume of the cone CAA| + volume of the cone BAA|
1 1
(OA) 2 OC+ (OA) 2 OB
3 3
1 1
122 16 122 9
3 3
1
144(16 9)
3
1
3.14 144 25 cm
3
3
= 3768 cm3.
Surface area of the doubled cone = (Curved surface area of cone CAA| )
+ (Curved surface area of cone BAA| )
= ( OA AC) + ( OA AB)
= ( 12 20) + ( 12 15) cm2
= 420 cm2
= 420 3.14 cm2
= 1318.8 cm2.
Example-9. A wooden toy rocket is in the shape of a cone mounted on a cylinder as shown in
the adjacent figure. The height of the entire rocket is 26 cm, while the height of the conical part is
6cm. The base of the conical position has a diameter of 5cm, while the base diameter of the
cylindrical portion is 3cm. If the conical portion is to be painted orange and the cylindrical
portion is to be painted yellow, find the area of the rocket painted with each of these colour
(Take = 3.14)
Solution : Let ‘r’ be the radius of the base of the cone and its slant height be ‘l’. Further, let r1
be the radius of cylinder and h1 be its height
We have,
r = 2.5 cm., h = 6 cm.
r1 = 1.5 cm. h1 = 20 cm.
2.5 cm.
Now, l r 2 h2
l (2.5)2 62
1.5 cm.
l 6.25 36 = 42.25 = 6.5
Now, area to be painted orange
= Curved surface area of the cone
= rl
= 3.14 {2.5 × 6.5}
= 51.025 cm2
Area to be painted yellow
= Curved surface area of the cylinder + Area of the base of the cylinder
= 2r1h1 + r12
EXERCISE - 10.2
1. A toy is in the form of a cone mounted on a hemisphere. The diameter of the base and the
height of the cone are 6 cm and 4 cm respectively. Determine the surface area of the toy.
[use = 3.14]
2. A solid is in the form of a right circular cylinder with a hemisphere at one end and a cone at
the other end. The radius of the common base is 8 cm. and the heights of the cylindrical
and conical portions are 10 cm and 6 cm respectivly. Find the total surface area of the
solid. [use = 3.14]
4. Two cubes each of volume 64 cm3 are joined end to end together. Find the total surface
area of the resulting cuboid.
5. A storage tank consists of a circular cylinder with a hemisphere stuck on either end. If the
external diameter of the cylinder be 1.4 m. and its length be 8 m. find the cost of painting
it on the outside at rate of D20 per m2.
6. A hemisphere is cut out from one face of a cubical wooden block such that the diameter of
the hemisphere is equal to the length of the cube. Determine the surface area of the remaining
solid.
7. A wooden article was made by scooping out a hemisphere from each end
of a solid cylinder, as shown in the figure. If the height of the cylinder is
10 cm. and its base radius is of 3.5 cm, find the total surface area of the
article.
T RY T HIS
1. If the diameter of the cross - section of a wire is decreased by 5%, by what percentage
should the length be increased so that the volume remains the same ?
2. Surface area of a sphere and cube are equal. Then find the ratio of their volumes.
4.2 21
Radius (r) = = 2.1 = cm
2 10
Volume of the solid toy
= Volume of the Cone + Volume of the Cylinder + Volume of the Hemisphere.
1 2 2
= r h1 r 2 h2 r 3
3 3
2 1 2
= r h1 h2 r
3 3
h
22 21 1 2 21
2
7 12
7 10 3 3 10 r
22 441 7 12 7
7 100 3 1 5
h
22 441 35 180 21
7 100 15
Example-11. A cylindrical container is filled with ice-cream whose diameter is 12 cm. and
height is 15 cm. The whole ice-cream is distributed to 10 children in equal cones having
hemispherical tops. If the height of the conical portion is twice the diameter of its base, find
the diameter of the ice-cream cone.
Solution : Let the radius of the base of conical ice cream = x cm
diameter = 2x cm
Then, the height of the conical ice-cream
= 2 (diameter) = 2(2x) = 4x cm
Volume of ice - cream cone
= Volume of conical porton + Volume of hemispherical portion
x cm.
1 2 3
= r2h + r
3 3 x cm.
1 2 2
x (4 x) x 3
3 3
x3 = 33
x=3
Diameter of ice-cream cone 2x = 2(3) = 6cm
22
Take .
7
2 3 2 16
Volume of Hemisphere = r 23 cm3
3 3 3
1 2 1 16
Volume of Cone = r h 22 4 cm3
3 3 3 4
16 16 L M
Volume of cone and hemisphere = π+ π 2 2
3 3 2
A 3 3 B
N
32
= π
3
Volume of water left in cylinder
= Volume of Cylinder - Volume of Cone and Hemisphere
32
= Volume of cylinder
3
32
= 54
3
162 32 130
=
3 3
130 22 2860
136.19cm3
3 7 21
Example-13. A cylindrical pencil is sharpened to produce a perfect cone at one end with no
over all loss of its length. The diameter of the pencil is 1cm and the length of the conical
portion is 2cm. Calculate the volume of the shavings. Give your answer correct to two
355
places if it is in decimal use
113
.
Solution : Diameter of the pencil = 1cm
So, radius of the pencil (r) = 0.5 cm
Length of the conical portion = h = 2cm
Volume of showings = Volume of cylinder of length 2 cm and base radius 0.5 cm.
volume of the cone formed by this cylinder
1 2 2 2
= r h r h r h
2
3 3
1 cm .
2 355
= (0.5) 2 2 cm3 1.05 cm3
3 113
E XERCISE -10.3
1. An iron pillar consists of a cylindrical portion of 2.8 m. height and 20 cm. in diameter and
a cone of 42 cm. height surmounting it. Find the weight of the pillar if 1 cm3 of iron weighs
7.5 g.
2. A toy is made in the form of hemisphere surmounted by a right cone whose circular base is
joined with the plane surface of the hemisphere. The radius of the base of the cone is
3
7 cm. and its volume is of the hemisphere. Calculate the height of the cone and the
2
1
surface area of the toy correct to 2 places of decimal Take 3 .
7
3. Find the volume of the largest right circular cone that can be cut out of a cube whose edge
is 7 cm.
the molton wax into another container shaped like a sphere. On cooling, you will obtain a candle
in the shape of sphere. The volume of the new candle will be the same as the volume of the
earlier candle. This is what we have to remember when we come across objects which are
converted from one shape to another, or when a liquid which originally filled a container of a
particular shape is poured into another container of a different shape or size as you observe in the
following figures.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Example-14. A cone of height 24cm and radius of base 6cm is made up of modelling clay. A
child reshapes it in the form of a sphere. Find the radius of the sphere.
1
Solution : Volume of cone = 6 6 24 cm
3
4 3
If r is the radius of the sphere, then its volume is r
3
Since the volume of clay in the form of the cone and the sphere remains the same, we have
4 3 1
r = π × 6 × 6 × 24
3 3
r3 = 3 3 24 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 8
r3 = 33 23
r=3 2=6
Therefore the radius of the sphere is 6cm.
D O T HIS
1. A copper rod of diameter 1 cm. and length 8 cm. is drawn into a wire of length 18m of
uniform thickness. Find the thickness of the wire.
2. Pravali house has a water tank in the shape of a cylinder on the roof. This is filled by
pumping water from a sump (an under ground tank) which is in the shape of a cuboid.
The sump has dimensions 1.57 m. 1.44 m. 9.5 cm. The water tank has radius 60
cm. and height 95 cm. Find the height of the water left in the sump after the water tank
has been completely filled with water from the sump which had been full of water.
Compare the capacity of the tank with that of the sump. ( = 3.14)
Example-15. The diameter of the internal and external surfaces of a hollow hemispherical shell
are 6 cm. and 10 cm. respectively. It is melted and recast into a solid cylinder of diameter 14 cm.
Find the height of the cylinder.
10
Solution : Radius of Hollow hemispherical shell = = 5 cm. = R
2
6 10 cm. 6 cm.
Internal radius of hollow hemispherical shell = = 3 cm. = r
2
Volume of hollow hemispherical shell
= External volume - Internal volume
2 2
R3 r3
3 3
2
(R 3 r 3 ) r
3
2
(53 33 )
3
2 r
(125 27)
3
2 196 3
98 cm3 cm ...(1)
3 3
Since, this hollow hemispherical shell is melted and recast into a solid cylinder. So their
volumes must be equal
Diameter of cylinder = 14 cm. (Given)
So, radius of cylinder = 7 cm.
196
49 h [From equatiion (1) and (2)]
3
196 4
h cm.
3 49 3
Hence, height of the cylinder = 1.33 cm.
Example-16. A hemispherical bowl of internal radius 15 cm. contains a liquid. The liquid is to
be filled into cylindrical bottles of diameter 5 cm. and height 6 cm. How many bottles are
necessary to empty the bowl ?
2 3
Solution : Volume of hemisphere = r
3
Internal radius of hemisphere r = 15 cm.
volume of liquid contained in hemispherical bowl
2
= (15)3 cm 3
3
= 2250 cm3.
This liquid is to be filled in cylindrical bottles and the height of each bottle (h) = 6 cm.
5
Radius of cylindrical bottle (R) = cm.
2
Volume of 1 cylindrical bottle = R2h
5
2
6
2
25 75
6 cm3 cm3
4 2
2250 2 2250
= = 60 .
75 75
2
Example-17. The diameter of a metallic sphere is 6cm. It is melted and drawn into a wire
having diameter of the cross section as 0.2 cm. Find the length of the wire.
Solution : We have, diameter of metallic sphere = 6cm
Radius of metallic sphere = 3cm
Also, we have,
0.2 cm.
6 cm.
1 4
2
h 27
10 3
1
h 36
100
36 100
h cm
= 3600 cm. = 36 m.
Therefore, the length of the wire is 36 m.
Example-18. How many spherical balls can be made out of a solid cube of lead whose edge
measures 44 cm and each ball being 4 cm. in diameter.
Solution : Side of lead cube = 44 cm.
4
Radius of spherical ball = cm. = 2 cm.
2
4 3
Now volume of a spherical ball = r
3
4 22 3
= 2 cm3
3 7
4 22
8 cm 3
3 7
4 22
Volume of x sperical ball 8 x cm3
3 7
It is clear that volume of x sperical balls = Volume of lead cube
4 22
8 x = (44)3
3 7
4 22
8 x = 44 44 44
3 7
44 44 44 3 7
x=
4 22 8
x = 2541
Hence, total number of sperical balls = 2541.
Example-19. A women self help group (DWACRA) is supplied a rectangular solid (cuboid
shape) of wax with dimentions 66 cm., 42 cm., 21 cm., to prepare cylindrical candles each
4.2 cm. in diameter and 2.8 cm. of height. Find the number of candles.
Solution : Volume of wax in the rectangular solid = lbh
= (66 42 21) cm3.
4.2
Radius of cylindrical candle = cm. = 2.1 cm.
2
Height of cylindrical candle = 2.8 cm.
22
= (2.1) 2 2.8
7
22
Volume of x cylindrical wax candles = 2.1 2.1 2.8 x
7
Volume of x cylindrical candles = volume of wax in rectangular shape
22
2.1 2.1 2.8 x 66 42 21
7
66 42 21 7
x
22 2.1 2.1 2.8
= 1500
Hence, the number of cylindrical wax candles is 1500.
EXERCISE - 10.4
1. A metallic sphere of radius 4.2 cm. is melted and recast into the shape of a cylinder of
radius 6cm. Find the height of the cylinder.
2. Metallic spheres of radius 6 cm., 8 cm. and 10 cm. respectively are melted to form a
single solid sphere. Find the radius of the resulting sphere.
3. A 20m deep well with diameter 7 m. is dug and the earth from digging is evenly spread out
to form a platform 22 m. 14 m. Find the height of the platform.
4. A well of diameter 14 m. is dug 15 m. deep. The earth taken out of it has been spread
evenly all around it in the shape of a circular ring of width 7 m. to form an embankment.
Find the height of the embankment.
5. A container shaped like a right circular cylinder having diameter 12 cm. and height 15 cm.
is full of ice cream. The icecream is to be filled into cones of height 12 cm. and diameter
6 cm., having a hemispherical shape on the top. Find the number of such cones which can
be filled with ice cream.
6. How many silver coins, 1.75 cm. in diameter and thickness 2 mm., need to be melted to
form a cuboid of dimensions 5.5 cm. 10 cm. 3.5 cm.?
7. A vessel is in the form of an inverted cone. Its height is 8 cm. and the radius of its top is 5
cm. It is filled with water up to the rim. When lead shots, each of which is a sphere of
1
radius 0.5cm are dropped into the vessel, of the water flows out. Find the number of
4
lead shots dropped into the vessel.
8. A solid metallic sphere of diameter 28 cm is melted and recast into a number of smaller
2
cones, each of diameter 4 cm and height 3cm. Find the number of cones so formed.
3
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination purpose]
1. A golf ball has diameter equal to 4.1 cm. Its surface has 150 dimples each of radius 2 mm.
Calculate total surface area which is exposed to the surroundings. (Assume that the dimples
22
are all hemispherical)
7
2. A cylinder of radius 12 cm. contains water to a depth of 20 cm. A spherical iron ball is
dropped in to the cylinder and thus the level of water is raised by 6.75 cm. Find the radius
22
of the ball.
7
3. A solid toy is in the form of a right circular cylinder with a hemispherical shape at one end
and a cone at the other end. Their common diameter is 4.2 cm. and height of the cylindrical
and concial portion are 12 cm. and 7 cm. respectively. Find the volume of the solid
22
toy.
7
4. Three metal cubes with edges 15 cm., 12 cm. and 9 cm. respectively are melted together
and formed into a simple cube. Find the diagonal of this cube.
5. A hemispherical bowl of internal diameter 36 cm. contains a liquid. This liquid is to be filled
in cylindrical bottles of radius 3 cm. and height 6 cm. How many bottles are required to
empty the bowl?
Trigonometry
The above examples are geometrically showing the application part of triangles in our daily
life and we can measure the heights, distances and slopes by using the properties of triangles.
These types of problems are part of ‘trigonometry’ which is a branch of mathematics.
Now look at the example of a person who is white washing the wall with the help of a
ladder as shown in the previous figure. Let us observe the following conditions.
We denote the foot of the ladder by A and top of it by C and the point of joining height
C
of the wall and base of the ladder as B. Therefore, ABC is a right angle triangle with
right angle at B. The angle between ladder and base is said to be .
l What happens to the angle made by the ladder with the ground?
We have observed in the above example of a person who was white washing. When he
wants to paint at higher or lower points, he should change the position of ladder. So, when ‘’ is
increased, the height also increases and the base decreases. But, when is decreased, the height
also decreases and the base increases. Do you agree with this statement?
Here, we have seen a right angle triangle ABC and have given ordinary names to all sides
and angles. Now let’s name the sides again because trigonometric ratios of angles are based on
sides only.
D O T HIS
Identify “Hypotenuse”, “Opposite side” and “Adjacent side” for the given angles in
the given triangles.
1. For angle R 2. (i) For angle X
P
(ii) For angle Y
Q R
T RY T HIS
C
Write lengths of “Hypotenuse”, “Opposite side” and
“Adjacent side” for the given angles in the given triangles.
1. For angle C
2. For angle A
B A
What do you observe? Is there any relation between the opposite side of the angle A and
adjacent side of angle C? Like this, suppose you are erecting a pole by giving support of strong
ropes. Is there any relationship between the length of the rope and the length of the pole? Here,
we have to understand the relationship between the sides and angles we will study this under the
section called trigonometric ratios.
A CTIVITY
S
1. Draw a horizontal line on a paper. R
Q
2. Let the initial point be A and mark
P
other points B, C, D and E at a distance
of 3cm, 6cm, 9cm, 12cm
respectively from A.
3. Draw the perpendiculars A
lengths 4cm, 8cm, 12cm, 16cm from the points B, C, D and E respectively.
BP CQ DR ES
Then find the ratios of , , and .
AP AQ AR AS
4
Did you get the same ratio as ?
5
AB AC AD AE
Similarly try to find the ratios , , and ? What do you observe?
AP AQ AR AS
In the above activity, when we observe right angle triangles ABP, ACQ, ADR and AES,
A is common, B, C, D and E are right angles and P,, Q, R and S are
also equal. Hence, we can say that triangles ABP, ACQ, ADR and AES are similar triangles.
When we observe the ratio of opposite side of angle A and hypotenuse in a right angle triangle
and the ratio of similar sides in another triangle, it is found to be constant in all the above right
BP CQ DR ES
angle triangles ABP, ACQ, ADR and AES. And the ratios , , and can be
AP AQ AR AS
named as “sine A” or simply “sin A” in those triangles. If the value of angle A is “x” when it was
Hence, we can conclude that the ratio of opposite side of an angle (measure of the angle)
and length of the hypotenuse is constant in all similar right angle triangles. This ratio will
be named as “sine” of that angle.
AB AC AD AE
Similarly, when we observe the ratios , , and , it is also found to be
AP AQ AR AS
constant. And these are the ratios of the adjacent sides of the angle A and hypotenuses in right
AB AC AD AE
angle triangles ABP, ACQ, ADR and AES. So, the ratios , , and will be
AP AQ AR AS
named as “cosine A” or simply “cos A” in those triangles. If the value of the angle A is “x”, then
Hence, we can also conclude that the ratio of the adjacent side of an angle (measure of the
angle) and length of the hypotenuse is constant in all similar right triangles. This ratio
will be named as “cosine” of that angle.
Similarly, the ratio of opposite side and adjacent side of an angle is constant and it can be
named as “tangent” of that angle.
Consider a right angle triangle ABC having right angle at B as shown in the following figure.
Then, trigonometric ratios of the angle A in right angle triangle ABC are defined as follows :
A B
Length of the side opposite to angle A BC
tangent of A = tan A =
Length of the side adjacent to angle A AB
D O T HIS
T RY T HIS
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Discuss with your friends
4
(i) sin x = does exist for some value of angle x?
3
(ii) The value of sin A and cos A is always less than 1. Why?
(iii) tan A is product of tan and A.
There are three more ratios defined in trigonometry which are considered as multiplicative
inverse of the above three ratios.
Similarly, multiplicative inverses of “cos A” is secant A” (simply written as “sec A”) and
T RY T HIS
What will be the ratios of sides for sec A and cot A?
T HINK - D ISCUSS
AC = 25k 2
= 5k = Hypotenuse
3k 3 4k 4
sin A = and cos A =
5k 5 5k 5
1 5 1 5 1 4
And also cosec A = , sec A = , cot A = .
sin A 3 cos A 4 tan A 3
Example-2. In ABC and PQR, if A and P are acute angles such that sin A = sin P then
prove that A = P
BC
we have sin A =
AC
QR
and sin P =
PQ A B P R
BC QR
Then
AC PQ
BC QR
Let =k
AC PQ
By using Pythagoras theorem
AB AC 2 BC 2 AC 2 k 2 AC 2 AC
= = = (From (1))
PR PQ QR
2 2
PQ k PQ
2 2 2
PQ
Therefore, A P
Example-3. Consider a triangle PQR, right angled at R, in which PQ = 29 units, QR = 21 units
and PQR = , then find the values of
(i) cos2 + sin2 and (ii) cos2 sin2
Free Distribution by A.P. Government
www.apteachers.in Trigonometry 277
= 400 = 20 units 29
21
PR 20
sin =
PQ 29 P R
QR 21
cos
PQ 29
21 20 441 400
2 2
21 20 41
2 2
EXERCISE - 11.1
1. In right angle triangle ABC, 8 cm, 15 cm and 17 cm are the lengths of AB, BC and CA
respectively. Then, find out sin A, cos A and tan A.
2. The sides of a right angle triangle PQR are PQ = 7 cm, QR = 25cm and P = 90o
respectively. Then find, tan Q tan R.
3. In a right angle triangle ABC with right angle at B, in which a = 24 units, b = 25 units and
BAC = . Then, find cos and tan .
12
4. If cos A = , then find sin A and tan A.
13
6. In ABC and XYZ, if A and X are acute angles such that cos A = cos X then
show that A = X.
7 (1 sin ) (1 sin ) (1 sin )
7. Given cot = , then evaluate (i) (ii)
8 (1 cos ) (1 cos ) cos
8. In a right angle triangle ABC, right angle is at B, if tan A = 3 then find the value of
(i) sin A cos C + cos A sin C (ii) cos A cos C sin A sin C
We already know about isosceles right angle triangle and right angle triangle with angles
30º, 60º and 90º.
Can we find sin 30o or tan 60o or cos 45o etc. with the help of these triangles?
Does sin 0o or cos 0o exist?
= a2 + a2 = 2a2,
Therefore, AC = a 2 B
C
Using the definitions of trigonometric ratios,
Like this you can determine the values of cosec 45o, sec 45o and cot 45o.
A
11.3.2 T RIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF 30 O
AND 60 O
Consider an equilateral triangle ABC. Since each angle is 60o in an equilateral triangle,
we have A = B = C = 60o and the sides of equilateral triangle is AB = BC = CA = 2a
units.
Draw the perpendicular line AD from vertex A to BC as shown in the adjacent figure.
Perpendicular AD acts as “angle bisector of angle A” and “bisector of the side BC” in the
equilateral triangle ABC.
Therefore, BAD = CAD = 30o .
Since point D divides the side BC into equal halves,
1 2a
BD = BC a units.
2 2
Consider right angle triangle ABD in the above given figure.
We have AB = 2a and BD = a
Then AD2 = AB2 BD2 by (Pythagoras theorem)
= (2a)2 (a)2 = 3a2.
Therefore, AD = a 3
From definitions of trigonometric ratios,
AD a 3 3
sin 60o =
AB 2a 2
BD a 1
cos 60o =
AB 2a 2
So, similarly tan 60o = 3
Like the above, you can also determine the reciprocals, cosec 60o, sec 60o and cot 60o
by using the ratio concepts.
D O T HIS
Find cosec 60o, sec 60o and cot 60o.
T RY T HIS
Find sin 30o, cos30o, tan 30o, cosec 30o, sec30o and cot 30o by using the ratio
concepts.
A A
B B
If A = 0o then BC = 0 and AC = AB = r
0 r
then sin 0o = = 0 and cos 0o = = 1
r r
sin A
we know that tan A =
cos A
sin 0o 0
So, tan0o = 0
cos 0o 1
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1
2. What can you say about cot 0o = . Is it defined? Why ?
tan 0º
3. sec 0o = 1. Why ?
adjacent side of the angle) would become zero (0), the height of C from AB ray increases and it
would be equal to AC and that is the length equal to r.
T RY T HIS
Find the ratios for tan 90o, cosec 90o, sec 90o and cot 90o.
Now, let us see the values of trigonometric ratios of all the above discussed angles in the
form of a table.
Table 11.1
1 1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2
1
tan A 0 1 3 not defined
3
1
cot A not defined 3 1 0
3
2
sec A 1 2 2 not defined
3
2
cosec A not defined 2 2 1
3
T HINK - D ISCUSS
What can you say about the values of sin A and cos A,
as the value of angle A increases from 0o to 90o?
(Observe the above table)
If A > B, then sin A > sin B. Is it true ?
If A > B, then cos A > cos B. Is it true ? Discuss.
Example-4. In ABC, right angle is at B, AB = 5 cm and ACB = 30o. Determine the lengths
of the sides BC and AC.
Solution : Given AB=5 cm and A
ACB=30 . To find the length of side BC,
o
opposite to angle C.
Therefore,
AB B C
= tan C
BC
5 1
i.e. = tan 30o =
BC 3
which gives BC = 5 3 cm
AC2 = 52 + 5 3 2
AC2 = 25 + 75
AC = 100 = 10 cm
Example-5. A chord of a circle of radius 6cm is making an angle 60o at the centre. Find the
length of the chord.
AOB = 60o
PQ
Therefore, = sin R
PR
3 1
or sin R =
6 2 Q R
Note : If one of the sides and any other part (either an acute angle or any side) of a right angle
triangle is known, the remaining sides and angles of the triangle can be determined.
1 1
Example-7. If sin (A B) = , cos (A + B) = , 0o < A + B < 90o, A > B, find A and B.
2 2
1
Solution : Since sin (A B) = , therefore, A B = 30o (why?)
2
1
Also, since cos (A + B) = , therefore, A + B = 60o (why?)
2
EXERCISE - 11.2
1 tan 2 45o
(ii)
1 tan 2 45o
(a) tan 90o (b) 1 (c) sin 45o (d) 0
2 tan 30o
(iii)
1 tan 2 30o
(a) cos 60o (b) sin 60o (c) tan 60o (d) sin 30o
3. Evaluate sin 60o cos 30o + sin 30o cos 60o. What is the value of sin(60o + 30o). What
can you conclude ?
4. Is it right to say cos(60o + 30o) = cos 60o cos30o sin 60o sin 30o.
5. In right angle triangle PQR, right angle is at Q and PQ = 6cms RPQ = 60o.
Determine the lengths of QR and PR.
6. In XYZ, right angle is at Y, YZ = x, and XZ = 2x then determine YXZ and
YZX.
7. Is it right to say that sin (A + B) = sin A + sin B? Justify your answer.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
cos cos
For which value of acute angle (i) 4 is true?
1 sin 1 sin
For which value of 0o < < 90o, above equation is not defined?
BC AB BC
sin x = cos x = tan x =
AC AC AB
AC AC AB
cosec x = sec x = cot x =
BC AB BC
AB BC AB
sin(90o x) = cos(90o x) = tan(90o x) =
AC AC BC
AC AC BC
Cosec(90o x) = sec(90o x) = cot(90o x) =
AB BC AB
Now, if we compare the ratios of angles x and (90o x) from the above values of
different triginometric terms.
AB BC
sin(90o x) = = cos x and cos(90o x) = = sin x
AC AC
AB BC
tan(90o x) = = cot x and cot(90o x) = = tan x
BC AB
AC AC
cosec(90o x) = = sec x and sec(90o x) = = cosec x
AB BC
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Check and discuss the above relations in the case of angles between 0º and 90º,
whether they hold for these angles or not?
sec35o sec35o
Now =1
cosec55o sec35o
Example-9. If cos 7A = sin(A 6o), where 7A is an acute angle, find the value of A.
Solution : Given cos 7A = sin(A 6o) ...(1)
sin (90 7A) = sin (A 6o)
since (90 7A) & (A 6o) are both acute angles,
therefore
90o 7A = A 6o
8A = 96o
which gives A = 12o.
Example-11. Express sin 81o + tan 81o in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between
0o and 45o
Solution : We can write sin 81o = sin(90o 9o) = cos 9o
tan 81o = tan(90o 9o) = cot 9o
Then, sin 81o + tan 81o = cos 9o + cot 9o
Example-12. If A, B and C are interior angles of triangle ABC, then show that
B C A
sin cos
2 2
Solution : Given A, B and C are interior angles of right angle triangle ABC then
A + B + C = 180o.
A B C
90o
2 2
BC A
90o
2 2
On taking sin ratio on both sides
B C A
sin sin 90o
2 2
B C A
sin cos ;
2 2
Hence proved.
E XERCISE 11.3
1. Evaluate
tan 36o
(i) (ii) cos12o sin78o (iii) cosec 31o sec 59o
cot 54o
(iv) sin 15o sec 75o (vi) tan 26o tan64o
2. Show that
(i) tan 48o tan 16o tan 42o tan 74o = 1
(ii) cos36o cos 54o sin360 sin 54o = 0.
3. If tan 2A = cot(A 18o), where 2A is an acute angle. Find the value of A.
4. If tanA = cot B where A and B are acute angles, prove that A + B = 90o.
AB C
5. If A, B and C are interior angles of a triangle ABC, then show that tan cot
2 2
6. Express sin 75o + cos 65o in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0o and 45o.
We know that an identity is that mathematical equation which is true for all the values of
the variables in the equation.
For example (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab is an identity.
In the same way, an identity equation having trigonometric ratios
of an angle is called trigonometric idenitity. And it is true for all the values of
the angles involved in it.
Here, we will derive a trigonometric identity and remaining would be based on that.
Consider a right angle triangle ABC with right angle is at B, so
From Pythagoras theorem
A
We have AB + BC = AC
2 2 2
....(1)
i.e.,
AC AC AC C B
i.e., (cos A) + (sin A) = 1
2 2
AB BC AC
2 2 2
AB AB AB
i.e., 1 + tan2 A = sec2A
Similarly, on dividing (1) by BC2, we get cot2A + 1 = cosec2A.
By using above identities, we can express each trigonometric ratio in terms of another
ratio. If we know the value of a ratio, we can find all other ratios by using these identities.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Are these identities true for 00 < A < 900 ? If not, for which values of A they are true?
D O T HIS
15 5
(i) If sin A = , then find cos A. (ii) If tan x = , then find sec x.
17 12
25
(iii) If cosec = , then find cot .
7
T RY T HIS
cos sin
(why ?)
sin cos
cos 2 sin 2
sin cos
1
(why ?)
sin cos
1 1
cosec sec
sin cos
1 cos
Example-15. Prove that = cosec + cot
1 cos
1 cos
Solution : LHS = (multiply and divide by 1 + cos )
1 cos
1 cos 1 cos
.
1 cos 1 cos
(1 cos )2
1 cos 2
(1 cos )2
(Why ?)
sin 2
1 cos
sin
1 cos
cosec cot R.H.S.
sin sin
EXERCISE 11.4
1 cos
2. Show that (cosec cot )2 =
1 cos
1 sin A
3. Show that sec A tan A
1 sin A
1 tan 2 A
4. Show that tan 2 A
cot A 1
2
1
5. Show that cos tan .sin
cos
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
sin cos 1 1
2. Prove that using the identity sec2 = 1 + tan2 .
sin cos 1 s ec tan
1
3. Prove that (cosec A sin A) (sec A cos A) =
tan A cot A
1 sec A sin 2 A
4. Prove that .
sec A 1 cos A
1 tan 2 A 1 tan 2 A
2
Show that
1 cot 2 A 1 cot A
5. = = tan2 A
1 1 sin A 1
2. cosec A = ; s ecA = ; tan A = ; tan A =
sin A cos A cos A cot A
3. If one of the trignometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining trignometric
ratios of the angle can be determined.
4. The trignometric ratios for angle 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o and 90o.
5. The value of sin A or cos A never exceeds 1, whereas the value of sec A or cosec A is
always greater than or equal to 1.
6. sin (90o A) = cos A, cos (90o A) = sin A
tan (90o A) = cot A, cot (90o A) = tan A
sec A (90o A) = cosec A, cosec (90o A) = sec A
7. sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A tan2 A = 1 for 0o < A < 90o
cosec2 A cot2 A = 1 for 0o < A < 90o
12
www.apteachers.in
Applications of
Trigonometry
12.1 I NTRODUCTION
You have studied in social studies that the highest mountain peak in
the world is Mount Everest and its height is 8848 meters.
Kuntala waterfall in Adilabad district is the highest natural waterfall in
Telangana. Its height is 147 feet.
How were these heights measured? Can you measure the height of
your school building or the tallest tree in or around your school?
Angle of
To find the height of the tree, she needs to find a side
Line
elevation
Trigonometry has been used by surveyors for centuries. They use Theodolites to measure
angles of elevation or depression in the process of survey. In nineteenth century, two large
Theodolites were built by British India for the surveying project “great trigonometric survey”.
During the survey in 1852, the highest mountain peak in the world was discovered in the
Himalayas. From the distance of 160 km, the peak was observed from six different
stations and the height of the peak was calculated. In 1856, this peak was named after Sir
George Everest, who had commissioned and first used the giant Theodolites. Those
theodolites are kept in the museum of the Survey of India in Dehradun for display.
When we try to find heights and distances at an angle of elevation or depression, we need
to visualise geometrically. To find heights and distances, we need to draw figures and with the
help of these figures we can solve the problems. Let us see some examples.
Example-1. The top of a clock tower is observed at angle of elevation of o and the foot of the
tower is at the distance of d meters from the observer. Draw the diagram for this data.
B C
d d
Example-2. Rinky observes a flower on the ground from the balcony of the first floor of a
building at an angle of depression o. The height of the first floor of the building is x meters.
Draw the diagram for this data.
Solution :
D A
x
C B
1 2
D B
2
E A
D O T HIS
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. You are observing top of your school building at an angle of elevation from a point
which is at d meter distance from foot of the building.
Which trigonometric ratio would you like to consider to find the height of the building?
2. A ladder of length x meter is leaning against a wall making angle with the ground.
Which trigonometric ratio would you like to consider to find the height of the point on
the wall at which the ladder is touching?
60
O
(we know the adjacent side and we need to find the opposite side of AOB in the triangle
OAB. Hence we need to consider the trigonometric ratio “tan” to solve the problem).
AB
tan 60º =
OB
h
3 h 8 3m.
8
Example-5. Rajender observes a person standing on the ground from a helicopter at45an angle
O
of
depression 45º. If the helicopter flies at a height of 50 meters from the ground, what is the
distance of the person from Rajender? P
OA = 50 meters x
POB = OBA = 45º (why ?)
OB = distance of the person from Rajender = x.
A
45º
B
(we know the opposite side of OBA and we need to find hypotenuse OB in the triangle OAB.
Hence, we need to consider the ratio “sin”.)
OA
sin 45º =
OB
1 50
2 x
x 50 2 meters
The distance from the person to Rajendar is 50 2 m
EXERCISE - 12.1
1. A tower stands vertically on the ground. From a point which is 15 meter away from the
foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 45º. What is the height
of the tower?
2. A tree breaks due to storm and the broken part bends so that the top of the tree touches
the ground by making 30º angle with the ground. The distance between the foot of the
tree and the top of the tree on the ground is 6m. Find the height of the tree before falling
down.
3. A contractor wants to set up a slide for the children to play in the park. He wants to set
it up at the height of 2 m and by making an angle of 30º with the ground. What should be
the length of the slide?
4. Length of the shadow of a 15 meter high pole is 5 3 meters at 7 o’clock in the morning.
Then, what is the angle of elevation of the Sun rays with the ground at the time?
5. You want to erect a pole of height 10 m with the support of three ropes. Each rope has
to make an angle 30º with the pole. What should be the total length of the rope required.
6. Suppose you are shooting an arrow from the top of a building at an height of 6 m to a
target on the ground at an angle of depression of 60º. What is the distance between you
and the object?
7. An electrician wants to repair an electric connection on a pole of height 9 m. He needs
to reach 1.8 m below the top of the pole to do repair work. What should be the length
of the ladder which he should use, when he climbs it at an angle of 60º with the ground?
What will be the distance between foot of the ladder and foot of the pole?
8. A boat has to cross a river. It crosses the river by making an angle of 60º with the bank
of the river due to the stream of the river and travels a distance of 600m to reach the
another side of the river. What is the width of the river?
9. An observer of height 1.8 m is13.2 m away from a palm tree. The angle of elevation of
the top of the tree from his eyes is 45º. What is the height of the palm tree?
B
10. In the adjacent figure,
AC = 6 cm, AB = 5
cm and BAC = m
5c
30º. Find the area of
the triangle.
30º
A C
6 cm
12.3 S OLUTION FOR T WO T RIANGLES
h
1 = x = h ...(1)
x
from triangle ADC
DC
tan 30º =
AC
1 h
3 11 x
11 x
h
3
11 h
h [From (1)]
3 3
h 11
h
3 3
h
3 1 11
3 3
11
h meters.
3 1
Note : Total height of the palm tree is CD + CE where CE = AF, which is the height of the girl.
Example-6. Two men on either side of a temple of 30 meter height observe its top at the angles
of elevation 30º and 60º respectively. Find the distance between the two men.
Solution : Height of the temple BD = 30 meter.
Angle of elevation of observed by the first person BAD = 30º
Angle of elevation of observed by the second person BCD = 60º
Let the distance between the first person and the temple, AD = x and distance between the
second person and the temple, CD = d
B
From BAD From BCD
BD BD
tan 30º = tan 60º =
AB d
A 30º 60º C
1 30 30 x d
3 D
3 x d
30
x 30 3 .......... (1) d .......... (2)
3
from (1) and (2) distance between the persons = BC + BA = x + d
30 30 4 120
30 3 40 3 meter
3 3 3
Example-7. A straight highway leads to the foot of a tower. Ramaiah standing at the top of the
tower observes a car at an angle of depression 30º. The car is approaching the foot of the tower
with a uniform speed. Six seconds later, the angle of depression of the car is found to be 60º.
Find the time taken by the car to reach the foot of the tower from this point.
Solution :
Let the distance travelled by the car in 6 seconds = AB = x meters
Heights of the tower CD = h meters
The remaining distance to be travelled by the car BC = d meters
and AC = AB + BC = (x + d) meters
PDA = DAC = 30º (why?)
PDB = DBC = 60º (why?)
From BCD
h
3 h
d
h 3d ...(1)
From ACD 30º
60º
C A
B
CD
tan 30º
d
AC
1 h
3 (x d )
(x d )
h ...(2)
3
From (1) & (2), we have
xd
3d
3
x + d = 3d
x = 2d
x
d
2
Time taken to travel ‘x’ meters = 6 seconds.
Time taken to travel the distance of ‘d’ meters
x
i.e., meters = 3 seconds.
2
EXERCISE - 12.2
1. A TV tower stands vertically on the side of a road. From a point on the other side
directly opposite to the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of tower is 600. From
another point 10 m away from this point, on the line joining this point to the foot of the
tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 30º. Find the height of the tower
and the width of the road.
2. A 1.5 m tall boy is looking at the top of a temple which is 30 meter in height from a point
at certain distance. The angle of elevation from his eye to the top of the crown of the
temple increases from 30º to 60º as he walks towards the temple. Find the distance he
walked towards the temple.
3. A statue stands on the top of a 2m tall pedestal. From a point on the ground, the angle
of elevation of the top of the statue is 60º and from the same point, the angle of elevation
of the top of the pedestal is 45º. Find the height of the statue.
4. From the top of a building, the angle of elevation of the top of a cell tower is 60º and the
angle of depression to its foot is 45º. If distance of the building from the tower is 7m,
then find the height of the tower.
5. A wire of length 18 m had been tied with electric pole at an angle of elevation 30º with
the ground. As it is covering a long distance, it was cut and tied at an angle of elevation
60º with the ground. How much length of the wire was cut?
6. The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of the tower is 30º and the
angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of the building is 60º. If the tower
is 30 m high, find the height of the building.
7. Two poles of equal heights are standing opposite to each other on either side of the road,
which is 120 feet wide. From a point between them on the road, the angles of elevation
of the top of the poles are 60º and 30º respectively. Find the height of the poles and the
distances of the point from the poles.
8. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower from two points at a distance of 4 m and
9 m, find the height of the tower from the base of the tower and in the same straight line
with it are complementary.
9. The angle of elevation of a jet plane from a point A on the ground is 60º. After a flight of
15 seconds, the angle of elevation changes to 30º. If the jet plane is flying at a constant
height of 1500 3 meter, find the speed of the jet plane. 3 1.732
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise his not meant for examination]
1. A 1.2 m tall girl spots a balloon moving with the wind in a horizontal line at a height of
88.2 m from the ground. The angle of elevation of the balloon from the eyes of the girl at
any instant is 60º. After some time, the angle of elevation reduces to 30º. Find the distance
travelled by the balloon during the interval.
2. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from the foot of the building is 30º and the
angle of elevation of the top of the building from the foot of the tower is 60º. What is the
ratio of heights of tower and building.
3. The angles of elevation of the top of a lighthouse from 3 boats A, B and C in a straight
line of same side of the light house are a, 2a, 3a respectively. If the distance between the
boats A and B is x meters. Find the height of light house?
4. Inner part of a cupboard is in the cuboidical shape with its length, breadth and height in
the ratio 1 : 2 : 1. What is the angle made by the longest stick which can be inserted
cupboard with its base inside.
5. An iron sperical ball of volume 232848 cm3 has been melted and converted into a cone
with the vertical angle of 120o. What are its height and base?
Probability
13.1 I NTRODUCTION
Kumar and Sudha were walking together to play a carroms match:
Kumar : Do you think we will win?
Sudha : There are 50 percent chances of that. We may win.
Kumar : How do you say 50 percent?
Do you think Sudha is right in her statement?
Is her chance of wining 50%?
In this chapter, we study about such questions. We also discuss words the like ‘probably’,
‘likely’, ‘possibly’, etc. and how to quantify these. In class IX we studied about events that are
extremely likely and in fact, are almost certain and those that are extremely unlikely and hence
almost impossible. We also talked about chance, luck and the fact that an event occurs one
particular time does not mean that it would happen each time. In this chapter, we try to learn how
the likelihood of an event can be quantified.
This quantificatioin into a numerical measure is referred to as finding 'Probability'.
Many other persons from different parts of the world have done this kind of experiment
and recorded the number of heads that turned up.
For example, the eighteenth century French naturalist Comte de Buffon, tossed a coin
4040 times and got 2048 heads. The experimental probability of getting a head, in this case, was
2048
i.e., 0.507.
4040
J.E. Kerrich, from Britain, recorded 5067 heads in 10000 tosses of a coin. The experimental
5067
probability of getting a head, in this case, was = 0.5067. Statistician Karl Pearson spent
10000
some more time, making 24000 tosses of a coin. He got 12012 heads, and thus, the experimental
probability of a head obtained by him was 0.5005.
Now, suppose we ask, 'What will be the experimental probability of getting a head, if the
experiment is carried on up to, say, one million times? Or 10 million times? You would intuitively
feel that as the number of tosses increases, the experimental probability of a head (or a tail) may
1
settle down closer and closer to the number 0.5 , i.e., . This matches the theoretical probability
2
of getting a head (or getting a tail), we will learn how to find the theoretical probability.
This chapter is an introduction to the theoretical (also called classical) probability of an
event, Now we discuss simple problems based on this concept.
D O T HIS
a. Outcomes of which of the following experiments are equally likely?
1. Getting a digit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 when a dice is rolled.
2. Picking a different colour ball from a bag of 5 red balls, 4 blue
balls and 1 black ball.
3. Winning in a game of carrom.
4. Units place of a two digit number selected may be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8 or 9.
5. Picking a different colour ball from a bag of 10 red balls, 10 blue balls and 10 black
balls.
6. Raining on a particular day of July.
b. Are the outcomes of every experiment equally likely?
c. Give examples of 5 experiments that have equally likely outcomes and five more examples
that do not have equally likely outcomes.
ACTIVITY
(i) Take any coin, toss it, 50 times, 100 times, 150 times and count the number of times a
head and a tail come up seperately. Record your observations in the following table:-
S. Number of Number of Probability of Number of Probability of
No. experiments heads head tails tails
1. 50
2. 100
3. 150
What do you observe? Obviously, as the number of experiments are more and more,
1
probability of head or tail reaches 50% or . This empirical interpretation of probability can
2
be applied to every event associated with an experiment that can be repeated a large number
of times.
order to compute the empirical probability of its failure during launching, or the repetition of
the phenomenon of an earthquake to compute the empirical probability of a multi-storeyed
building getting destroyed in an earthquake? For finding these probabilities we calculate models
of behaviour and use them to estimate behaviour and likely outcomes. Such models are complex
and are validated by predictions and outcomes. Forecast of weather, result of an election,
population demography, earthquakes, crop production etc. are all based on such models and
their predictions.
“The assumption of equally likely outcomes” (which is valid in many experiments, as in two
of the examples seen, of a coin and of a die) is one of the assumption that leads us to the following
definition of probability of an event.
The theoretical probability (also called classical probability) of an event T, written as P(T),
is defined as
Number of outcomes favourable to T
P(T) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment
where we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.
We usually simply refer to theoretical probability as Probability.
D O T HIS
Think of 5 situations with equally likely events and find the sample space.
Let us now try to find the probability of equally likely events that are mutually exclusive.
Example-1. Find the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed once. Also find the
probability of getting a tail.
Solution : In the experiment of tossing a coin once, the number of possible outcomes is two -
Head (H) and Tail (T). Let E be the event 'getting a head'. The number of outcomes favourable
to E, (i.e., of getting a head) is 1. Therefore,
Number of outcomes favourable to E 1
P(E) = P (head) = =
Number of all possible outcomes 2
Similarly, if F is the event 'getting a tail', then
1
P(F) = P(tail) = (Guess why?)
2
Example-2. A bag contains a red ball, a blue ball and an yellow ball, all the balls being of the
same size. Manasa takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. What is the probability
that she takes a (i) yellow ball? (ii) red ball? (iii) blue ball?
Solution : Manasa takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. So, it is equally likely
that she takes out any one of them.
Let Y be the event 'the ball taken out is yellow', B be the event 'the ball taken out is blue',
and R be the event 'the ball taken out is red'.
Now, the number of possible outcomes = 3.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event Y = 1.
1 1 1
So, P(Y) = . Similarly, P(R) = and P(B) =
3 3 3
Remarks
1. An event having only one outcome in an experiment is called an elementary event. In
Example 1, both the events E and F are elementary events. Similarly, in Example 2, all
the three events, Y, B and R are elementary events.
2. In Example 1, we note that : P(E) + P(F) = 1
In Example 2, we note that : P(Y) + P(R) + P(B) = 1.
If we find the probability of all the elementary events and add them, we would get the
total as 1.
3. In events like a throw of dice, probability of getting less than 3 and of getting a 3 or
more than three are not elementary events of the possible outcomes. In tossing two
coins {HH}, {HT}, {TH} and {TT} are elementary events.
Example-3. Suppose we throw a dice once. (i) What is the probability of getting a number
greater than 4? (ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than or equal to 4?
Solution : (i) In rolling an unbaised dice
Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
No. of outcomes n(S) = 6
Favourable outcomes for E = {5, 6}
number greater than 4
No. of favourable outcomes n(E) = 2
2 1
Probability P(E) = =
6 3
(ii) Let F be the event 'getting a number less than or equal to 4'.
Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
No. of outcomes n(S) = 6
Favourable outcomes for F = {1, 2, 3, 4}
number less or equal to 4
No. of favourable outcomes n(F) = 4
4 2
Probability P(F) = =
6 3
Note : Are the events E and F in the above example elementary events?
No, they are not elementary events. The event E has 2 outcomes and the event F has 4
outcomes.
In the previous section we read about elementary events. Then in example-3, we calculated
probability of events which are not elementary. We saw,
1 2
P(E) + P(F) = + =1
3 3
Here F is the same as 'not E' because there are only two events.
We denote the event 'not E' by E . This is called the complementary event of event E.
So, P(E) + P(not E) = 1
D O T HIS
(i) Is getting a head complementary to getting a tail? Give reasons.
(ii) In case of a die is getting a 1 complementary to events getting 2, 3, 4, 5, 6? Give reasons
for your answer.
(iii) Write of five new pair of events that are complementary.
(ii) What is the probability of getting 6 or a number less than 6 in a single throw of a die?
T RY T HIS
1. A child has a dice whose six faces show the letters A, B, C, D, E and F. The dice is
thrown once. What is the probability of getting (i) A? (ii) D?
2. Which of the following cannot be the probability of an event?
(a) 2.3 (b) -1.5 (c) 15% (D) 0.7
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. Why is tossing a coin considered to be a fair way of deciding which team should get the
ball at the beginning of any game?
7
2. Can be the probability of an event? Explain.
2
3. Which of the following arguments are correct and which are not correct? Give reasons.
i) If two coins are tossed simultaneously there are three possible outcomes - two heads,
1
two tails or one of each. Therefore, for each of these outcomes, the probability is .
3
ii)If a dice is thrown, there are two possible outcomes - an odd number or an even
1
number. Therefore, the probability of getting an odd number is .
2
13.5 D ECK OF C ARDS AND P ROBABILITY
Have you seen a deck of playing cards?
A deck of playing cards consists of 52 cards which
are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each. They are black
spades (), red hearts (), red diamonds () and black
clubs ().
The cards in each suit are Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2. Kings,
Queens and Jacks are called face cards. Many games are played with this deck of cards, some
games are played with part
of the deck and some with
two decks even. The study
of probability has a lot to do
with card and dice games as
it helps players to estimate
possibilities and predict how
the cards could be
distributed among players.
Example-4. One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Calculate the probability
that the card will (i) be an ace, (ii) not be an ace.
Solution : Well-shuffling ensures equally likely outcomes.
(i) There are 4 aces in a deck.
Let E be the event 'the card is an ace'.
The number of outcomes favourable to E = 4
The number of possible outcomes = 52 (Why ?)
4 1
Therefore, P(E) = =
52 13
(ii) Let F be the event 'card drawn is not an ace'.
The number of outcomes favourable to the event F = 52 - 4 = 48 (Why?)
The number of possible outcomes = 52
48 12
Therefore, P(F) = =
52 13
T RY T HIS
13.6 U SE OF P ROBABILITY
Let us look at some more occasions where probability may be useful. We know that in
sports some countries are strong and others are not so strong. We also
know that when two players are playing it is not that they win equal times.
The probability of winning of the player or team that wins more often is
more than the probability of the other player or team. We also discuss and
keep track of birthdays. Sometimes happens it that people we know have
the same birthdays. Can we find out whether this is a common event or
would it only happen occassionally. Classical probability helps us do this.
Example-5. Sangeeta and Reshma, play a tennis match. It is known that the probability of
Sangeeta winning the match is 0.62. What is the probability of Reshma winning the match?
Solution : Let S and R denote the events that Sangeeta wins the match and Reshma wins the
match, respectively.
The probability of Sangeeta's winning chances = P(S) = 0.62 (given)
The probability of Reshma's winning chances = P(R) = 1 - P(S)
= 1 -0.62 = 0.38 [R and S are complementary]
Example-6. Sarada and Hamida are friends. What is the probability that both will have (i)
different birthdays? (ii) the same birthday? (ignoring a leap year).
Solution : Out of the two friends, one girl, say, Sarada's birthday can be any day of the year.
Now, Hamida's birthday can also be any day of 365 days in the year. We assume that these 365
outcomes are equally likely.
(i) If Hamida's birthday is different from Sarada's, the number of favourable outcomes for her
birthday is 365 - 1 = 364
364
So, P (Hamida's birthday is different from Sarada's birthday) =
365
(ii) P(Sarada and Hamida have the same birthday) = 1 - P (both have different birthdays)
364 1
= 1- [ Using P( E ) = 1 - P(E)] =
365 365
Example-7. There are 40 students in Class X of a school of whom 25 are girls and 15 are
boys. The class teacher has to select one student as a class representative. She writes the name
of each student on a separate cards, the cards being identical. Then she puts cards in a box and
stirs them thoroughly. She then draws one card from the box. What is the probability that the
name written on the card is the name of (i) a girl? (ii) a boy?
Solution : There are 40 students, and only one name card has to be chosen.
The number of all possible outcomes is 40
(i) The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a girl = 25 (Why?)
25 5
P (card with name of a girl) = P(Girl) = =
40 8
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a boy = 15 (Why?)
15 3
Therefore, P(card with name of a boy) = P(Boy) = =
40 8
5 3
or P(Boy) = 1 - P(not Boy) = 1 - P(Girl) = 1 - =
8 8
EXERCISE - 13.1
Example-8. A box contains 3 blue, 2 white, and 4 red marbles. If a marble is drawn at random
from the box, what is the probability that it will be
(i) white? (ii) blue? (iii) red?
Solution : Saying that a marble is drawn at random means all the marbles are equally likely to be
drawn.
The number of possible outcomes = 3 +2 + 4 = 9 (Why?)
Let W denote the event 'the marble is white', B denote the event 'the marble is blue' and R
denote the event 'marble is red'.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event W = 2
2
So, P(W) =
9
3 1 4
Similarly, (ii) P(B) = = and (iii) P(R) =
9 3 9
Note that P(W) + P(B) + P(R) = 1.
Example-9. Harpreet tosses two different coins simultaneously (say, one is of D1 and other of
D2). What is the probability that she gets at least one head?
Solution : We write H for 'head' and T for 'tail'. When two coins are tossed simultaneously, the
possible outcomes are (H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T), which are all equally likely. Here (H, H)
means heads on the first coin (say on D1) and also heads on the second coin (D2). Similarly (H,
T) means heads up on the first coin and tail up on the second coin and so on.
The outcomes favourable to the event E, 'at least one head' are (H, H), (H, T) and (T, H).
So, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 3.
3
P(E) = [Since the total possible outcomes = 4]
4
3
i.e., the probability that Harpreet gets at least one head is
4
Check This
Did you observe that in all the examples discussed so far, the number of possible outcomes
in each experiment was finite? If not, check it now.
There are many experiments in which the outcome is number between two given numbers,
or in which the outcome is every point within a circle or rectangle, etc. Can you count the number
of all possible outcomes in such cases? As you know, this is not possible since there are infinitely
many numbers between two given numbers, or there are infinitely many points within a circle. So,
the definition of theoretical probability which you have learnt so far cannot be applied in the
present form.
What is the way out? To answer this, let us consider the following example:
Example-10. (Not for examination) In a musical chair game, the person playing the music has
been advised to stop playing the music at any time within 2 minutes after she starts playing. What
is the probability that the music will stop within the first half-minute after starting?
Solution : Here the possible outcomes are all the numbers between 0 and 2. This is the portion
of the number line from 0 to 2
0 1 1 2
2
Let E be the event that 'the music is stopped within the first half-minute'.
1
The outcomes favourable to E are points on the number line from 0 to
2
1 1
The distance from 0 to 2 is 2, while the distance from 0 to is
2 2
Since all the outcomes are equally likely, we can argue that, of the total distance is 2 and
1
the distance favourable to the event E is
2
1
Distance favourable to the event E 1
So, P(E) = = 2=
Total distance in which outcomes can lie 2 4
We now try to extend this idea of for finding the probability as the ratio of the favourable
area to the total area.
Solution : One shirt is drawn at random from the carton of 100 shirts. Therefore, there are 100
equally likely outcomes.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable (i.e., acceptable) to Jhony = 88 (Why?)
88
Therefore, P (shirt is acceptable to Jhony) = = 0.88
100
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable to Sujatha = 88 + 8 = 96 (Why?)
96
So, P (shirt is acceptable to Sujatha) = = 0.96
100
Example-13. Two dice, one red and one yellow, are thrown at the same time. Write down all
the possible outcomes. What is the probability that the sum of the two numbers appearing on the
top of the dice is (i) 8 (ii) 13 (iii) less than or equal to 12?
Solution : When the red dice shows '1', the white dice could show any one of the numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6. The same is true when the red dice shows '2', '3', '4', '5' or '6'. The possible outcomes
of the experiment are shown in the figure; the first number in each ordered pair is the number
appearing on the red dice and the second
number is that on the yellow dice.
EXERCISE - 13.2
1. A bag contains 3 red balls and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag. What
is the probability that the ball drawn is (i) red ? (ii) not red?
2. A box contains 5 red marbles, 8 white marbles and 4 green marbles. One marble is taken
out of the box at random. What is the probability that the marble taken out will be (i) red?
(ii) white ? (iii) not green?
3. A Kiddy bank contains hundred 50p coins, fifty D1 coins, twenty D2 coins and ten D5
coins. If it is equally likely that one of the coins will fall out when the bank is turned upside
down, what is the probability that the coin (i) will be a 50 p coin? (ii) will not be a D5 coin?
4. Gopi buys a fish from a shop for his aquarium. The shopkeeper
takes out one fish at random from a tank containing 5 male fish and
8 female fish (See figure). What is the probability that the fish taken
out is a male fish?
5. A game of chance consists of spinning an arrow which comes to
rest pointing at one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (See
figure), and these are equally likely outcomes. What is the 8 1
probability that it will point at 2
7
(i) 8 ? (ii) an odd number? 3
6
(iii) a number greater than 2? (iv) a number less than 9? 5 4
6. One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting
(i) a king of red colour (ii) a face card (iii) a red face card
(iv) the jack of hearts (v) a spade (vi) the queen of diamonds
7. Five cards-the ten, jack, queen, king and ace of diamonds, are well-shuffled with their
face downwards. One card is then picked up at random.
(i) What is the probability that the card is the queen?
(ii) If the queen is drawn and put aside, what is the probability that the second card picked
up is (a) an ace? (b) a queen?
8. 12 defective pens are accidentally mixed with 132 good ones. It is not possible to just look
at a pen and tell whether or not it is defective. One pen is taken out at random from this lot.
Determine the probability that the pen taken out is a good one.
9. A lot of 20 bulbs contain 4 defective ones. One bulb is drawn at random from the lot.
What is the probability that this bulb is defective? Suppose the bulb drawn in previous
case is not defective and is not replaced. Now one bulb is drawn at random from the rest.
What is the probability that this bulb is not defective?
10. A box contains 90 discs which are numbered from 1 to 90. If one disc is drawn at random
from the box, find the probability that it bears (i) a two-digit number (ii ) a perfect square
number (iii) a number divisible by 5.
11. Suppose you drop a die at random on the rectangular 3 m.
region shown in figure. What is the probability that it will
land inside the circle with diameter 1m?
2 m.
12. A lot consists of 144 ball pens of which 20 are defective
and the others are good. The shopkeeper draws one
pen at random and gives it to Sudha. What is the probability
that (i) She will buy it? (ii) She will not buy it ?
13. Two dice are rolled simultaneously and counts are added (i) complete the table given
below:
Event : 'Sum on 2 dice' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 5 1
Probability
36 36 36
(ii) A student argues that 'there are 11 possible outcomes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and
1
12. Therefore, each of them has a probability . Do you agree with this argument?
11
Justify your answer.
14. A game consists of tossing a one rupee coin 3 times and recording its outcome each time.
Hanif wins if all the tosses give the same result i.e., three heads or three tails, and loses
otherwise. Calculate the probability that Hanif will lose the game.
15. A dice is thrown twice. What is the probability that (i) 5 will not come up either time? (ii) 5
will come up at least once? [Hint : Throwing a die twice and throwing two dice
simultaneously are treated as the same experiment].
O PTIONAL E XERCISE
[This exercise is not meant for examination]
1. Two customers Shyam and Ekta are visiting a particular shop in the same week (Tuesday
to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any day as on another day. What is
the probability that both will visit the shop on (i) the same day? (ii) consecutive days? (iii)
different days?
2. A bag contains 5 red balls and some blue balls. If the probability of drawing a blue ball is
double that of a red ball, determine the number of blue balls in the bag.
3. A box contains 12 balls out of which x are black. If one ball is drawn at random from the
box, what is the probability that it will be a black ball? If 6 more black balls are put in the
box, the probability of drawing a black ball is now double of what it was before. Find x.
4. A jar contains 24 marbles, some are green and others are blue. If a marble is drawn at
random from the jar, the probability that it is green is 23 . Find the number of blue marbles
in the jar.
Statistics
14.1 I NTRODUCTION
Ganesh had recorded the marks of 26 children in his class
in the mathematics Summative Assessment - I in the register as follows:
Arjun 76 Narayana 12
Kamini 82 Suresh 24
Shafik 64 Durga 39
Keshav 53 Shiva 41
Lata 90 Raheem 69
Rajender 27 Radha 73
Ramu 34 Kartik 94
Sudha 74 Joseph 89
Krishna 76 Ikram 64
Somu 65 Laxmi 46
Gouri 47 Sita 19
Upendra 54 Rehana 53
Ramaiah 36 Anitha 69
Is the data given in the list above organized? Why or why not?
His teacher asked him to report on how his class students had performed in mathematics
in their Summative Assessment - I .
324 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
Ganesh made the following table to understand the performance of his class:
Marks Number of children
0 - 33 4
34 - 50 6
51 - 75 10
76 - 100 6
Is the data given in the above table grouped or ungrouped?
He showed this table to his teacher and the teacher appreciated him for organising the
data to be understood easily. We can see that most children have got marks between 51-75. Do
you think Ganesh should have used smaller range? Why or why not?
In the previous class, you had learnt about the difference between grouped and ungrouped
data as well as how to present this data in the form of tables. You had also learnt to calculate the
mean value for ungrouped data. Let us recall this learning and then learn to calculate the mean,
median and mode for grouped data.
14.2 M EAN OF U NGROUPED DATA
As we know the mean (or average) of observations is the sum of the values of all the
observations divided by the total number of observations. Let x1, x2,. . ., xn be observations with
respective frequencies f1, f2, . . ., fn. This means that observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2
times, and so on.
Now, the sum of the values of all the observations = f1x1 + f2x2 + . . . + fnxn, and the
number of observations = f1 + f2 + . . . + fn.
Solution : Let us re-organize this data and find the sum of all observations.
Marks Number of fi xi
obtained (xi ) students ( fi)
10 1 10
20 1 20
36 3 108
40 4 160
50 3 150
56 2 112
60 4 240
70 4 280
72 1 72
80 1 80
88 2 176
92 3 276
95 1 95
fi xi 1779
So, x 59.3
fi 30
Therefore, the mean marks are 59.3.
In most of our real life situations, data is usually so large that to make a meaningful study,
it needs to be condensed as grouped data. So, we need to convert ungrouped data into grouped
data and devise some method to find its mean.
Let us convert the ungrouped data of Example 1 into grouped data by forming class-
intervals of width, say 15. Remember that while allocating frequencies to each class-interval,
students whose score is equal to in any upper class-boundary would be considered in the next
class, e.g., 4 students who have obtained 40 marks would be considered in the class-interval
40-55 and not in 25-40. With this convention in our mind, let us form a grouped frequency
distribution table.
Class interval 10-25 25-40 40-55 55-70 70-85 85-100
Number of students 2 3 7 6 6 6
Now, for each class-interval, we require a point which would serve as the representative
of the whole class. It is assumed that the frequency of each class-interval is centred
around its mid-point. So, the mid-point of each class can be chosen to represent the
observations falling in that class and is called the class mark. Recall that we find the class mark by
finding the average of the upper and lower limit of the class.
10 25
For the class 10 -25, the class mark is =17.5. Similarly, we can find the class
2
marks of the remaining class intervals. We put them in the table. These class marks serve as our
xi’s. We can now proceed to compute the mean in the same manner as in the previous example.
The sum of the values in the last column gives us f i xi . So, the mean x of the given
data is given by
f i xi 1860
x 62
fi 30
This new method of finding the mean is known as the Direct Method.
We observe that in the above cases we are using the same data and employing the same
formula for calculating the mean but the results obtained are different. In example (1), 59.3 is the
exact mean and 62 is the approximate mean. Can you think why this is so?
T HINK - DISCUSS
1. The mean value can be calculated from both ungrouped and grouped data. Which one
do you think is more accurate? Why?
2. When it is more convenient to use grouped data for analysis?
Sometimes when the numerical values of x1 and f1 are large, finding the product of x1 and
f1 becomes tedious and time consuming. So, for such situations, let us think of a method of
reducing these calculations.
We can do nothing with the fi's, but we can change each xi to a smaller number so that our
calculations become easy. How do we do this? What is about subtracting a fixed number from
each of these xi's? Let us try this method for the data in example 1.
The first step is to choose one among the xi's as the assumed mean, and denote it by 'a'.
Also, to further reduce our calculation work, we may take 'a' to be that xi which lies in the centre
of x1, x2, ..., xn. So, we can choose a = 47.5 or a = 62.5. Let us choose a = 47.5.
The second step is to find the deviation of ‘a’ from each of the xi's, which we denote
as di
i.e., di = xi – a = xi – 47.5
The third step is to find the product of di with the corresponding fi, and take the sum of all
the fi di’s. These calculations are shown in table given below-
Since, in obtaining di we subtracted ‘a’ from each xi so, in order to get the mean x we
need to add ‘a’ to d . This can be explained mathematically as:
f i di
Mean of deviations, d
fi
fi ( xi a )
So, d
fi
fi xi fi a
=
fi fi
fi
= x a
fi
d = x a
fi di
Therefore x a
fi
Substituting the values of a, f i di and f i from the table, we get
435
x 47.5 47.5 14.5 62
30
Therefore, the mean of the marks obtained by the students is 62.
The method discussed above is called the Assumed Mean Method.
ACTIVITY
Consider the data given in example 1 and calculate the arithmetic mean by deviation
method by taking successive values of xi i.e., 17.5, 32.5, ... as assumed means. Now discuss
the following:
1. Are the values of arithmetic mean in all the above cases equal?
2. If we take the actual mean as the assumed mean, how much will f i di be?
3. Reason about taking any mid-value (class mark) as assumed mean?
Observe that in the table given below the values in Column 4 are all multiples of 15. So,
if we divide all the values of Column 4 by 15, we would get smaller numbers which we then
multiply with fi. (Here, 15 is the class size of each class interval.)
xi a
So, let ui where a is the assumed mean and h is the class size.
h
Now, we calculate ui in this way and continue as before (i. e., find fi ui and then
fi ui). Taking h = 15, [Generally size of the class is taken as h but it need not be size of the
class always].
f iui
Let u
fi
xi a
Class Number of Class di xi a ui fi ui
h
interval students ( fi) Marks (xi)
1 fi xi fi a
=
h fi f i
1
= ( x a)
h
or hu x a
x a hu
f iui
Therefore, x a h
f i
f u
or x a i i
h
f i
l The step-deviation method will be convenient to apply if all the di’s have a common
factor.
l The mean obtained by all the three methods is the same.
l The assumed mean method and step-deviation method are just simplified forms of the
direct method.
l The formula x a h u still holds if a and h are not as given above, but are any non-
xi a
zero numbers such that ui
h
Let us apply these methods in other examples.
Example-2. The table below gives the percentage distribution of female teachers in the primary
schools of rural areas of various states and union territories (U.T.) of India. Find the mean
percentage of female teachers using all the three methods.
Percentage of female teachers 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 – 45 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 – 85
Number of States/U.T. 6 11 7 4 4 2 1
f i xi 1390
Using the direct method x 39.71
fi 35
fi d i 360
Using the assumed mean method x a 50 50 10.29 39.71
fi 35
f u 36
Using the step-deviation method x a i i
h 50 10 39.71
fi 35
Therefore, the mean percentage of female teachers in the primary schools of rural areas is 39.71.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Even if the class sizes are unequal, and xi are large numerically, we can still apply the
step-deviation method by taking h to be a suitable divisor of all the di’s.
Example-3. The distribution below shows the number of wickets taken by bowlers in one-day
cricket matches. Find the mean number of wickets by choosing a suitable method. What does
the mean signify?
Number of wickets 20 - 60 60 - 100 100 - 150 150 - 250 250 - 350 350 – 450
Number of bowlers 7 5 16 12 2 3
Solution : Here, the class size varies, and the xi's are large. Let us still apply the step deviation
method with a = 200 and h = 20. Then, we obtain the data as given in the table.
xi a
Number of Number of xi di ui fi ui
h
wickets bowlers ( fi ) xi a (h = 20)
20 – 60 7 40 -160 -8 -56
60 – 100 5 80 -120 -6 -30
100 – 150 16 125 -75 -3.75 -60
150 – 250 12 200 (a) 0 0 0
250 – 350 2 300 100 5 10
350 – 450 3 400 200 10 30
Total 45 -106
f u 106
So x a i i
h 200 20 200 47.11 152.89
fi 45
Daily wages in Rupees 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350 350 - 400 400– 450
Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10
Find the mean daily wages of the workers of the factory by using an appropriate method.
3. The following distribution shows the daily pocket allowance of children of a locality. The
mean pocket allowance is 18. Find the missing frequency f.
Daily pocket 11 - 13 13 - 15 15 - 17 17 - 19 19 - 21 21 - 23 23 - 25
allowance(in Rupees)
Number of children 7 6 9 13 f 5 4
4. Thirty women were examined in a hospital by a doctor and their of heart beats per
minute were recorded and summarised as shown. Find the mean heart beats per minute
for these women, choosing a suitable method.
Number of heart beats/minute 65-68 68-71 71-74 74-77 77-80 80-83 83-86
Number of women 2 4 3 8 7 4 2
5. In a retail market, fruit vendors were selling oranges kept in packing baskets. These
baskets contained varying number of oranges. The following was the distribution of
oranges.
Number of oranges 10-14 15–19 20-24 25-29 30–34
Number of baskets 15 110 135 115 25
Find the mean number of oranges kept in each basket. Which method of finding the
mean did you choose?
6. The table below shows the daily expenditure on food of 25 households in a locality.
Daily expenditure (in Rupees) 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350
Number of house holds 4 5 12 2 2
Find the mean daily expenditure on food by a suitable method.
7. To find out the concentration of SO2 in the air (in parts per million, i.e., ppm), the data
was collected for 30 localities in a certain city and is presented below:
Concentration of SO2 in ppm 0.00-0.04 0.04-0.08 0.08-0.12 0.12-0.16 0.16-0.20 0.20-0.24
Frequency 4 9 9 2 4 2
Find the mean concentration of SO2 in the air.
9. The following table gives the literacy rate (in percentage) of 35 cities. Find the mean
literacy rate.
Literacy rate in % 45–55 55-65 65-75 75-85 85-95
Number of cities 3 10 11 8 3
14.3 M ODE
A mode is that value among the observations which occurs most frequently.
Before learning about calculating the mode of grouped data let us first
recall how we found the mode for ungrouped data through the following
example.
D O T HIS
Solution : Since the maximum number of students (i.e., 7) have got marks in the interval, 40-65
the modal class is 40 - 55.
The lower boundary ( l ) of the modal class = 40,
The class size ( h) = 15,
The frequency of modal class ( f1 ) = 7,
the frequency of the class preceding the modal class ( f0 ) = 3,
the frequency of the class succeeding the modal class ( f2 ) = 6.
Now, using the formula:
f1 f0
Mode l h
2 f1 f0 f 2
7 3
40 15 40 12 52
27 6 3
Interpretation : The mode marks is 52. Now, from Example 1, we know that the mean marks
is 62. So, the maximum number of students obtained 52 marks, while on an average a student
obtained 62 marks.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
1. It depends upon the demand of the situation whether we are interested in finding the
average marks obtained by the students or the marks obtained by most of the students.
a. What do we find in the first situation?
b. What do we find in the second situation?
2. Can mode be calculated for grouped data with unequal class sizes?
EXERCISE - 14.2
1. The following table shows the ages of the patients admitted in a hospital during a year:
Age (in years) 5-15 15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65
Number of patients 6 11 21 23 14 5
Find the mode and the mean of the data given above. Compare and interpret the two
measures of central tendency.
2. The following data gives the information on the observed life times (in hours) of 225
electrical components :
Frequency 10 35 52 61 38 29
3. The following data gives the distribution of total monthly household expenditure of 200
families of a village. Find the modal monthly expenditure of the families. Also, find the
mean monthly expenditure :
Number of families 24 40 33 28 30 22 16 7
4. The following distribution gives the state-wise, teacher-student ratio in higher secondary
schools of India. Find the mode and mean of this data. Interpret the two measures.
Number of students 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55
Number of States 3 8 9 10 3 0 0 2
5. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top batsmen of the
world in one-day international cricket matches.
Runs 3000- 4000- 5000- 6000- 7000- 8000- 9000- 10000-
4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
Number of batsmen 4 18 9 7 6 3 1 1
6. A student noted the number of cars passing through a spot on a road for 100 periods,
each of 3 minutes, and summarised this in the table given below.
Number of cars 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80
Frequency 7 14 13 12 20 11 15 8
Find the mode of the data.
14.4 MEDIAN OF G ROUPED DATA
Median is a measure of central tendency which gives the value of the middle-most
observation in the data. Recall that for finding the median of ungrouped data, we first arrange the
data values or the observations in ascending order.
n 1th
Then, if n is odd, the median is the observation and if n is even,
2
n th n th
then the median will be the average of the and 1 observations.
2 2
Suppose, we have to find the median of the following data, which is about the marks,
out of 50 obtained by 100 students in a test :
Marks obtained 20 29 28 33 42 38 43 25
Number of students 6 28 24 15 2 4 1 20
First, we arrange the marks in ascending order and prepare a frequency table 14.9 as follows :
20 6
25 20
28 24
29 28
33 15
38 4
42 2
43 1
Total 100
n th n th
Here n = 100, which is even. The median will be the average of the and the 1
2 2
th st
observations, i.e., the 50 and 51 observations. To find the position of these middle values, we
construct cumulative frequency.
20 6 6
upto 25 6 + 20 = 26 26
upto 28 26 + 24 = 50 50
upto 29 50 + 28 = 78 78
upto 33 78 + 15 = 93 93
upto 38 93 + 4 = 97 97
upto 42 97 + 2 = 99 99
Now we add another column depicting this information to the frequency table above and name it
as cumulative frequency column.
From the table above, we see that :
th
50 observation is 28 (Why?)
st
51 observation is 29
are 53-5 = 48 students getting more than or equal to 10 marks. Continuing in the same manner,
we get the number of students scoring 20 or above as 48-3 = 45, 30 or above as 45-4 = 41, and
so on, as shown in the table a side.
This table above is called a cumulative frequency distribution of the more than type. Here 0, 10,
20, ..., 90 give the lower boundaries of the respective class intervals.
Now, to find the median of grouped data, we can make use of any of these cumulative frequency
distributions.
Now in a grouped data, we may not be able to find the middle observation by looking at the
cumulative frequencies as the middle observation will be some value in a class interval. It is,
therefore, necessary to find the value inside a class that divides the whole distribution into two
halves. But which class should this be?
n
To find this class, we find the cumulative frequencies of all the clases and . We now locate the
2
n
class whose cumulative frequency exceeds for the first time. This is called the median class.
2
n
In the distribution above, n = 53. So = 26.5. Now 60-70 is the class whose cumulative
2
n
frequency 29 is greater than (and nearest to) , i.e., 26.5.
2
Therefore, 60-70 is the median class.
After finding the median class, we use the following formula for calculating the median.
n
cf
Median l 2
h
f
n
Substituting the values = 26.5, l = 60, cf = 22, f = 7, h = 10
2
in the formula above, we get
26.5 22
Median 60 10
7
45
60
7
66.4
So, about half the students have scored marks less than 66.4, and the other half have scored
marks more than 66.4.
Observe that from the given distribution, we find that there are 4 girls with height less than 140,
i.e., the frequency of class interval below 140 is 4 . Now, there are 11 girls with heights less than
145 an d 4 girls with height less than 140. Therefore, the number of girls with height in the interval
140 - 145 is 11 – 4 = 7. Similarly, the frequencies can be calculated as shown in table.
Number of observations, n = 51
n 51 th
= = 25.5 observation, which lies in the class 145 - 150.
2 2
145 - 150 is median class
Then, l (the lower boundary) = 145,
cf (the cumulative frequency of the class preceding 145 - 150) = 11,
f (the frequency of the median class 145 - 150) = 18,
h (the class size) = 5.
n
cf
Using the formula, Median l 2
h
f
25.5 11
145 5
18
72.5
145 = 149.03
18
So, the median height of the girls is 149.03 cm. This means that the height of about 50% of the
girls is less than this height, and that of other 50% is greater than this height.
Example-8. The median of the following data is 525. Find the values of x and y, if the total
frequency is 100. Here, CI stands for class interval and Fr for frequency.
CI 0-100 100- 200- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900-
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Fr 2 5 x 12 17 20 y 9 7 4
Solution :
50 36 x
525 500 100
20
i.e., 25 = 70 – 5x
i.e., 5x = 70 – 25 = 45
So, x= 9
i.e., y = 15
0-100 2 2
100-200 5 7
200-300 x 7+x
300-400 12 19+x
400-500 17 36+x
500-600 20 56+x
600-700 y 56+x+y
700-800 9 65+x+y
800-900 7 72+x+y
900-1000 4 76+x+y
Note :
The median of grouped data with unequal class sizes can also be calculated.
In situations which require establishing the most frequent value or most popular item, the mode is
the best choice, e.g., to find the most popular T.V. programme being watched, the consumer item
in greatest demand, the colour of the vehicle used by most of the people, etc.
EXERCISE - 14.3
1. The following frequency distribution gives the monthly consumption of electricity of 68
consumers of a locality. Find the median, mean and mode of the data and compare them.
2. If the median of 60 observations, given below is 28.5, find the values of x and y.
3. A life insurance agent found the following data about distribution of ages of 100 policy
holders. Calculate the median age. [Policies are given only to persons having age 18
years onwards but less than 60 years.]
Age Below Below Below Below Below Below Below Below Below
(in years) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Number of 2 6 24 45 78 89 92 98 100
policy holders
4. The lengths of 40 leaves of a plant are measured correct to the nearest millimetre, and
the data obtained is represented in the following table :
Length (in mm) 118-126 127-135 136-144 145-153 154-162 163-171 172-180
Number of leaves 3 5 9 12 5 4 2
Find the median length of the leaves. (Hint : The data needs to be converted to continuous
classes for finding the median, since the formula assumes continuous classes. The classes then
change to 117.5 - 126.5, 126.5 - 135.5, . . ., 171.5 - 180.5.)
5. The following table gives the distribution of the life-time of 400 neon lamps
Life time 1500- 2000- 2500- 3000- 3500- 4000- 4500-
(in hours) 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Number of 14 56 60 86 74 62 48
lamps
Find the median life time of a lamp.
6. 100 surnames were randomly picked up from a local telephone directory and the frequency
distribution of the number of letters in the English alphabet in the surnames was obtained
as follows
Number of letters 1-4 4-7 7-10 10-13 13-16 16-19
Number of surnames 6 30 40 16 4 4
Determine the median number of letters in the surnames. Find the mean number of letters in the
surnames? Also, find the modal size of the surnames.
7. The distribution below gives the weights of 30 students of a class. Find the median
weight of the students.
Weight (in kg) 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75
Number of students 2 3 8 6 6 3 2
As we all know, pictures speak better than words. A graphical representation helps us in
understanding given data at a glance. In Class IX, we have represented the data through bar
graphs, histograms and frequency polygons. Let us now represent a cumulative frequency
distribution graphically.
frequency
20, 30, ..., 100 are the 50
frequency
upper boundaries of the 40
'Less than' ogive
Cumulative
respective class intervals. 30
30
represent 'the more than type' graphically,
Cumulative
20
we plot the lower boundaries on the X-axis
and the corresponding cumulative
Greaterthan
10
Is it possible to obtain the median from these two cumulative frequency curves . Let us see.
n 53
One obvious way is to locate on 26.5 on the y-axis. From this point, draw a line
2 2
parallel to the x-axis cutting the curve at a point. From this point, draw a perpendicular to the x-
axis. Foot of this perpendicular determines the median of the data.
Another way of obtaining the
median :
Draw both ogives (i.e., of the less
than type and of the more than type)
on the same axis. The two ogives will Median (66.4)
intersect each other at a point. From
this point, if we draw a perpendicular M
50
40
Cumulative frequency
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Limits (M) Median (66.4)
Example-9. The annual profits earned by 30 shops in a locality give rise to the following
distribution :
Profit (in lakhs) Number of shops (frequency)
More than or equal to 5 30
More than or equal to 10 28
More than or equal to 15 16
More than or equal to 20 14
More than or equal to 25 10
More than or equal to 30 7
More than or equal to 35 3
Draw both ogives for the data above. Hence obtain the median profit.
Solution : We first draw the coordinate axes, with lower boundaries of the profit along the
horizontal axis, and the cumulative frequency along the vertical axes. Then, we plot the points
(5, 30), (10, 28), (15, 16), (20, 14), (25, 10), (30, 7) and (35, 3). We join these points with a
smooth curve to get the more than ogive, as shown in the figure below-
35
frequency
30
25
frequency
Cumulative
20
15
Cumulative
Greaterthan
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Lower boundaries
Lower of profit
limits of profit (in lakhs
(in lakhs Rs.) Rs.)
Now, let us obtain the classes, their frequencies and the cumulative frequency from the table
above.
Number of shops 2 12 2 4 3 4 3
Cumulative frequency 2 14 16 20 23 27 30
Using these values, we plot the points (10, 2), (15, 14), (20, 16), (25, 20), (30, 23), (35, 27),
(40, 30) on the same axes as in last figure to get the less than ogive, as shown in figure below.
The abcissa of their point of intersection is nearly 17.5, which is the median. This can also be
verified by using the formula. Hence, the median profit (in lakhs) is 17.5.
35
30
25
Cumulative frequency
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Limits Median (17.5)
Profit (in lakhs Rs.)
EXERCISE - 14.4
Convert the distribution above to a less than type cumulative frequency distribution, and draw its
ogive.
2. During the medical check-up of 35 students of a class, their weights were recorded as
follows :
Weight (in kg) Number of students
Less than 38 0
Less than 40 3
Less than 42 5
Less than 44 9
Less than 46 14
Less than 48 28
Less than 50 32
Less than 52 35
Draw a less than type ogive for the given data. Hence obtain the median weight from the graph
and verify the result by using the formula.
3. The following table gives production yield per hectare of wheat of 100 farms of a village.
Production yield 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-80
(Qui/Hec)
Number of farmers 2 8 12 24 38 16
Change the distribution to a more than type distribution, and draw its ogive.
f u
(iii) The step deviation method : x a h or x = a + h x
i i
fi
2. The mode for grouped data can be found by using the formula :
f1 f0
Mode l h
2 f1 f0 f 2
n
cf
Median l 2 h Where symbols have their usual meanings.
f
Mathematical Modelling
(T HIS CHAPTER IS NOT MEANT FOR EXAMINATIONS )
A.I.1 I NTRODUCTION
On 25th February 2013, the ISRO launcher PSLV C20, put the
satellite SARAL into orbit. The satellite weighs 407 kg. It is at an altitude
of 781 km and its orbit is inclined at an angle of 98.5º.
On reading the above information, we may wonder:
(i) How did the scientists calculate the altitude as 781km. Did they
go to space and measure it?
(ii) How did they conclude that the angle of orbit is 98.5º without actually measuring?
Some more examples are there in our daily life where we wonder how the scientists and
mathematicians could possibly have estimated these results. Observe these examples:
(i) The temperature at the surface of the sun is about 6,000ºC.
(ii) The human heart pumps 5 to 6 liters of blood in the body every minute.
(iii) We know that the distance between the sun and the earth is 1,49,000 km.
In the above examples, we know that no one went to the sun to measure the temperature
or the distance from earth. Nor can we take the heart out of the body and measure the blood it
pumps. The way we answer these and other similar questions is through mathematical modelling.
Mathematical modelling is used not only by scientists but also by us. For example, we
might want to know how much money we will get after one year if we invest D100 at 10% simple
interest. Or we might want to know how many litres of paint is needed to whitewash a room.
Even these problems are solved by mathematical modelling.
T HINK - D ISCUSS
Discuss with your friends some more examples in real life where we cannot directly
measure and must use mathematical modelling .
354 Class-X Mathematics
www.apteachers.in
1
Area of Triangle = base height.
2
PTR
Similarly, simple interest is calculated using the formula I . This formula or
100
equation is a relation between the Interest (I); Principle (P); Time (T); and Rate of Interest (R).
These formulae are examples of mathematical models.
Some more examples for mathematical models.
Distance (d)
(i) Speed (S) =
time (t)
r
n
(ii) Amount on compound interst (A) = P 1
100
Where P = Principle
r = rate of interest
n = no. of times to be calculated interest.
So, Mathematical model is nothing but a mathematical description or relation that
describes some real life situation.
D O T HIS
Write some more mathematical models which you have learnt in previous classes.
PTR
I (Model)
100
where P = Principle, T = number of years, R = rate of interest, I = Interest
100I
We need to find time = T
RP
Step 3: (Solving the mathematical problem) In this step, we solve the problem using the
formula which we have developed in step 2.
We know that Vani already has D15,000 which is the principal, P
The final amount is D19000 so she needs an extra (19000-15000) = D4000. This will
come from the interest, I .
100 4000 10
P = D15,000, Rate = 8%, then I = 4000; T
15000 8 3
1
T = 3 years
3
or Step4 : (Interpreting the solution): The solution obtained in the previous step is interpreted
here.
1
Here T = 3 . This means three and one third of a year or three years and 4 months.
3
So, Vani can buy a washing machine after 3 year 4 months
Step5 : (Validating the model): We can’t always accept a model that gives us an answer that
does not match the reality. The process of checking and modifying the mathematical model, if
necessary, is validation.
In the given example, we are assuming that the rate of interest will not change. If the rate
PTR
changes then our model will not work. We are also assuming that the price of the washing
100
machine will remain Rs. 19,000.
D O T HIS
1. Take any word problem from your textbook, make a mathematical model for the
chosen problem and solve it.
2. Make a mathematical model for the problem given below and solve it.
Suppose a car starts from a place A and travels at a speed of 40 Km/h towards
another place B. At the same time another car starts from B and travels towards A at
a speed of 30 Km/h. If the distance between A and B is 100 km; after how much time
will that cars meet?
So far, we have made mathematical models for simple word problems. Let us take a real
life example and model it.
Example-3. In the year 2000, 191 member countries of the U.N.signed a declaration to promote
gender equality. One indicator for deciding whether this goal has been achieved is the ratio of
girls to boys in primary, secondary education. India also signed the declaration. The data for the
percentage of girls in India who are enrolled in primary schools is given in Table A.I.1.
Table A.I.1
Year Enrolment (in %)
1991 – 92 41.9
1992 – 93 42.6
1993 – 94 42.7
1994 – 95 42.9
1995 – 96 43.1
1996 – 97 43.2
1997 -98 43.5
1998 – 99 43.5
1999 – 2000 43.6
2000 – 01 43.7
2001 - 02 44.1
Using this data, mathematically describe the rate at which the proportion of girls enrolled
in primary schools grew. Also, estimate the year by which the enrollment of girls will reach 50%.
Solution :
Step 1 : Formulation Let us first convert the problem into a mathematical problem.
Table A.I.1 gives the enrollment for the years 1991 – 92, 1992- 93 etc. Since the students
join at the begining of an academic year, we can take the years as 1991, 1992 etc. Let us assume
that the percentage of girls who join primary schools will continue to grow at the same rate as the
rate in Table A.I.1. So, the number of years is important, not the specific years. (To give a similar
situation, when we find the simple interest for say, 15000 at the rate 8% for three years, it does
not matter whether the three – year period is from 1999 to 2002 or from 2001 to 2004. What is
important is the interest rate in the years being considered)
Here also, we will see how the enrollment grows after 1991 by comparing the number of
years that has passed after 1991 and the enrollment. Let us take 1991 as the 0th year, and write
1 for 1992 since 1 year has passed in 1992 after 1991. Similarly we will write 2 for 1993, 3 for
1994 etc. So, Table A.I.1 will now look like as Table A.I.2
Table A.I.2
Year Enrolment (in%)
0 41.9
1 42.6
2 42.7
3 42.9
4 43.1
5 43.2
6 43.5
7 43.5
8 43.6
9 43.7
10 44.1
At the end of the first year period from 1991 to 1992, the enrollment has increased by
0.7% from 41.9% to 42.6%. At the end of the second year, this has increased by 0.1% from
42.6% to 42.7%. From the table above, we cannot find a definite relationship between the
number of years and percentage. But the increase is fairly steady. Only in the first year and in the
10th year there is a jump. The mean of these values is
We have assumed that the enrolment increases steadily at the rate of 0.22% per year.
So, the Enrolment Percentage (EP) in the first year = 41.9 + 0.22
So, the enrolment percentage in the nth year = 41.9 + 0.22n, for n 1. .... (2)
Now, we also have to find the number of years by which the enrolment will reach 50%.
So, we have to find the value of n from this equation
50 = 41.9 + 0.22n
Step 3 : Solution : Solving (2) for n, we get
50 41.9 8.1
n= = = 36.8
0.22 0.22
Step 4 : (Interpretation) : Since the number of years is an integral value, we will take the next
higher integer, 37. So, the enrolment percentage will reach 50% in 1991 + 37 = 2028.
Step 5 : (Validation) Since we are dealing with a real life situation, we have to see to what
extent this value matches the real situation.
Let us check Formula (2) is in agreement with the reality. Let us find the values for the
years we already know, using Formula (2), and compare it with the known values by finding the
difference. The values are given in Table A.I.4.
Table A.I.4
Year Enrolment Values given by (2) Difference
(in %) (in %) (in %)
0 41.9 41.90 0
1 42.6 42.12 0.48
2 42.7 42.34 0.36
3 42.9 42.56 0.34
4 43.1 42.78 0.32
5 43.2 43.00 0.20
6 43.5 43.22 0.28
7 43.5 43.44 0.06
8 43.6 43.66 -0.06
9 43.7 43.88 -0.18
10 44.1 44.10 0.00
As you can see, some of the values given by Formula (2) are less than the actual values
by about 0.3% or even by 0.5%. This can give rise to a difference of about 3 to 5 years since the
increase per year is actually 1% to 2%. We may decide that this much of a difference is acceptable
and stop here. In this case, (2) is our mathematical model.
Suppose we decide that this error is quite large, and we have to improve this model.
Then, we have to go back to Step 2, and change the equation. Let us do so.
Step 1 : Reformulation : We still assume that the values increase steadily by 0.22%, but we
will now introduce a correction factor to reduce the error, For this, we find the mean of all the
errors. This is
Revised Mathematical Description : Let us now add the mean of the errors to our formula
for enrolment percentage given in (2). So, our corrected formula is :
50 42.08 7.92
n= = = 36
0.22 0.22
Interpretation : Since n = 36, the enrolment of girls in primary schools will reach 50% in the
year 1991 + 36 = 2027.
Validation : Once again, let us compare the values got by using Formula (4) with the actual
values. Table A.I.5 gives the comparison.
Table A.I.5
Year Enrolment Values given Difference Values Difference
(in %) by (2) between given between
Values by (4) values
0 41.9 41.90 0 41.9 0
1 42.6 42.12 0.48 42.3 0.3
2 42.7 42.34 0.36 42.52 0.18
3 42.9 42.56 0.34 42.74 0.16
4 43.1 42.78 0.32 42.96 0.14
5 43.2 43.00 0.20 43.18 0.02
6 43.5 43.22 0.28 43.4 0.1
7 43.5 43.44 0.06 43.62 -0.12
8 43.6 43.66 -0.06 43.84 -0.24
9 43.7 43.88 -0.18 44.06 -0.36
10 44.1 44.10 0.00 44.28 -0.18
As you can see, many of the values that (4) gives are closer to the actual value than the
values that (2) gives. The mean of the errors is 0 in this case.
T RY T HIS
A problem dating back to the early 13th century, posed by Leonardo Fibonacci, asks
how many rabbits you would have in one year if you started with just two and let all of them
reproduce. Assume that a pair of rabbits produces a pair of offspring each month and that
each pair of rabbits produces their first offspring at the age of 2 months. Month by month, the
number of pairs of rabbits is given by the sum of the rabbits in the two preceding months,
except for the 0th and the 1st months. The table below shows how the rabbit population
keeps increasing every month.
Month Pairs of Rabbits
0 1
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 5
5 8
6 13
7 21
8 34
9 55
10 89
11 144
12 233
13 377
14 610
15 987
16 1597
After one year, we have 233 rabbits. After just 16 months, we have nearly 1600 pairs
of rabbits.
Clearly state the problem and the different stages of mathematical modelling in this situation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Probability
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
1
Observe that the chance of getting a sum of a seven is , which is larger than the
6
chances of getting other numbers as sums.
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : Since the probability of getting the sum 7 is the highest, you
should repeatedly guess the number seven.
Step 5 (Validating the model) : Toss a pair of dice a large number of times and prepare a
relative frequency table. Compare the relative frequencies with the corresponding probabilities.
If these are not close, then possibly the dice are biased. Then, we could obtain data to evaluate
the number towards which the bias is.
Before going to the next try this exercise, we need some background information.
Not having the money you want when you need it, is a common experience for many
people. Whether it is having enough money for buying essentials for daily living, or for buying
comforts, we always require money. To enable the customers with limited funds to purchase
goods like scooters, refrigerators, televisions, cars, etc., a scheme known as an instalment scheme
(or plan) is introduced by traders.
Sometimes a trader introduces an instalment scheme as a marketing strategy to allow
customers to purchase these articles. Under the instalment scheme, the customer is not required
to make full payment of the article at the time of buying it. She/he is allowed to pay a part of it at
the time of purchase and the rest can be paid in instalments, which could be monthly, quarterly,
half-yearly, or even yearly. Of course, the buyer will have to pay more in the instalment plan,
because the seller is going to charge some interest on account of the payment made at a later date
(called deferred payment).
There are some frequently used terms related to this concept. You may be familiar with
them. For example, the cash price of an article is the amount which a customer has to pay as full
payment of the article at the time it is purchased. Cash down payment is the amount which a
customer has to pay as part payment of the price of an article at the time of purchase.
Now, try to solve the problem given below by using mathematical modelling.
T RY T HIS
Ravi wants to buy a bicycle. He goes to the market and finds that the bicycle of his
choice costs 2,400. He has only 1,400 with him. To help, the shopkeepr offers to help
him. He says that He can make a down payment of 1400 and pay the rest in monthly
instalments of 550 each. Ravi can either take the shopkeepers offer or go to a bank and
take a loan at 12% per annum simple interest. From these two opportunities which is the best
one to Ravi. Help him.
Answers
E XERCISE - 1.1
1. (i) 90 (ii) 196 (iii) 127
E XERCISE - 1.2
1. (i) 22 5 7 (ii) 22 3 13 (iii) 32 52 17
(iv) 5 7 11
1 13 (v) 17 19 23
E XERCISE - 1.3
1. (i) 0.375 (terminating) (ii) 0.5725 (terminating) (iii) 4.2 (terminating)
(iv) 0.18 (non-terminating, repeating) (v) 0.064 (terminating)
3. (i) 0.52 (ii) 0.9375 (iii) 0.115 (iv) 32.08 (v) 1.3
4. (i) Rational (ii) Not a rational (iii) Rational
E XERCISE - 1.5
1 1
1. (i) (ii) (iii) 4
2 4
1
(iv) 0 (v) (vi) 9
2
(vii) 3 (viii) 3 (ix) 12
5. (i) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(ii) C = {17, 26, 35, 44, 53, 62, 71, 80}
(iii) D = {2, 3, 5}
(iv) E = {B, E, T, R}
E XERCISE - 2.2
1. Yes, A B B A {1, 2, 3}
2. A =
A A=A
3. A B = {2, 4, 8, 10}
B A = {3, 9, 12, 15}
4. A B=B
E XERCISE - 2.3
1. (i) Yes, equal set (ii) not equal set (iii) not equal set
2. (i) equal set(=) (ii) not equal set ( ) (iii) equal set (=)
(iv) not equal set ( ) (v) not equal set ( ) (vi) not equal set ( )
(vii) not equal set ( )
E XERCISE - 2.4
1. (i) Not empty (ii) empty (iii) empty
(iv) empty (v) not empty
2. (i) finite (ii) finite (iii) finite
3. (i) finite (ii) infinite (iii) infinite
(iv) infinite
E XERCISE - 3.1
1. (a) (i) 6 (ii) 7 (iii) 6
(b) Left to children
E XERCISE - 3.2
1. (i) No zeroes (ii) 1 (iii) 3
(iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 3
1
4. p = 0 and p ( 1) = 0
4
E XERCISE - 3.3
1 1 3 1
1. (i) 4, 2 (ii) , (iii) ,
2 2 2 3
4
(iv) 0, 2 (v) 15, - 15 (vi) 1,
3
2. (i) 4x2 x 4 (ii) 3x 2 3 2 x 1 (iii) x2 5
(iv) x2 x 1 (v) 4 x2 x 1 (vi) x 2 4 x 1
3. (i) x2 x 2 (ii) x2 3 (iii) 4 x 2 3x 1
(iv) 4 x2 8x 3
4. 1, 1 and 3 are zeros of the given polynomial.
E XERCISE - 3.4
1. (i) Quotient = x 3 and remainder = 7x 9
(ii) Quotient = x2 + x 3 and remainder = 8
E XERCISE - 4.1
1. (a) Intersect at a point (b) Coincident (c) Parallel
3
2. (a) Consistent, x=2, y=1 (b) Inconsistent (c) Consistent, x=3, y =
2
(d) Consistent, infinite number of solutions (e) Consistent, infinite number of solutions
(f) Consistent, infinite number of solutions
(g) Inconsistent (h) Consistent, x=3, y=2 (i) Inconsistent
3. Number of pants = 2; Number of skirts = 2
4. Number of Girls = 7; Number of boys = 3
5. Cost of pencil = 3; Cost of pen = 5
6. Length = 20 m; Width = 16 m
7. (i) 3x + 2y 7 = 0
(ii) 2x + 3y 10 = 0
(iii) 4x + 6y 16 = 0
8. Length = 40 units; Breadth = 30 units
9. Number of students = 16; Number of benches = 5
E XERCISE - 4.2
1. Income of 1st person = 18000; Income of 2nd person = 14000
2. 42 and 24
3. Angles are 99º and 81º
4. (i) Fixed charge = 40; Charge per km = 18 (ii) 490
7
5.
9
6. 60 km/h; 40 km/h.
7. 59º and 31º
8. 659 and 723
9. 40 ml and 60 ml
10. 7200 and 4800
E XERCISE - 4.3
1 1
1. (i) (4, 5) (ii) , (iii) (4, 9)
2 4
1 1
(iv) (1, 2) (v) (3, 2) (vi) ,
2 3
(vii) (3, 2) (viii) (1, 1)
2. (i) Speed of boat = 8 km/h; Speed of stream = 3 km/h
(ii) Speed of train = 60 km/h; Speed of car = 80 km/h
(iii) Number of days by man = 36; Number of days by woman = 18
E XERCISE - 5.1
1. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No
(iv) Yes (v) Yes (vi) No
(vii) No (viii) Yes
2. (i) 2x2 + x 528 = 0 (x = Breadth)
(ii) x2 + x 306 = 0 (x = Smaller integer)
(iii) x2 + 32x 273 = 0 (x = Rohan's Age)
(iv) x2 8x 1280 = 0 (x = Speed of the train)
E XERCISE - 5.2
3 5
1. (i) 2; 5 (ii) 2; (iii) 2;
2 2
1 1 1 1
(iv) ; (v) ; (vi) 6; 2
4 4 10 10
2 8
(vii) 1, (viii) 1; 3 (ix) 7,
3 3
2. 13, 14
3. 17, 18;
4. 5 cm, 12 cm
5. Number of articles = 6; Cost of each article = 15
6. 4 m; 10 m
7. Base = 12 cm; Altitide = 8 cm
8. 15 km, 20 km
9. 20 or 40
10. 9 kmph
E XERCISE - 5.3
1 33 1 33 3 3
1. (i) , (ii) ,
4 4 2 2
3
(iii) and 2 (iv) 1, 5
5
3 13 3 13
3. (i) , (ii) 1, 2
2 2
4. 7 years
5. Maths = 12, Einglish = 18 (or) Maths = 13, English = 17
6. 120 m; 90 m
7. 18, 12; 18, 12
8. 40 kmph
9. 15 hours, 25 hours
10. Speed of the passenger train = 33 kmph
Speed of the express train = 44 kmph
11. 18 m; 12 m
12. 6 seconds
13. 13 sides; No
E XERCISE - 5.4
1. (i) Real roots do not exist
2 2
(ii) Real and Equal roots; ,
3 3
3 3 3 3
(iii) Real and Distinct roots; ,
2 2
2. (i) k 2 6 (ii) k 6
3. Yes; 40 m; 20 m
4. Not possible
5. Yes; 20 m; 20 m
E XERCISE - 6.1
1. (i) AP (ii) Not AP (iii) AP (iv) Not AP
2. (i) 10, 20, 30, 40 (ii) 2, 2, 2, 2
1 1
(iii) 4, 1, 2, 5 (iv) 1, , 0,
2 2
(v) 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2
3. (i) a1 = 3; d = 2 (ii) a1 = 5; d=4
1 4
(iii) a1 ; d (iv) a1 = 0.6; d = 1.1
3 3
4. (i) not in A.P.
9
(ii) AP, next three terms = 4, ,5
2
(iii) AP, next three terms = 9.2, 11.2, 13.2
(iv) AP, next three terms = 6, 10, 14
1 1 1
(viii) AP, next three terms = , ,
2 2 2
E XERCISE - 6.2
1. (i) a8 = 28 (ii) d=2 (iii) a = 46
13
(iii) a2 = ; a3 = 8
2
(iv) a2 = 2; a3 = 0; a4 = 2; a5 = 4
(v) a1 = 53; a3 = 23; a4 = 8; a5 = 7
4. 16th term
5. (i) 34 (ii) 27
6. No 7. 178 8. 5 9. 1
10. 100 11. 128 12. 60 13. 13
14. AP = 4, 10, 16, .... 15. 158
16. 13, 8, 3 17. 11th year
E XERCISE - 6.3
33 13
1. (i) 245 (ii) 180 (iii) 5505 (iv) 1
20 20
2093 1
2. (i) 1046 (ii) 286 (iii) 8930
2 2
7
3. (i) n = 16, Sn = 440 (ii) d , S13 273
3
(iii) a = 4, S12 = 246 (iv) d = 1, a10 = 8
(v) n = 5; a5 = 34 (vi) n = 7; a = 8
(vii) a=4
4. n = 38; S38 = 6973
5. 5610
6. n2
7. (i) 525 (ii) 465
8. S1 = 3; S2 = 4; a2 = 1; a3 = 1; a10 = 15
an = 5 2n
9. 4920 10. 160, 140, 120, 100, 80, 60, 40
11. 234 12. 143cm 13. 16, 5 14. 370m
E XERCISE - 6.4
1. (i) yes (ii) No (iii) Yes
5 5
2. (i) 4, 12, 36, .... (ii) 5, , ,...
5 25
1 1 1
(iii) 81, 27, 9, .... (iv) , , , ......
64 32 16
1 1 1
3. (i) Yes; 32, 64, 128 (ii) Yes, , ,
24 48 96
(iii) No (iv) Yes, 54, 162, 486 (v) No
1 1 1
(vi) Yes; 81, 243, 729 (vii) Yes; , , , ......
x 2 x3 x 4
E XERCISE - 6.5
1 1 n1
1. (i) r = ; an 3
2 2
(ii) r = 3; an = 2( 3)n-1
(iii) r = 3; an = 1(3)n-1
2 2 n1
(iv) r= 5; an 5
5
2. a10 = 510; an = 5n
1 4
3. (i) (ii)
34 34
9 3
5. 3 210 6. , , 1, .... 7. 5
4 2
E XERCISE - 7.1
E XERCISE - 7.2
5 7
1. (1, 3) 2. 2, and 0,
3 3
2 20
5. (3, 10) 6. ,
7 7
3, 3 9
7. , (2, 3), 1,
2 2
7 13 5a b 5a b
8. 1, , (0, 5), 1, 9. ,
2
2 5 5
2 10 5 2 5
10. (i) , 2 (ii) , (iii) ,
3 3 3 3 3
E XERCISE - 7.3
1. (i) 10.5 sq. units (ii) 32 sq. units (iii) 3 sq. units
7
2. (i) K=4 (ii) K=3 (iii) K=
3
3. 1 sq. unit ; 1 : 4 4. 28 sq. units 5. (i) 6 sq. units (ii) 6 sq. units
E XERCISE - 7.4
4b b
1. (i) 6 (ii) 3 (iii) (iv)
a a
1
(v) 5 (vi) 0 (vii) (viii) 1
7
E XERCISE - 8.2
1. (ii) DE = 2.8 cm
2. 8 cm 3. 1.6 m 7. 16 m
E XERCISE - 8.3
3. 1: 4 4. 2 1 6. 96 cm2 8. 3.5 cm
E XERCISE - 8.4
8. 6 7 m 9. 13 m 12. 1: 2
E XERCISE - 9.1
1. (i) One (ii) Secant of a circle (iii) Two
(iv) Point of contact (v) Infinite
2. PQ = 12 cm 4. 12 cm
E XERCISE - 9.2
1. (i) d (ii) a (iii) b (iv) a (v) c
2. 8 cm 4. AB = 15 cm, AC = 9 cm
5. 8 cm each 6. 2 5 cm 9. Two
E XERCISE - 9.3
1. (i) 28.5 cm2 (ii) 285.5 cm2
2. 88.368 cm2 3. 1254.96 cm2 4. 57 cm2
5. 10.5 cm2 6. 6.125 cm2 7. 102.67 cm2
8. 57 cm2
E XERCISE - 10.1
1. 5500 cm2 2. 154000 cm2 (15.4 m2) 3. 264 c.c.
4. 1:2 5. 21 7. 21175 cm3
8. 301.44 m3, 188.4m2 9. 37 cm
E XERCISE - 10.2
1. 103.62 cm2 2. 1155.52 cm2 3. 220 mm2
4. 160 cm2 5. 827.20
6. a 2 6 sq. units 7. 374 cm2
4
E XERCISE - 10.3
1. 693 kg 2. Height of cone = 21 cm; Surface area of toy = 794.64 cm2
3. 89.83 cm3 4. 616 cm3 5. 309.57 cm3
49 113 8
7. (i) (ii)
64 7
8. (i) 1 (ii) 0
E XERCISE - 11.2
3
1. (i) 2 (ii) (iii) 1
4 2
(iv) 2 (v) 1
3. 1 4. Yes
5. QR = 6 3 cm; PR = 12 cm
6. YXZ = 30º; YZX = 60º 7. False
E XERCISE - 11.3
1. (i) 1 (ii) 0 (iii) 0
(iv) 1 (v) 1
3. A = 36º 6. cos 15º + sin 25º
E XERCISE - 11.4
1. (i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 1
1
6. 1 8. 1 9.
p
E XERCISE - 12.1
1. 15 m 2. 6 3m 3. 4m
4. 60º 5. 60 m 6. 4 3m
7. 8.3136m, 4.1568 m 8. 300 m 9. 15 m 10. 7.5 cm2
E XERCISE - 12.2
1. Height of the tower = 5 3 m; Width of the road = 5 m
2. 32.908 m 3. 1.464 m 4. 19.124 m
5. 7.608 m 6. 10 m 7. 51.96 feets; 30 feet, 90 feet
8. 6m 9. 200 m/sec.
E XERCISE - 13.1
1. (i) 1 (ii) 0, Impossible event (iii) 1, Sure event
(iv) 1 (v) 0, 1
2. (i) No (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) Yes
1 1
3. 0.95 4. (i) 0 (ii) 1 5. , , 1, 0
13 3
1 1 1 1
6. 0.008 7. (i) (ii) (iii) 8.
2 2 2 26
E XERCISE - 13.2
3 5
1. (i) (ii)
8 8
5 8 13
2. (i) (ii) (iii)
17 17 17
5 17 5
3. (i) (ii) 4.
9 18 13
1 1 3
5. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 1
8 2 4
1 3 3
6. (i) (ii) (iii)
26 13 26
1 1 1
(iv) (v) (vi)
52 4 52
1 1
7. (i) (ii) a) b) 0
5 4
11 1 15
8. 9. (i) (ii)
12 5 19
9 1 1
10. (i) (ii) (iii)
10 10 5
11 31 5
11. 12. (i) (ii)
84 36 36
13.
Sum on 2 dice 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
Probability
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36
3 25 11
14. 15. (i) (ii)
4 36 36
E XERCISE - 14.1
1. 8.1 plants. We have used direct method because numerical values of xi and fi are small.
2. 313 3. f = 20 4. 75.9
8. 49 days 9. 69.43%
E XERCISE - 14.2
1. Mode = 36.8 years, Mean = 35.37 years, Maximum number of patients admitted in the
hospital are of the age 36.8 years (approx.), while on an average the age of a patient
admitted to the hospital is 35.37 years.
2. 65.625 hours
3. Modal monthly expenditure = 1847.83, Mean monthly expenditure = 2662.5.
4. Mode : 30.6, Mean = 29.2. Most states/U.T. have a student teacher ratio of 30.6 and
on an average, this ratio is 29.2.
5. Mode = 4608.7 runs.
6. Mode = 44.7 cars
E XERCISE - 14.3
1. Median = 137 units, Mean = 137.05 units, Mode = 135.76 units.
2. x = 8, y = 7
E XERCISE - 14.4
1. Daily income (in ) Cumulative frequency
Less than 300 12
Less than 350 26 Draw ogive by plotting the points :
(300, 12), (350, 26), (400, 34),
Less than 400 34
(450, 40) and (500, 50)
Less than 450 40
Less than 500 50
2. Draw the ogive by plotting the points : (38, 0), (40, 3), (42, 5), (44, 9), (46, 14),
n
(48, 28), (50, 32) and (52, 35). Here =17.5. Locate the point on the ogive whose
2
ordinate is 17.5. The x-coordinate of this point will be the median.
3. Production yield (kg/ha) Cumulative frequency
More than or equal to 50 100
More than or equal to 55 98
More than or equal to 60 90
More than or equal to 65 78
More than or equal to 70 54
More than or equal to 75 16
Now, draw the ogive by plotting the points : (50, 100), (55, 98), (60, 90), (65, 78),
(70, 54) and (75, 16).
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has decided to revise the curriculum of all the subjects
based on Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum Framework (APSCF-2011). The framework emphasises
that all children must learn and the mathematics learnt at school must be linked to the life and
experience of them. The NCF-2005, the position paper on Mathematics of the NCERT and the Govt.
of Andhra Pradesh emphasise, building understanding and developing the capability, exploration and
inclination to mathematize experiences. This would become more possible at the secondary level.
We have consolidated the basic framework of mathematics in class-IX and now we are at level of
completion of secondary level of mathematics. In previous classes, we have encouraged the students
for greater abstraction and formal mathematical formulation. We made them to deal with proofs and
use mathematical language. It is important to recognise that as we go forward the language- in which
mathematical arguments and statements- are presented would become even more symbolic. It is
therefore important in this class to help children become comfortable and competent in using
mathematical ideas. In class-X, we will make all such idea at level of total abstraction.
It would be important to consider all the syllabi from class-VI to X while looking at teaching
class X. The nature and extent of abstraction and use of mathematical language is gradually increasing.
The program here would also become axiomatic and children must be slowly empowered to deal with
that. One of the major difficulties children have in moving forward and learning secondary mathematics
is their inability to deal with the axiomatic nature and language of symbols. They need to have an
opportunity to learn and develop these perspectives by engaging with, as a team. Peer support in
overcoming the difficulties is critical and it would be important to put them in a group to think, discuss
and solve problems. When children will learn such things in class-X, it will be helpful for them in future
mathematical learning also.
The syllabus is based on the structural approach, laying emphasis on the discovery and
understanding of basic mathematical concepts and generalisations. The approach is to encourage
participation and discussion in classroom activities.
The syllabus in textbook of Class-X Mathematics has been divided broadly into six areas
Number System, Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Statistics and Coordinate Geometry.
Teaching of the topics related to these areas will develop the skills such as problem solving, logical
thinking, mathematical communication, representing data in various forms, using mathematics as
one of the disciplines of study and also in daily life situations.
This text book attempts to enhance this endeavor by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplations. There is a scope for discussion in small groups and activities
required for hands on experience in the form of ‘Do this’ and ‘Try this’. Teacher’s support is needed in
setting the situations in the classroom and also for development of interest in new book.
Exercises in ‘Do This’ and ‘Try This’ are given extensively after completion of each concept.
The problems which are given under ‘Do This’ are based on the concept taught and ‘Try This’ problems
are intended to test the skills of generalization of facts, ensuring correctness and questioning. ‘Think,
Discuss and Write’ has given to understand the new concept among students in their own words.
Entire syllabus in class-X Mathematics is divided into 14 chapters with an appendix, so that
a child can go through the content well in bit wise to consolidate the logic and enjoy the learning of
mathematics. Colourful pictures, diagrams, readable font size will certainly help the children to adopt
the contents and care this book as theirs.
Chapter-1 : Real number, we are discussing about the exploration of real numbers in which
the brief account of fundamental theorem of arithmetic, rational numbers their decimal expansion
and non-terminating recurring rational numbers has given. Here we are giving some more about the
irrational numbers. In this chapter, first time we are introducing logarithms and we have discussed
about basic laws of logarithms and their application.
Chapter-2 : Sets, this is entirely a new chapter at the level of secondary students. In old
syllabus it was there but here we are introducing it in class X. This chapter is introduced with wide
variety of examples which are dealing about the definition of sets, types of set, Venn diagrams,
operations of sets, differences between sets. In this chapter we dealt about how to develop a common
understanding of sets. How can you make set of any objects?
Chapter-3 : Polynomials, we are discussing about the fact "what are polynomials?" and
degree and value of polynomials come under it. This time we look at the graphical representation of
quadratic and cubic polynomials. Here we are taking care of zeros and coefficients of a polynomial &
their relationship. We also start with cubic polynomials and division algorithm of polynomials.
Chapter-4 : Pair of linear equations in two variables, we start the scenario with discussing
about finding of unknown quantities and use of two equations together. Solution of pair of linear
equations in two variables with the help of graphical and algebraic methods has done. Here we have
illustrated so many examples to understand the relation between coefficients and nature of system
of equations. Reduction of equation to two variable linear equation has done here.
The problem is framed in such a way to emphasis the correlation between various chapters
within the mathematics and other subjects of daily life of human being. This chapter links the ability
of finding unknown with every day experience.
Chapter-5 : Quadratic equations, states the meaning of quadratic equation and solution of
quadratic equation with the factorizations completion of squares. Nature of roots is defined here with
the use of parabola.
Chapter-6 : Progressions, we have introduced this chapter first time on secondary level. In
this chapter we are taking about arithmetic progressions and geometric progressions. How the
terms progressing arithmetically and geometrically in progressions discussed. The number of terms,
nth terms, sum of terms are stated in this chapter.
Chapter-7 : Coordinate geometry, deals with finding the distance between two points on
cartesion plane, section formula, centroid of a triangle and trisectional points of a line. In this, we are
also talking about area of the triangle on plane and finding it with the use of 'Heron's formula'. The
slope on straight line is also introduced here.
We are keeping three chapters (8, 9, 10) in X mathematics book and all of them are having
emphasis on learning geometry using reasoning, intuitive understanding and insightful personal
experience of meanings. If helps in communicating and solving problems and obtaining new relations
among various plane figures. In chapter 9 Tangents and Secants to a circle, we have introduced the
new terms tangent and secant with their properties. We have also discussed about the segment and
area of that which is formed by secant. Mensuration is presented in combination of solids and finding
of their volume and area.
We are keeping two new chapters (11 & 12) at secondary level for the first time. The
applications of triangles are used with giving relation with the hypotenuse, perpendicular and base.
These chapters are the introduction of trigonometry which have very big role in higher studies and
also in determination of so many measurements. Applications of trigonometry are also given with
brief idea of using triangle.
Chapter-13 : Probability, is little higher level chapter than the last chapter which we have
introduced in class IX. Here we are taking about different terms of probability by using some daily life
situations.
The success of any course depends not only on the syllabus but also on the teachers and
the teaching methods they employ. It is hoped that all teachers are concerned with the improving of
mathematics education and they will extend their full co operation in this endeavour.
The production of good text books does not ensure the quality of education, unless the
teachers transact the curriculum in a way as it is discussed in the text book. The involvement and
participation of learner in doing the activities and problems with an understanding is ensured.
Students should be made to digest the concepts given in “What we have discussed”
completely. Teachers may prepare their own problems related to the concepts besides solving the
problems given in the exercises. So it is hopped that the teachers will bring a paradigm shift in the
classroom process from mere solving the problems in the exercises routinely to the conceptual
understanding, solving of problems with ingenity.
Syllabus
I. NUMBER SYSTEM (23 PERIODS)
(i) Real numbers (15 periods)
• More about rational and irrational numbers.
• Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic - Statements.
• Proofs of results - irrationality of 2, 3 etc. and Decimal expansions of rational numbers
in terms of terminating / non-terminating recurring decimals and vice versa.
• Properties of real numbers (after reviewing lookdone earlier and after illustrating and
motivating through examples)
• Introduction of logarithms
• Conversion of a number in exponential form to a logarithmic form
• Properties of logarithms loga a = 1; loga 1 = 0
• Laws of logarithms
x
log xy = log x + log y; log = log x - log y; log xn = n log x
y
• Standard base of logarithm and use of logarithms in daily life situations (not meant for
examination)
(ii) Sets (8 periods)
• Sets and their representations
• Empty set, Finite and infinite sets, universal set
• Equal sets, subsets, subsets of set of real numbers (especially intervals and notations)
• Venn diagrams and cardinality of sets
• Basic set operations - union and intersection of sets
• Disjoint sets, difference of sets
II. ALGEBRA (46 PERIODS)
(i) Polynomials (8 periods)
• Zeroes of a polynomial
• Geometrical meaning of zeroes of linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials using graphs.
• Relationship between zeroes and coefficients of a polynomial.
• Simple problems on division algorithm for polynomials with integral coefficients
(ii) Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables (15 periods)
• Forming a linear equation in two variables through illustrated examples.
• Graphical representation of a pair of linear equations of different possibilities of solutions
/ in consistency.
• Algebraic conditions for number of solutions
• Solution of pair of linear equations in two variables algebraically - by Substitution, by
elimination.
• Simple and daily life problems on equations reducible to linear equations.
(iii) Quadratic Equations (12 periods)
• Standard form of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 0.
• Solutions of quadratic equations (only real roots) by factorisation and by completing the
square i.e. by using quadratic formula.
PQ = ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2
• Section formula (internal division of a line segment in the ratio m : n).
• Area of triangle on coordinate plane.
• Slope of a line joining two points
V. TRIGONOMETRY (23 PERIODS)
(i) Trigonometry (15 periods)
• Trigonometric ratios of an actute angle of a right angled triangle i.e. sine, cosine, tangent,
cosecant, secant and cotangent.
• Values of trigonometric ratios of 30o, 45o and 60o (with proofs).
• Relationship between the ratios and trigonometric ratios for complementary angles.
• Trigonometric Identities.
(i) sin2 A + cos2 A = 1, (ii) 1 + tan2 A = sec2 A, (iii) cot2 A + 1 = cosec2 A
(ii) Applications of Trigonometry (8 periods)
• Angle of elevation, angle of depression.
• Simple and daily life problems on heights and distomces
• Problems involving not more than two right triangles and angles of elevation / depression
confined to 30o, 45o and 60o.
VI. MENSURATION (10 PERIODS)
(i) Surface Areas and Volumes
• Problems on finding surface area and volumes of combinations of any two of the following
i.e. cubes, cubiods, right cicular cylinders, cones spheres and hemispheres.
• Problems involving converting one type of metallic solid into anothers and finding volumes
and other mixed problems involving not more than two different solids.
VII. DATA HANDLING (25 PERIODS)
(i) Statistics
• Revision of mean, median and mode of ungrouped (frequency distribution) data.
• Understanding the concept of Arithmetic mean, median and mode for grouped (classified)
data.
• Simple problems on finding mean, median and mode for grouped/ungrouped data with
different methods.
• Usage and different values of central tendencies through ogives.
(ii) Probability (10 periods)
• Revision of concept and definition of probability.
• Simple problems (day to day life situation) on single events using set notation.
• Concept of complimentary events.
APPENDIX
Mathematical Modeling (8 periods)
• Concept of Mathematical modelling
• Discussion of broad stages of modelling-real life situations (Simple interest, Fair
installments payments etc. ....)
Academic Standards : Academic standards are clear statements about what students
must know and be able to do. The following are categories on the basis of which we lay
down academic standards.