Fe 1

Coordination Chemistry Reviews 507 (2024) 215750
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Coordination Chemistry Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ccr
Review
Catalyzing innovation: Exploring iron oxide nanoparticles - Origins,

advancements, and future application horizons
Pankaj Kumar a, Nikesh Thakur a, Kuldeep Kumar b, Sunil Kumar c, Ateet Dutt d, *,
Vijay Kumar Thakur e, Citlaly Gutiérrez-Rodelo f, *, Pankaj Thakur g, Andrés Navarrete f,
Naveen Thakur a, *
a
Department of Physics, Career Point University, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh 176041, India
b
Department of Chemistry, Career Point University, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh 176041, India
c
Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh 176206 India
d
Institute of Materials Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
e
Biorefining and Advanced Materials Research Centre, Scotland & Rural College (SRUC), Kings Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
f
Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
g
Special Centre for Nanoscience, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi 110067, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Iron oxides, including wustite (FeO), hematite (α-Fe2O3), maghemite (γ-Fe2O3), and magnetite (Fe3O4), are
Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) remarkable nanomaterials. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) at the nanoscale display super-paramagnetic, high
Magnetite surface area, and biocompatibility, making them ideal for diverse applications. Their influence on matter
Hematite
behavior, interaction with light, electricity, magnetism, and non-toxicity in biological systems make them
Maghemite
Biomedical applications
promise in biomedicine. This review covers IONPs’ properties, emphasizing biological, chemical, and physical
synthesis methods, including doping, coating, and encapsulation. In addition, advancing green synthesis ap
proaches for IONPs are highlighted. We explore their applications in medicine, environmental science, and
pollution solutions, emphasizing their merits. Examining various IONPs and synthesis routes, we underscore
their role in addressing global challenges. IONPs versatility, scalability, and eco-friendliness position them to
transform research and uphold ethical standards. This review unveils the transformative potential of Iron Oxide
Nanoparticles (IONPs), emphasizing their unique attributes—biocompatibility, magnetic responsiveness, and
tunable surface functionalities. IONPs are pivotal in targeted drug delivery, imaging, hyperthermia therapy, and
biosensing. The comprehensive exploration spans biomedical, agricultural, antioxidant, and photocatalytic ap
plications, showcasing IONPs versatility in advancing innovative solutions across diverse domains. Our collective
efforts aim to revolutionize medical treatments, combat environmental issues, and foster a sustainable future
while advocating responsible research and ethics.
1. Introduction probability of growing new classifications, structures, strategies, and

platforms [1,2]. In addition, green approaches for nanotechnology are
Nanotechnology has made significant advancements in science and emerging as a viable and eco-friendly alternative for synthesizing NPs.
technology, creating one of the concepts that have developed most This approach ensures efficiency while maintaining environmental
rapidly recently. Due to their improved thermal conduction, catalytic safety and security, serving as a compelling substitute for conventional
responsiveness, nonlinear optical performance, and chemical constancy, methods [3–5]. Prominent examples in NP synthesis involve using bio
nanoparticles (NPs) are microscopic particles that have attracted the logical extracts, which bring economic advantages and accessibility.
attention of numerous researchers searching for alternative approaches These extracts are natural capping agents during NP production,
for their synthesis. With upcoming bids in a wide range of disciplines, providing stability and controlled growth. Leveraging biological extracts
nanomaterial with unique physical and chemical properties has the for this purpose offers cost-effective benefits and aligns with sustainable
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Dutt), [email protected] (C. Gutiérrez-Rodelo), [email protected] (N. Thakur).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2024.215750
Received 22 September 2023; Accepted 18 February 2024
Available online 29 February 2024
0010-8545/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Kumar et al. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 507 (2024) 215750
practices, harnessing the richness of natural resources. This approach investigated for their applications, prospects in diversity, and their
underscores the versatility of NPs in various fields, including medicine, fundamental scientific significance. Recent research has focused heavily
catalysis, and materials science, while maintaining an environmentally on iron oxide-based nanomaterials with distinctive properties and
friendly and resource-efficient methodology [6]. This unconventional functionality due to their diminutive scale, high surface area, and
strategy manages chemical synthesis, enabling unique size and struc magnetic component [27]. The formation of IONPs is commonly ach
ture, and is focused on biotechnology applications like cancer and ieved through three main techniques: chemical processes, physical
tuberculosis evaluation and therapy [7]. Iron oxide nanoparticles methods, and biological approaches. This earlier research has found that
(IONPs) are specifically intentional and used extensively in bio- IONPs produce NPs that are controlled in shape and size, easy to
environmental activities due to their high magnetic impulses of spin dissolve, stable, and environmentally benign [28]. This review sum
and low poisonous properties [8]. Continuous progress in IONPs syn marizes the most popular synthesis techniques while highlighting the
thesis emphasizes the pursuit of meticulous control over size, benefits and drawbacks of each method. Fig. 1 illustrates the morpho
morphology, and structural features. Improvements in synthesis tech logical variations that can be observed in the product obtained through
niques, advancements in physicochemical characterization methods, different synthesis methods.
and refinements in electrochemical deposition processes facilitate this.
Researchers are dedicated to fine-tuning these methods to customize 2.1. Methods for classifying the synthesis of nanomaterials
IONPs for distinct applications in molecular biology, aligning their
properties with the dynamic requirements of diverse fields [9]. IONPs 2.1.1. Top-down approach
achieve tunability by forming three structural layers: a surface layer Top-down is directed to reduce the bulk material to nano-sized
containing functionalized particles, a shell layer containing other com structures or particles. This approach aims to reduce the bulk
ponents, and a core layer containing the primary chemical element, manufacturing process, eliminate or divide bulk materials, or create the
typically a nanoparticle [10]. Surface functionalization significantly desired structure with the necessary qualities. Examples of these tech
reduces IONPs constraints, offering tunable properties, cost- niques are high-mechanical grinding [32], lithography [33], Etching,
effectiveness, flexibility in synthesis, magnetic switch ability, and and aerosols [34]. However, these methods still have some imperfec
external magnetic field manipulation [11–13]. Iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), tions, such as the accuracy of the surface structure. In nanotechnology,
cobalt (Co), and manganese (Mn) are among the magnetic elements that top-down approaches involve shaping nanoscale structures by starting
IONPs contain. Due to the abundance of iron in the crust, iron is the with more extensive materials and gradually reducing their size. These
foundation of the earth’s chemical components. Moreover, iron is approaches offer precise engineering and scalability advantages but face
economically advantageous and essential to many biological and challenges due to quantum effects, cost, and material loss. Integrating
geological systems. The three most prevalent IONPs found in nature are them with bottom-up strategies and nanolithography has been explored
Fe3O4 [14], α-Fe2O3 [15], and γ-Fe2O3 [16]. Iron combines with oxygen to overcome limitations, enabling their applications in nanomedicine
(O) in its natural phase to form iron oxide. Hematite is produced when and nanoelectronics.
magnetite undergoes additional oxidation. Compared to other types of
IONPs, magnetite has recently attracted significant research attention. 2.1.2. Bottom-up approach
These NPs possess superparamagnetic properties, a broad surface area, The bottom-up is a feasible substitute for the top-down approach,
and a favorable surface-to-volume ratio. This combination effectively involving techniques that generate less waste and are more economical.
isolates the target from a solution by utilizing external magnetic fields in The term “bottom-up approach” refers to building matter atom by atom,
motion. The methods for designing and synthesizing IONPs, including molecule by molecule, or bundle by bundle. Numerous techniques are
co-precipitation, sol–gel, hydrothermal, thermal decomposition, and being developed or only used to produce nano powder for commercial
different surface modifications, are described in the current review purposes. Some well-known bottom-up techniques for producing lumi
[17–19], and their versatile biomedical uses in different areas such as nous NPs include the organometallic chemical method, sol–gel, colloidal
antioxidant, antifungal, and anticancer, hyperthermia, magnetic reso precipitation, hydrothermal, physical vapor deposition, and electrode
nance imaging, and drug delivery [20–23]. A noticeable disparity exists position [35–38].
in IONPs research between earlier investigations and the present state of Bottom-up approaches in nanotechnology involve constructing
understanding. While previous studies established the groundwork for nanoscale structures by arranging atoms and molecules through self-
comprehending NPs properties, recent advancements and emerging assembly and chemical reactions. These methods offer precise control,
challenges underscore the necessity for continued exploration [24]. lead to materials with unique properties, and find applications in fields
Critical areas demanding attention encompass tailored surface modifi like medicine and electronics. While these approaches provide
cations for specific applications, thorough exploration of biological in numerous advantages, they also present several challenges, including
teractions and toxicity, investigation into multifunctional applications complexity, scalability, and characterization difficulties. Advances in
like theragnostic, and the imperative connection between laboratory self-assembly techniques, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the crea
findings and clinical applications [25]. The environmental impact, the tion of innovative nanomaterials contribute to the potential of bottom-
potential of magnetic hyperthermia in cancer treatment, and the stan up approaches in nanotechnology. Various methods (chemical, phys
dardization of synthesis methods are also underscored as pivotal di ical, and biological) follow both bottom–up and top-down approaches
rections for forthcoming research endeavors [26]. This review unveils for synthesizing IONPs. There is also a boom in environmentally friendly
the objective of the transformative potential of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles growth methods involving green synthesis (biological nature), which
(IONPs), emphasizing their unique attributes—biocompatibility, mag will be mentioned in detail in the following sections and exemplified in
netic responsiveness, and tunable surface functionalities. IONPs are Fig. 2.
paramount in targeted drug delivery, imaging, hyperthermia therapy, The impact of synthesis conditions on the characteristics of IONPs
and biosensing. The comprehensive exploration spans biomedical, goes beyond their crystal structure, extending to morphological attri
agricultural, antioxidant, and photocatalytic applications, showcasing butes like size, shape, surface characteristics, and functional properties
IONPs versatility in advancing innovative solutions across diverse such as magnetic behavior and stability [39]. This intricate interplay
domains. provides a nuanced understanding that enables researchers to fine-tune
synthesis protocols for specific applications, spanning from biomedical
2. Different synthesis routes of IONPs imaging to environmental remediation. Consequently, delving into the
synthesis-method-property relationship is essential for unlocking the
The synthesis of the IONPs mentioned above is being thoroughly complete potential of IONPs across a spectrum of technological domains.
2
Fig. 1. Combination of hexagonal and elliptical synthetic IONPs, grain size ~ 97 nm (a,b,c,d), reprinted with Elsevier permission (License No. 5697041484630)
[29]. E- Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of eggshell-mediated hematite NPs for (e) 5 g and (f) 5 g. Copyright © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI,
Basel, Switzerland [30]. SEM images of (g) β-FeOOH nanostructure and (h) α-Fe2O3. Copyright © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland [31].
Fig. 2. General approaches for synthesizing IONPs. The bottom-up approach is directed at assembling single molecules into larger nanostructures. In contrast, the
Top-down approach indicates breaking down Bulk material to generate nanostructures. Diverse production methods for bottom-up and top-down approaches
encompass chemical, physical, and biological synthesis. Within the top-down techniques, physical and chemical methods include chemical etching, laser ablation,
mechanical milling, ball milling, sputtering, and electroporation. Chemical vapor deposition, sol–gel process, laser pyrolysis, atomic molecular condensation, and
aerosol process are exemplified for bottom-up approaches. Additionally, bottom-up alternatives include biology-based green chemistry methods using different parts
of plants, microorganisms (from bacteria, fungi, and algae), and mushrooms. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
3
2.2. Chemical routes the microemulsion method for NPs synthesis holds significant promise
for advancing both efficiency and versatility. The exploration of incor
2.2.1. Co-Precipitation method porating environmentally friendly components aligns with sustainable
Aqueous co-precipitation is the most popular technique for creating practices, fostering the evolution of green synthesis methods. In essence,
IONPs chemically. Briefly, co-precipitation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions salts redirecting research endeavors towards these innovative dimensions can
occurs in a reasonably basic solution at ambient temperature and when propel the microemulsion method into new realms, unlocking its ca
combusted. Generally, this is a feasible and inexpensive technique that pacity to produce tailored NPs with enhanced properties across diverse
allows for a quick, significant amount of IONPs. However, the resulting fields.
NPs can have common issues with the aqueous synthesis routes, such as
aggregation, large size distribution, poor crystallinity, and a propensity 2.2.3. Hydrothermal and solvothermal method
to oxidize, compromising their magnetic properties [40]. Moreover, the The hydrothermal method produces uniform IONPs by exposing iron
reacting agents sequence and stabilizers presence may affect the particle precursors to vapor in a reaction vessel under high pressure and tem
size, dimension, shape, structure, and magnetic features. Recent studies perature in an aqueous solution [48]. Under these specific conditions,
have modified the co-precipitation techniques to enhance the properties hydrothermal methods lead to Fe3+ ions and Fe3O4 oxidation. In hy
of the NPs to improve base intensity, temperature, Fe2+/Fe3+ propor drothermal synthesis, typically conducted in a high-pressure, high-
tion, significance, and ionic strength [41]. temperature aqueous environment, Fe3+ ions and Fe3O4 undergo
For instance, spherical IONPs of various sizes can be produced by oxidation reactions, forming IONPs. The hydrothermal method may
varying the pH of the precipitation and the volume measurements of involve using precursors, surfactants, and control over reaction param
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), taking advan eters such as temperature and pressure to influence the size,
tage of the linear relationship between IONPs diameter and pH, which is morphology, and crystalline structure of the resulting IONPs. The sol
likely caused by NPs aggregation [42]. There are some restrictions on vothermal method, which involves switching out water for other organic
the use of IONPs in biomedical and toxicological effects; however, these solvents, can be used to create narrow-size distribution IONPs with high
can be reduced by surface functionalizing them with biocompatible crystallinity and controlled shape when aqueous chemical methods
entities (such as polymers, monoclonal antibodies, gene delivery, reac produce particles with low crystallization [49,50] However, compared
tive species, etc.), which cover the entire surface of IONP and thereby to the microemulsion technique, such methods require more time to
provide biocompatibility. Although existing approaches take little time accomplish results [51]. Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods are
to create large quantities of NPs, they need hazardous chemicals, such as high-temperature synthesis techniques for creating IONPs. They offer
stabilizers, to keep them stable, which could cause environmental controlled size, morphology, and homogeneity, with advantages
toxicity [43,44]. including simplified processes and crystalline purity. Challenges involve
Exploration into the co-precipitation method for synthesizing NPs is optimizing reaction conditions, scalability, and energy consumption.
poised for progress through innovative avenues. These include Perspectives encompass functionalization, advanced characterization,
customizing particle morphology, employing surface functionalization, green synthesis, and diverse applications like nanomedicine. Diversi
doping for enhanced properties, and adopting green synthesis practices. fying research in hydrothermal and solvothermal methods for NP syn
Additionally, in-situ characterization techniques, industrial scaling, and thesis includes refining reaction conditions like temperature and
multi-element or hybrid NP investigations offer promising research di pressure to customize particle attributes. Exploring alternative solvents
rections. A comprehensive understanding of reaction kinetics is essential and incorporating green chemistry principles may elevate the sustain
for optimizing parameters and achieving meticulous control over NPs ability of these approaches, broadening their utility in diverse
size and characteristics. Derse paths within co-precipitation research applications.
present opportunities to enhance efficiency, broaden applications, and
contribute to advancements across various domains [45]. 2.2.4. Thermal decomposition method
In a process known as thermal decomposition, ferrocene or inorganic
2.2.2. Microemulsion method materials are broken down in a strong-boiling solvent made from
The microemulsion method creates stable emulsions with petite organic matter containing stabilizing compounds like alkyl amine and
droplet sizes by combining immiscible liquids (oil and water) with lipids [52]. By increasing the production IONPs with precise particle
surfactants and sometimes cosurfactants. The mixture is adjusted distribution and dimension control and improvements to their magnetic
through titration to form a clear and transparent microemulsion suitable and crystal structure, this technique gets around the drawbacks of co-
for various applications, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, chemical precipitation. This happens because it is possible to separate the accu
reactions, NPs synthesis, enhanced oil recovery, and the food industry. mulation from the expansion, avoiding complicated hydrolysis re
This method is versatile and valuable for producing controlled and actions. Using this technique, iron oxide nanocrystals have substantial
stable emulsions in different fields [46]. quantities and narrow-size distributions, and no aggregation can be
The specific surface area of NPs and, by extension, their magneti produced [53].
zation is highly influenced by the type of surfactant substance, the IONPs formed by this method have hydrophilic surfaces and,
amount of Fe2+/Fe3+ ions present, temperature, and pH level, as consequently, are acceptable for biological solutions; additional treat
demonstrated in microemulsion experiments of IONPs [47]. Although ments must be carried out because they are insoluble in distilled water
this method offers a small size range, it has some constraints for (DW). Higher temperatures and faster synthesis reactions can also result
biomedical applications, such as the need for low temperatures and a in materials with greater reflexivity and saturation magnetization [54].
significant amount of oil, which restricts considerable quantity. The The thermal decomposition method is employed to synthesize IONPs by
microemulsion method offers advantages like uniform droplet sizes and heating precursor compounds. It provides controlled size and shape,
enhanced solubility of the synthesized materials IONPs. Still, challenges high purity, and monodispersed. Challenges also include optimizing
such as formulation complexity and stability must be addressed while reaction conditions, preventing aggregation, and scalability. Pioneering
performing this method. Ongoing research and technological advance new directions in thermal decomposition methods for NPs synthesis
ments are expected to expand the methods applicability and improve holds immense potential. Investigating cutting-edge precursors, refining
their feasibility in various fields. Embarking on uncharted research temperature profiles, and optimizing inert atmospheres allows for the
paths within the domain of the microemulsion method for NPs synthesis customization of particle characteristics. Prioritizing sustainability and
presents a compelling opportunity to enhance both efficiency and scalability, alongside combining multifunctional materials, promises to
versatility. Venturing into new research directions within the realm of reshape the methods capacities, facilitating diverse applications in
4
nanotechnology and beyond. 2.3. Physical routes
2.2.5. Sol-Gel reaction and polyol method 2.3.1. Pyrolysis method

In the sol–gel reaction, condensation and hydrolysis processes occur The pyrolysis method involves heating iron-containing precursor
in the presence of iron alkoxides and ions (such as chlorides, nitrates, compounds to IONPs at elevated temperatures in an oxygen-limited
and acetates). This approach has a prominent advantage: high purity, environment. Thermal decomposition of the precursor leads to the for
quantity, and homogeneity. However, the reaction uses expensive pre mation of NPs with size and properties influenced by factors like tem
cursor chemicals, and the resulting NPs may have low surface roughness perature and precursor composition [62]. This method yields pure,
resistance as well as elevated permeability. However, the final crystal homogeneous samples with excellent size and shape circulation. Since it
linity of the product can be affected by process variables like pH, tem uses atmospheric pressure to perform, it is less expensive than alterna
perature, and reagent concentration [55]. The polyol approach employs tive approaches. This controlled approach allows for tailored NP char
a reduction reaction and heats the polyol to its boiling temperature to acteristics and finds applications in fields such as biomedicine and
function as a solvent and reducing agent in a solution containing iron electronics. Careful parameter selection is crucial for desired outcomes,
precursors while controlling the growth of the particles [56]. The iron and staying informed about research developments is vital for opti
precursor content, reaction duration, and polyol influence the NP size. It mizing the pyrolysis process [63,64]. Revamping research on the py
has been shown that the size of the NPs increases almost proportionally rolysis method, scientists can delve into discovering innovative catalysts
to the length of the ethylene glycol in this fashion [57]. The polyol and precursor materials to improve product selectivity and overall
approach and the sol–gel reaction can create IONPs with regulated size control. Exploring sustainable feedstocks and fine-tuning process pa
and composition. This method provides advantages like uniformity, low- rameters can contribute to environmentally conscious synthesis. Inves
temperature synthesis, adaptability, and the capability to control pre tigating scalable pyrolysis technologies opens new paradigms for
cursor reactivity, particle size distribution, and scalability. Perspectives widespread industrial applications, expanding the capacity of the
on this growth technique highlight the promise of functionalization, method to generate advanced materials and fuels.
biological applications, and eco-friendly practices in various disciplines.
2.3.2. Laser ablation method
2.2.6. Sonochemical method The laser ablation method offers a unique and direct way to generate
In the Sonochemical synthesis process, the IONPs salt solution is NPs without relying on traditional chemical synthesis routes. It provides
exposed to intense ultrasonication at ambient temperature to make sure the advantage of producing NPs with minimal contamination from
that the physical effects produced by the formation of scorching in the chemical reagents. However, the method requires laser systems and
solution produce the required energy for the reaction [58]. Since it does control expertise to ensure reproducibility and consistent results. Stay
not require high process temperatures or pressure, has a quick reaction ing informed about advancements in laser technology and NPs charac
time, and has unusual versatility, this procedure can synthesize mate terization techniques is essential for improving and refining the laser
rials. After five minutes of sonication, the functionalization of (3-Ami ablation method for IONPs synthesis [25]. Although Laser Ablation
nopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) with IONPs produced the highest Synthesis in Solution (LASiS) is a fascinating method for materials of
proportion of atomic intensity [59]. Additionally, given that the amount various compositions and structures, this approach has issues that
of the drug is burdened appropriately and easily with ultrasonography depend on the solvent used, such as the challenge of managing particle
incidence, the ultrasonic frequency may impact the final products size and clustering [65]. However, recent research showed that laser
generated through this technique. Exploring novel avenues in sono ablation of bulk iron and pyrophosphate in an aqueous medium reduced
chemical methods for NPs synthesis could involve optimizing ultrasound the FeOx crystal size to a few atom clusters, where x represents the ex
parameters for enhanced control over particle properties. Research may istence of various oxidation states for iron or a combination of different
focus on environmentally benign solvents, promoting sustainable prac phases of iron oxide [66]. Revitalizing the laser ablation method for NPs
tices. Furthermore, investigating sonochemical techniques with other synthesis offers prospects for cutting-edge materials. Investigating
synthesis methods holds potential for multifunctional NPs synthesis with distinct laser sources, fine-tuning pulse parameters, and examining
diverse applications. controlled environments can augment precision and scalability. This
research endeavor aims to redefine the scope and applications of laser
2.2.7. Microwave-Assisted method ablation in nanotechnology and materials science, ushering in new
Microwave-assisted synthesis efficiently creates IONPs by rapidly possibilities. Table 1 details the experimental setups for the methods,
heating reaction mixtures with microwaves. A comparatively recent and materials, size (nm), shape, and applications of IONPs synthesized using
straightforward process called microwave-assisted synthesis exposes a chemical and physical methods.
mixture of iron precursors to microwave electromagnetic radiation, Discussing chemical and physical synthesis routes for IONPs involves
which causes molecule reconfiguration and intense, uniform internal exploring the various methods of creating these NPs. These methods
combustion [60]. Due to its low cost, quick reaction time, precise size, encompass chemical and physical approaches with distinctive charac
and shape control of the IONPs, this technology is appealing for the cost- teristics and implications. The discussion delves into the methodologies,
effective experimental trial-ready IONPs manufactured industrially with materials used, particle sizes achieved, shapes obtained, and the inten
the appropriate solubility and biocompatibility [61]. The process in ded applications of IONPs resulting from these diverse synthesis routes.
volves mixing iron precursors with reducing and stabilizing agents, By examining the nuances of chemical and physical synthesis, a
followed by microwave irradiation. Careful control of conditions is comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the properties
essential to avoid overheating. This technique has applications in and potential uses of IONPs can be attained.
medicine, electronics, and more, but staying updated with the latest The synthesis conditions play a crucial role in determining the size
research for recent advancements is critical. Refurbishing microwave- and shape of IONPs, which is one of the critical factors influencing the
assisted methods for NPs synthesis involves investigating novel sol final application [76]. Various synthesis methods provide different
vents and heating strategies. By optimizing these variables, researchers levels of control over these morphological features. Co-precipitation
anticipate improved control over reactions, enhanced NPs properties, methods, involving the precipitation of iron salts in the presence of a
and increased scalability. base, can generate IONPs with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Thermal
decomposition methods, which entail the decomposition of organome
tallic precursors, offer a precise mechanism to tailor NPs size and shape.
Furthermore, the stability and dispersibility of IONPs in different
5
Table 1
Details of physical and chemical methods adopted for the synthesis of IONPs.
S. No Methods Material Size (nm) Shape Application Reference
1 Chemical vapor deposition Fe2O3 20 Spherical Optoelectrical [50]

2 Sol-gel Fe3O4 8 Agglomerated Photocatalysis and antimicrobial [67]
3 Laser pyrolysis Chitosan -Fe(CO)5 14 Quasi-spherical Photodetector [68]
4 Aerosol process Fe3O4 18 Agglomerated Antimicrobial [69]
5 Chemical etching Graphene/Pt- Fe2O3 10 – Electrode [70]
6 Laser ablation Bi-Fe2O3 20–90 Spherical Photocatalytic [71]
7 Mechanical milling Li-Fe2O3 19 Cylindrical Thermal [72]
8 Ball milling ZnO-Fe3O4 12 Spherical Photocatalytic [73]
9 Sputtering Fe2O3 20–16 Quasi-spherical Photocatalytic [74]
10 Electro-explosion FeO 14 Spherical Pesticidas/insecticidas [75]
mediums are intricately linked to their surface characteristics, deter 2.4.1. Biosynthesis of IONPs using plants
mined by synthesis conditions and the presence of capping agents or Plants are typically regarded as an easily accessible, manageable,
stabilizers [77]. These surface attributes are particularly crucial for safe, and inexpensive source for synthesizing various IONPs [80]. The
biomedical applications, where biological compatibility is paramount. biosynthesis process employs multiple parts such as roots, leaves, seeds,
Integrating crystallographic and property information within the syn flowers, fruits, peels, petals, and seed shells because these are rich in
thesis process is indispensable for optimizing the performance of IONPs various biomolecules such as carbohydrates, amino acids, flavonoids,
across diverse technological domains. proteins, saponins, terpenoids, and nitrogenous compounds. For
instance, the plants Camellia sinensis, Juglans regia, Allium sativum, Blu
mea balsamifera, Momordica charantia, Carica papaya, Ashwagandha,
2.4. Biological synthesis
Centella asiatica, function as a reducer, stabilizer, redox mediator, and
capping agents in the synthesis of IONPs. Plant extract-assisted synthesis
The production of IONPs through biosynthesis, with plant extracts or
of NPs offers environmental sustainability, biocompatibility, and diverse
products derived from microorganisms, stands out as straightforward,
properties. Challenges include variability, complex compound identifi
inexpensive, and environmentally sustainable [78]. Reduction/oxida
cation, and industrial production challenges. However, promising
tion is the primary reaction throughout this procedure, and the subse
prospects include characterization techniques, hybrid approaches, and
quent NPs typically exhibit excellent biocompatibility [79]. As
biomedical applications aligning with sustainable nanotechnology
biologically synthesized NPs evolve, addressing challenges such as
principles [81,82]. Therefore, based on these emphasized variables, re
scalability, reproducibility, and regulatory considerations is important.
searchers have used various methods to synthesize IONPs, which dif
Collaboration between researchers from diverse disciplines will be
fer substantially from one another regarding the preference of starting
crucial in unlocking the full potential of this approach and realizing its
substantial technique of preparing plant extract, differential causes of
future scope.
Table 2
Utilizing plants in the biosynthesis of IONPs.
Sr. Materials used Species of plant Bio-material Quantity Size Shape Magnetization Application Ref.
No used
1 FeO Laurus nobilis L Leaves 200 mL of 8.03 ± Spherical Ferromagnetic Anti-microbial [41]
DW with 20 g 8.99 nm
2 Cu-Fe2O3 Cymbopogon Leaves 800 mL of 9 ± 4 nm Irregular cubic Superparamagnetic Nano taxology [83]
citratus DW with
100 g
3 α- Fe2O3 Pyrus Peels 360 mL of 10–90 nm Irregular shaped Superparamagnetic Cr (IV) removal [84]
sinkiangensis Yu DW with 27 g
4 FeO Juglans regia Dried green 100 mL of 12.6 nm Cubic Paramagnetic Cytotoxic assay [85]
husk DW with 1 g
5 Ag- Fe3O4 Syzygium cumini Leaves 100 mL of 40–52 nm Spherical – Anti-bacterial, [86]
DW with 10 g antifungal, aflatoxin B1
adsorption
6 Cr-Fe2O3 Camellia sinensis Grinded waste 100 mL of 28.5 nm Regular spherical Superparamagnetic Exothermic adsorption [87]
of pruned teas DW with 10 g
7 α-Fe2O3, Malus Domestics Peels 300 mL of 50–100 Elliptical and Ferrimagnetic Decolorization of dye [88]
FePO4, and (Apple) DW with 75 g nm spherical
Fe3PO7
8 Fe3O4 and Musa paradisiaca Fresh leaves 250 mL of 15–80 nm Spherical Superparamagnetic Drug delivery and Anti- [89]
γ-Fe2O3 DW with 50 g microbial
9 α- Fe2O3 Psidium guajava Fresh dried 100 mL of 1–5 nm Spherical Paramagnetic Anti-microbial [90]
L. leaves DW with 10 g
10 FeO Carica papaya Dried leaves 1 l mL of DW 2.159 nm Not uniform Ferrimagnetic Anti-bacterial [91]
with 20 g (agglomerated
particles)
11 γ-Fe2O3 Hibiscus rosa- Dried petals 100 mL of 65 nm Spinel Superparamagnetic Biscuits fortification [16]
sinensis DW with 2 g
12 FeO Spinacia oleracea Seed coat 250 mL of 30–200 Hexagonal Ferrimagnetic Antioxidant and [92]
DW with 30 g nm antidrug
13 Fe3O4 Azadirachta fresh leaves 100 mL of 16–22 nm Spherical Superparamagnetic Photo-catalytic [93]
indica DW with 10 g
14 α- Fe2O3 Plantago major Aqueous leaf 100 mL of 4.6–30.6 Spherical Paramagnetic Anti-inflammatory [94]
extract DW with 5 g nm activity
6
action, and process for collecting synthesized NPs in Table 2. Expanding the supernatant of the fermented fungi (containing extracellular pro
the scope of IONP biosynthesis through plant-mediated processes entails teins and enzymes), disrupting the cell walls for releasing intracellular
the exploration of diverse plant species, refining growth conditions, and components or using the aqueous extract of fungal mycelia. Generally,
harnessing distinctive biomolecules. The investigation into environ mushroom-mediated NPs may be monodispersed or polydispersed with
mentally conscious extraction techniques and the customization of NPs different sizes and are highly crystalline [106]. IONPs produced from
for specific applications holds the potential to reshape plant-assisted mushrooms can have higher stability, longer shelf-life, and enhanced
synthesis, yielding sustainable and specialized IONPs with improved biological potential for drug delivery, biosensing, dye degradation,
properties for a broad spectrum of technological and biomedical metal ion sensors, water treatment, and agricultural applications in crop
applications. yield improvements. Diverse studies have explored the synthesis of NPs
using mushrooms. Based on the aforementioned, Table 4 summarizes
2.4.2. Biosynthesis of IONPs using fungi these advances.
Fungi are preferable for synthesizing IONPs since they are afford However, there are still some opportunities to improve the knowl
able, accessible resources for growth and have a high capacity for edge of iron NPs biosynthesis from mushroom mycelia. For instance,
biomass formation. Besides, it requires a straightforward adjacent pro some resulting metal ions are reported to be toxic to microorganisms;
cess, low poisonousness of stains, and viability [95]. Additionally, moreover, further studies about toxicity are compulsory. Also, the
fungal species have exceptional bioavailability and accuracy qualities description of the more precise mechanism by in vivo studies is needed to
that facilitate the synthesis of metal NPs. It is known that fungi naturally define enzymes or proteins used by mushrooms for the NPs synthesis
produce a lot of proteolytic enzymes capable of hydrolyzing metals. [106]. Investigating new research trajectories in the biosynthesis of
Such enzymes can be nitrating reductases. Also, it is predicted that this IONPs using mushrooms presents opportunities for innovative progress.
enzymatic reduction of metal ions has a variety of extracellular envi Researchers can improve the selection of mushroom species for bio-
ronment-synthesized NPs[96]. Exploring novel directions in the reducing and stabilizing functions, optimize cultivation conditions for
biosynthesis of IONPs using fungi involves optimizing fungal strains, influencing NPs characteristics, and delve into the molecular mecha
experimenting with environmentally friendly growth media, and fine- nisms guiding biosynthesis. Incorporating advanced analytical tech
tuning culture conditions. Research efforts can delve into functionaliz niques, such as proteomics and metabolomics, provides comprehensive
ing IONPs during biosynthesis, paving the way for innovative applica insights [107]. Furthermore, customizing IONPs for specific applica
tions such as targeted drug delivery and environmentally sustainable tions, such as drug delivery or environmental remediation, expands the
nanomaterial synthesis. Based on the aforementioned, Table 3 summa scope of this biosynthetic method. This comprehensive exploration ad
rizes these advances. vances the potential of mushroom-mediated biosynthesis and introduces
avenues for sustainable and adaptable NPs production.
2.4.3. Biosynthesis of IONPs using mushrooms
In addition, macroscopic species of fungi (Basidiomycota and Asco 2.4.4. Biosynthesis of IONPs using bacteria
mycetes phyla) produce edible fruiting bodies from where iron NPs can IONPs synthesis is usually initiated with an assortment of microor
be synthesized. Utilizing fungal biomass and metabolites for NPs syn ganisms. Growing the sample on a medium such as BH1, blood agar, or
thesis capitalizes on their rich array of bioactive compounds. Fungi’s nutrient agar is the first step in the isolation process. After that, the
ability to produce enzymes and biomolecules is valuable, facilitating sample is incubated at 37 ◦ C for 24–48 h or under controlled carbon
environmentally friendly and economical NPs fabrication. The distinc dioxide conditions in the case of blood agar medium. Once a single
tive chemical makeup of NPs derived from fungi opens avenues for ap colony has grown sufficiently, it is moved to a nutrient medium, Luria
plications in medicine, catalysis, and environmental solutions [106]. broth, Nutrient broth, or MRS broth. Then, it is incubated and centri
The essential advantage of using macrofungal is the existence of en fuged to remove the microbial biomass. After centrifugation, the most
zymes, proteins, and nutrients in their fruiting bodies, such as Na2+, critical step in synthesizing IONPs begins using either supernatant
Mg2+, P, Ca2+, Mn2+, K+, Fe2+, Cu, and Zn, that act as capping/stabi [114–116]. Biosynthesis of IONPs using bacteria offers advantages such
lization agents, reducing metal salts into NPs. Additionally, their as environmental friendliness, biocompatibility, and controlled particle
enzyme activity allows them to produce copious biomass and accumu properties (Table 5). However, some of the limitations of this method
late NPs in their culture media. Moreover, mushrooms contain bioactive could be the complexity of optimizing, contamination risks, and can be
molecules with great therapeutic values like beta-glucans, lectin, slower than chemical methods. Variability in product quality and reg
phenolic compounds, flavonoids, triterpenoids, dietary fiber, steroids, ulatory considerations are also important factors to address in this
glycopeptides, terpenes, and saponin that contribute to the formation process. Exploring innovative directions in the biosynthesis of IONPs
and stabilization of elemental iron NPs. using bacteria entails optimizing bacterial strains, culture conditions,
Fungal-mediated NPs occur through in vivo or in vitro methods. In and precursor concentrations to enhance yield and control particle size.
vivo, the NPs are synthesized intracellularly, where most of the toxic Studying various bacterial species and their distinct metabolic pathways
transition metal ions are converted to a non-toxic form. For the in vitro offers the potential to synthesize IONPs with unique properties [117]. It
method, NPs synthesis can be performed from fungal cell-free extracts, can also delve into the impact of growth media composition and
Table 3
Biosynthesis of IONPs using fungi.
Sr. No Species of fungi Bio-materials used Size Shape Magnetization Application References
1 Aspergillus niger BSC-1 Cell-free filtrate 20–40 nm Orthorhombic Superparamagnetic Antimicrobial and photocatalytic activities [97]
2 Fusarium incarnatum Fungal cell filtrate 15–55 nm Spherical Antiferromagnetic Microbial activity [98]
3 Phialemoniopsis ocularis Fungal cell filtrate 6–22 nm Spherical ferromagnetic Antioxidant and antibacterial activity [99]
4 Trichoderma asperellum Fungal cell filtrate 18–32 nm Spherical Superparamagnetic Microbial activity [100]
5 Aspergillus niger YESM Fungal homogenate 18–50 nm Spherical Superparamagnetic- Antibacterial activity [101]
6 Alterneria alternata Fungal biomass 9 nm Spherical Ferrimagnetic Antifungal, cytotoxicity, and larvicidal activity [102]
7 Aspergillus sp Fungal biomass 5–20 nm Spherical ferromagnetic Photocatalytic activity [103]
8 Aspergillus japonicus Fungal biomass 60–70 nm Cubic Superparamagnetic Anticancer Therapy [104]
9 Aspergillus oryzae TFR9 Cell-free filtrate 24.6 nm Spherical ferromagnetic Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity [105]
7
Table 4
Utilizing mushrooms for IONP biosynthesis.
Sr. Species of mushroom Bio-materials used Quantity Size Shape Magnetization Application References
No
1 Daedalea sp Aqueous mushroom 0.25 mg/ 16.8 nm Irregular Paramagnetic Antifungal [108]
extract mL shape
2 Pleurotus tuber-regium Carboxymethylated 100 µg/mL 193 ± 7 nm Spherical Ferromagnetic Cancer Immunotherapy [109]
(CMPTR) β-glucan shape
3 P. florida Extract of fruiting bodies 200 µg/mL Flower shape Ferrimagnetic Anticancer [110]
4 G. lucidum Fungal Cell Nanomaterials 30 ppm 11.2 nm Nano cube Paramagnetic Antimicrobial and [111]
anticancer
5 Manglicolous Cell-free filtrate – 2–16 nm Spherical – Antifungal [112]
6 Aspergillus flavipes isolate 50 ppm 32.7 and 47.6 Tetrahedron Ferromagnetic Antifungal [113]
nm
Table 5
Utilizing bacteria for IONP biosynthesis.
Sr. No Bacteria Solvent Size Shape Application References
1 Bacillus subtilis FeCl3 12–32 nm Spherical Photocatalytic, antibacterial [119]

2 Bacillus cereus (HMH1) FeCl2⋅6H2O 18–28 nm Spherical Antibacterial [120]
3 Lactobacillus fermentum FeSO4 10–15 nm Spherical Cytotoxic [121]
4 Lactobacillus casei FeSO4 10–15 nm Spherical Antibacterial [122]
5 Staphylococcus aureus Fe2O3 12 nm Spherical Antibacterial [123]
6 Bacillus anthracis Fe2O3 60–80 nm Spherical Photocatalytic, antimicrobial, cytotoxicity [124]
environmental factors to improve biosynthesis efficiency [118]. More metabolic pathways and enzyme participation, allows researchers to
over, customizing the surface functionalization of biogenic IONPs for improve efficiency in the biosynthesis of IONPs. Additionally, exploring
specific applications, such as drug delivery or environmental remedia the impact of environmental factors on biosynthesis, along with
tion, represents a promising avenue. In essence, broadening the scope of tailoring the IONP surface through genetic modifications or post-
bacterial-mediated biosynthesis holds promise for advancing sustain synthesis treatments, could lead to advanced functionalities. This ho
able and precisely tailored IONP production. listic approach maximizes the eco-friendly aspects of biosynthesis and
expands the potential applications of algae-mediated IONPs in medicine,
2.4.5. Biosynthesis of IONPs using algae environmental remediation, and beyond.
Algae are a class of primarily aquatic, photosynthetic, and nucleus-
bearing organisms that are not genuine plants because they lack the 2.5. Different characterization methods and strategies for IONPs
true roots, stems, leaves, and specialized multicellular reproductive
structures of plants. Both single-celled microalgae (unicellular) and Employing a multifaceted approach involving various characteriza
marine plants (multicellular) are widely used in the field of nanotech tion techniques enhances our ability to accurately identify and confirm
nology to create various kinds of IONPs [125,126]. The production of iron oxide phases. This comprehensive strategy is pivotal in achieving a
multiple biomolecules such as proteins, glycoproteins, peptides, alka nuanced understanding of the intricate formation mechanism of IONPs.
loids, polysaccharides, fats, carbohydrates, terpenes, macrolides, cell A profound grasp of the IONP formation mechanism is indispensable as
walls, and enzymes by algal bodies is similar to that of plants and bac it empowers with better control over critical parameters, thereby
teria [83,127]. Therefore, this method is considered safe, straightfor influencing the overall reaction and, by extension, the resulting prop
ward, economical, and pollution-free for producing NPs. The gathering erties of the NPs. The work presented herein is a meticulous exploration,
of samples is a significant step in the synthesis of IONPs. Table 6 sum offering a detailed overview of different properties, synthesis methods,
marizes the findings of the biosynthesis of IONPS using Algae. and the underlying mechanisms governing the formation of IONPs
Pioneering a new direction in the biosynthesis of IONPs using algae [26,133]. Through a systematic examination of various facets, this study
involves optimizing cultivation conditions and exploring diverse algal not only sheds light on the diverse range of applications for IONPs but
species for enhanced NPs yield and unique properties. Delving into the also delves into the intricacies of their synthesis. This review extends to
comprehension of fundamental biological mechanisms, including different characterization factors and strategies employed to confirm the
Table 6
Biosynthesis of IONPs by using algae.
Sr. Algae Salt Bio materials Size Shape Magnetization Application References
No Used
1 Spatoglossum asperum (brown FeCl3 Dried powder 11–33 Nanosphere Ferrimagnetic Antimicrobial, antifungal [128]
algae) nm
2 Pterocladia capillacea (red FeCl3 Dried powder 16–22 Nanosphere Superparamagnetic Antimicrobial, antifungal [129]
seaweed) nm
3 Pleurocladia Heribaudiella FeCl24H2O, Cell free extract 8–14 Spherical Ferromagnetic biofuel potential [130]
(brown algae) NaOH nm
4 Chaetomorphaantennina (green FeCl2⋅4H2O, Cell free extract 9–10 Spherical Ferromagnetic Drug, antimicrobial agent [131]
algae) NaOH nm
5 Kappaphycus alvarezii (red FeCl2⋅4H2O Dried, grinded 14–17 Spherical Ferromagnetic Laser Desorption/ [105]
seaweed) powde nm Ionization Applications
6 Sargassum muticum (brown FeCl3⋅6H2O Freeze–dried 4–18 Cubic Superparamagnetic Photocatalytic and [132]
seaweed) powder nm antimicrobial activity
8
phase purity in synthesizing IONPs. The initial segment of this study electrical, optical, and biological properties of NPs [140]. The doping,
provides a comprehensive overview of the properties of IONPs and coating, or encapsulation of IONPs involves a comprehensive explora
diverse synthesis routes; each elucidated with its inherent advantages tion of these processes, which play a crucial role in tailoring the prop
and drawbacks. erties and enhancing the performance of IONPs for specific applications.
Earlier studies conducted a notable synthesis, yielding mono Doping involves deliberately introducing foreign atoms or ions into the
dispersed FeO NPs with an average particle size of 3.14 ± 0.25 nm, crystal lattice of IONPs, thereby modifying their properties or perfor
achieved through the thermal decomposition of a Fe(III) oleate com mance [141]. This strategy is employed to modify the magnetic, elec
pound in the presence of oleic acid as a solvent at a high temperature of tronic, or optical properties of the NPs. The discussion involves the
380 ◦ C. The characterization process included generating a size distri selection of dopants, their concentrations, and the resulting impact on
bution plot and a selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern, the functionality of IONPs. The coating consists of applying a protective
revealing a mixed iron oxide phase corresponding to wustite and spinel layer around the surface of IONPs. This protective coating serves various
types. For this investigation, the Philips Tecnai G2 F20 or JEOL JEM purposes, such as improving stability and biocompatibility and pre
2010 TEM devices, operating at an accelerating voltage of 200 kV, were venting aggregation [142].
utilized. XRD analysis was carried out using a Shimadzu XRD-6000 with Different coating materials, such as polymers or silica, may be dis
Cu Kα radiation, confirming the presence of the FeO phase corre cussed in detail, along with their effects on the overall performance and
sponding to the face-centered cubic (fcc) oxygen sub-lattice, indicative functionality of IONPs. Encapsulation refers to the complete envelop
of a rock salt-type structure. However, it is important to note that the fcc ment of IONPs within another material, often a shell or matrix. This
oxygen sub-lattice is common to both wustite and spinel-type iron ox encapsulation can provide additional functionalities, such as controlled
ides, making predictions solely based on the XRD pattern challenging. release of drugs in biomedical applications [135]. The discussion may
The study highlights the potential for minor variations in the position of include the choice of encapsulating materials, methods employed, and
significant peaks [134]. This nuanced exploration underscores the in the benefits for specific applications. The debate about the doping,
tricacies associated with interpreting XRD patterns and emphasizes the coating, or encapsulation of IONPs delves into the intricate details of
necessity for employing complementary characterization techniques to these processes, exploring their influence on the physical, chemical, and
identify the specific phases present in synthesized IONPs precisely. functional properties of the NPs. It provides insights into each modifi
Limited literature discusses synthesizing a core/shell structure involving cation strategies considerations, methodologies, and potential applica
FeO, serving as both the core and the shell, a configuration crucial for tions. It has been found that coating or encapsulating NPs is especially
applications in spintronics and recording media, mainly where partially intriguing for the targeted delivery of drugs, genes, and other biologi
oxidized iron oxide exhibits promising characteristics. Notably, cally active compounds [143]. Controlled-release technologies have
achieving high coercivity holds significant potential in nanomagnets benefits such as targeted distribution, a slower rate of diffusion, pro
[135]. tection from rapid degradation, and a longer half-life for active in
In the research conducted by Crăciunescu et al., the synthesis gredients [134]. Table 7 summarizes the findings of doping, coating, or
approach yielded partially oxidized FeO NPs, resulting in a FeO core and encapsulation IONPs.
a magnetite (Fe3O4) shell through the thermal decomposition of iron- IONP synthesis involves innovative techniques such as doping,
organometallic salts at elevated temperatures. The NPs size demon coating, or encapsulation. It may explore sophisticated doping strategies
strated an inverse relationship with the heating rate and a direct pro to introduce specific elements, elevating the magnetic or catalytic at
portionality with the boiling temperature. Upon dissecting XRD spectra tributes of IONPs. In the coating realm, the focus could shift towards
into constituent peaks, discernible peaks corresponding to the FeO phase developing novel materials that optimize stability and biocompatibility
were identified. Notably, the confirmation of the coexistence of the or facilitate controlled release in drug delivery applications. Alterna
Fe3O4 phase with the FeO phase, potentially indicating a core/shell tively, encapsulation methods could be refined to bolster the protection
structure due to the surface oxidation of FeO, was further validated of IONPs and enable targeted delivery. These avenues present oppor
through the Selected Area Electron Diffraction (SAED) pattern. In a tunities to customize IONPs with advanced functionalities, address
separate study by Crăciunescu et al., FeO NPs (~5 nm) were synthesized challenges across diverse fields, from medical applications to environ
through controlled hydrolysis of an organometallic precursor at room mental solutions, and expand the scope of NPs utilization.
temperature [136]. This methodology not only underscores the adapt
ability of synthesis methods but also emphasizes the critical role of 4. Properties of IONPs
controlled parameters in tailoring the structural characteristics of NPs
for specific applications. The magnetic property observations of Fe3+/ 4.1. Magnetic Properties
Fe2+ at the surface show that ferromagnetic/antiferromagnetic bonds
decrease from the shell to the core [134]. XRD patterns of FeO NPs with The iron atom has four unpaired electrons in its third orbital and has
peaks of experimental data and cubic and rhombohedral phases. There is an excellent magnetic moment. Fe3+ ions have five unpaired electrons in
no significant difference in the peak positions for the cubic and rhom the third orbital, compared to Fe2+ ions, which have four unpaired
bohedral phases; however, broadening peaks due to small-sized NPs electrons. Iron atoms, or the Fe3+ and Fe2+ ions, can form ferrimagnetic,
make phase identification difficult. However, it is possible to differen antiferromagnetic, or ferromagnetic crystals [162]. When all magnetic
tiate different FeO phases based on cell parameters in XRD analysis moments in the paramagnetic state were highly anisotropic, the crystal
[137]. A Wissel MR360 transducer obtained the Mössbauer spectrum. had zero net magnetic moments. When a crystal is exposed to an
Mössbauer measurements help study the magnetic structure and the external magnetic field, the net magnetic moment is negligible, and
phase state of the synthesized IONPs, and it is a much more sensitive when the field is removed, there is no magnetic moment at all. Even
technique than XRD [138]. In the case of IONP analysis, the doublet in without a magnetic field, magnetic moments in a ferromagnetic crystal
Mössbauer measurements signifies that the matrix consists of other are aligned. In a ferrimagnetic crystal, two different atom types are
atoms around Fe atoms or that the Fe atoms are not magnetically aligned antiparallel, and their antiparallel magnetic moments have
coupled. It also indicates oxide formation at the surface [139]. different magnitudes. The crystal is antiferromagnetic if the antiparallel
moments magnitudes match. Magnetite and maghemite are both ferri
3. Doping, coating, or encapsulation IONPs magnetic minerals. Five basic types of magnetism can be distinguished
in nature and magnetic moment orientations in a material (Table 8).
Doping is incorporating impurities into a raw substance to give it the Magnetization measures the net magnetic moment per unit volume
desired properties of NPs. It is a widely used technique to enhance the parallel to the external field. The magnitude of M is typically smaller
9
Table 7
Different coating and doping materials for IONPs.
Sr. Doping and coating Advantages Crystal Crystal lattice Synthesized materials References
No. material Size
(nm)
Doping metal and metal oxide coating over iron oxide

1 Gold Improves stabilization and optical qualities 5–10 cubic phase Sol-gel method [144]
2 Zinc Improves optical, electrical and magnetic capabilities 19–26 hexagonal Auto combustion method [145]
phase
3 Cobalt Well-optimized for magnetic and biological research 6–32 Cubic phase Hydrothermal method [146]
4 Nickel improve magnetic, thermal, and optical abilities 8–26 Cubic phase Sol-gel method [12]
5 Copper quite effective at removing heavy metals from wastewater 16–38 Monoclinic Sonochemical Method [147]
phase
6 Silver Enhances magnetic, catalytic and microbiological abilities 15 Hexagonal Co-precipitation method [148]
phase
7 Titanium improve optical and photocatalytic abilities 10–26 Hexagonal Precipitation method [149]
phase
8 Chromium Improve applicability in water–gas shift reactions and 10–100 Cubic phase Co-precipitation method [150]
catalyst performance
9 Lanthanum Enhances optical properties 36–50 Hexagonal Precipitation method [151]
Phase
10 Yttrium Improve magnetic hyperthermia and biomedical applications 13–56 Cubic phase Hydrothermal method [152]
11 Gadolinium Enhances biomedical application 40–45 Cubic phase Co-precipitation method [153]
Polymers coating or encapsulation over IONPs

1 Starch Materials for biocompatible coatings 20–80 Cubic phase Solvothermal method [154]
2 Insulin Elevate potential as a therapeutic delivery system. 20 Hexagonal Precipitation method [155]
phase
3 Liposome Improve MPI performance 15–40 Cubic phase Hydration method [156]
4 Folic Acid Enhances photobiology application 26 Cubic phase Thermal decomposition [157]
method
5 Polyethylene glycol Improve potential applications in cardio- and 14–28 Cubic phase Hydrothermal method [158]
cerebrovascular imaging
6 Polyvinyl alcohol Improve Simultaneous Drug and Target Delivery 26 Hexagonal Co-precipitation method [159]
Phase
7 Dextran biocompatible, control particle size and shape 9–36 Monoclinic Hydrothermal method [160]
phase
8 Polyvinyl pyrrolidone Enhances Photocatalytic activity 16–22 Hexagonal Co-precipitation method [161]
phase
Table 8
Materials are divided into major classes based on their magnetic properties.
Type Example Atomic/Magnetic behavior References
Diamagnetism Many metals Hg, Au, Cu, nonmetallic elements Si, P, B, S; ions Na+, Atoms do not have magnetic moments, and their susceptibility is low and [163]
Cl; molecules H2O, N2, H2, inert gases negative. From a score of 10− 5 to a score of 10− 3
Paramagnetism Metal Some diatomic gases, such as Al Transition metal and rare Atoms have magnetic moments that are randomly orientated; [164]
earth metal ions; rare earth oxides; O2 susceptibility is modest and positive 10− 5 to 10− 3.
Ferromagnetism Metals in transition Alloys of ferromagnetic elements Ni, Co, Fe, H; Atoms have magnetic moments that are parallel and aligned, and their [165]
certain Mn alloys, Cu2MnAl, MnBi susceptibility is high (below Tc)
Anti- Mn, Cr, and many of their compounds, such as NiO, CoO, MnO, Susceptibility is minimal and positive 10− 5 to 10− 3 for atoms with [166]
ferromagnetism Cr2O3, MnSe, and, MnS, are transition metals. antiparallel oriented magnetic moments.
Ferrimagnetism Sr ferrite, mixed oxides of iron, and Fe3O4 (magnetite), such as Atoms have magnetic moments that are aligned in both parallel and [166]
Fe3O4 (magnetite). antiparallel directions; susceptibility is high (below Tc)
than when all the magnetic moments are entirely in line because the Where Ms is the saturation magnetization, C signifies the magnetization
crystal contains distinct magnetic domains. Each domains magnetic of the material, also measured in Amperes per meter (A/m). H denotes
moments line up perfectly. The magnetization, however, falls off the applied magnetic field strength, measured in Amperes per meter (A/
because the moments in every domain are not always in line. m). The permeability of free space (μ0) is a fundamental constant with
an approximate value of 4π × 10− 7 T⋅m/A, and ρ (emu/g) is the density
4.1.1. Hysteresis of the material, expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). The
The parallel spin collections in a domain are randomly distributed rounded curve in Fig. 3 represents the Barkhausen effect [167].
across an unmagnetized ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material, which The magnetization diminishes as the applied field is reduced.
results in a net magnetism of zero to one (Fig. 3 at M = 0). When a Demagnetization in multi-domain bulk materials mostly happens due to
sufficiently strong external magnetic field exists, the spins for each a spin revolution across the domain walls [168]. Remanence magneti
domain rotate when all of the dipoles are lined up and parallel to the zation is the term for the magnetism that endures when there is no
magnetic fields direction. The plateau zone of the magnetization curve is external magnetic field (H = 0, Fig. 3). The magnetic field that must be
the saturation magnetization (Ms) region. applied in the opposite direction to return the magnetization to its initial
c × μ0 × H state is known as the coercive force (Hc) [169]. The width of a domain
Ms = (1) wall is influenced by the lattice spacing of the crystal structure, the
ρ (emu/g)
exchange energy, and the magnetocrystalline anisotropy. A few hundred
10
Fig. 3. (a) Hysteresis loop shows the interactions between the magnetizing force H and the induced magnetic flux density B and (b) The coercivity of particles as a
function of their size (Ds denotes superparamagnetic particle size, while Dc denotes single domain particle size).
angstroms are the penetration depth of the domain wall. A domain wall pursuing innovative techniques to control magnetic parameters pre
becomes energetically poorly suited as particle size decreases because cisely holds promise for transformative technologies. This shift in
fewer magnetic domains are present on each particle. Initially, it was magnetic properties research promises theoretical advancements and
proposed that particles below a critical dimension have a single-domain practical breakthroughs, offering diverse applications in technology and
nature [170]. When a magnetic field is applied, NPs in this important industry.
single domain materials are a range of sizes and lower field strengths,
achieving spin orientation and resulting magnetic saturation than
4.2. Physical Properties
equivalent bulk materials with applied magnetic fields as low as one
kOe; saturation magnetization is possible because each particle has a
Wustite (FeO), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (α-Fe2O3), and Maghe
more substantial magnetic moment than the transition metal ions. When
mite (γ-Fe2O3) are the most common iron oxides found in nature and
the field is diminished, demagnetization is dependent on the spin’s
used in biomedical applications. Physical characteristics include hue in a
coherent rotation, producing a strong coercive force [171]. Fig. 3(a)
solution or when coated on a surface, emissivity, absorption, reflection
shows the hysteresis loop as the interaction between the magnetizing
capabilities, UV absorption, and reflection potency. The crystal structure
force H and the induced magnetic flux density B. Fig. 3(b) shows that
of IONPs is shown in Fig. 4. These structures contribute to the NPs
magnetic field strength (H) varies and that the vector moment in the
magnetic properties, biocompatibility, and potential applications in
domain wall rotates. Magneto crystalline and configuration polarization
fields ranging from medicine to materials science. Flexibility and me
are used to explain the strong coercive force in single-domain spherical
chanical properties like elastic, ductile, and tensile strengths are crucial
particle size, which also impacts the coercive force.
for their application [11,176]. Additional characteristics like hydro
These single-domain particles coercive force decreases with
philicity, hydrophobicity, suspension, diffusion, and resolving have
decreasing size. Additionally, the form anisotropy of a subatomic par
been established in many modern objects. Due to the conductivity, semi-
ticle increases along with its aspect ratio. Consequently, elongated
conductivity, and resistivity of NPs as well as their thermal conductivity,
single-domain particles exhibit coercive solid forces. According to one
these materials are now well-suited for use in modern electronics.
hypothesis, compromised exchange bonds at the surface of spinel
Because of their high Curie temperature range (TC), they can be used for
ferrimagnetic NPs are to be blamed for the surface spin disorder. Sub
many applications that require magnetic responsiveness. However, the
stantially lower magnetization levels are correlated with smaller K
maghemite Temperature is challenging to measure because it transforms
constants; as particle size decreases, magnetization decay is generally
to hematite over 713 K [177].
influenced by the crystalline magnetic anisotropy energy constant
[172]. The highest physical and chemical properties of these metals and
metal oxides are already found in Fe, Fe3O4, and Fe2O3 pure metals. 4.3. Chemical Properties
Under meteorological pressure, Ni, Co, and Fe oxidize to form the an
tiferromagnetic alloys NiO, CoO, and FeO [173]. There are many Chemical characteristics like the NPs reactivity with the target and
different chemical compositions and magnetic properties of iron oxide. their consistency and sensitivity to elements like condensation, atmo
Due to their ferrimagnetism, iron oxides like FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, and sphere, thermal, and light evaluate its utilization. The oxidation,
MO-Fe2O3 (where M is Mn, Co, Ni, or Cu) are used in magnetically reduction, flammability, anti-corrosive, and corrosive properties of NPs
guiding systems. According to previous research, ferromagnetic iron determine their application. NPs have a single-crystalline structure, and
oxides exhibit a weaker magnetic response than ferromagnetic materials each one contains a magnetic domain. NPs have a high reactivity with
like transition metals [174,175]. Embarking on novel avenues in mag oxidizing agents, which dominates their chemistry. Iron shows the
netic properties research is a compelling scientific exploration avenue. reactivity and combustion properties when dealing with IONPs [179].
The focus can shift towards advanced materials and nanostructures to Depending on their size and surface characteristics, IONPs may pose a
manipulate and amplify magnetic characteristics, unlocking potential fire hazard, mainly if they are minimal and have a large surface area.
applications in data storage, sensing, and biomedicine. Delving into Finely divided iron can undergo combustion in the presence of oxygen,
emerging phenomena like topological insulators or magneto-optical ef leading to the formation of iron oxide and the release of heat. Although
fects provides opportunities for groundbreaking insights. Additionally, this process is not explosive, it can result in elevated temperatures.
Additionally, fine iron powder exposed to high air temperatures can
11
Fig. 4. Crystal structure of IONPs [178]. The crystal structure of IONPs directly impacts their properties and behavior with distinctive arrangements of oxygen and
iron ions. Exploring novel research avenues for investigating the physical properties of IONPs holds excellent promise. Advanced characterization techniques, such as
high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy, to unravel intricate structural details. Studying the impact of size, shape, and surface modifications on magnetic properties
provides opportunities for custom applications in fields like imaging and therapy. Furthermore, exploring the thermal, electrical, and optical characteristics of IONPs
can expand their utility across various domains, ranging from biomedical applications to catalysis. This comprehensive exploration is poised to deepen our
comprehension of IONPs physical attributes, unveiling innovative possibilities for their application in emerging technologies.
combust, releasing heat and forming iron oxide. Reactions involving anaerobic setting to prevent oxidation in the air. Through oxidation,
iron or iron-containing materials may also generate flammable Fe3O4 NPs can be converted into Fe2O3 NPs. Oxidation does not affect
hydrogen gas, necessitating carefully controlled conditions to avoid Fe2O3 NPs because of their chemical solidity in acidic or alkaline envi
combustion risks. The topic of lowering this high sensitivity has been up ronments. Chemically, magnetite in distinct is a very aggressive iron
for debate for a long time. Some steps can be taken to at least halt the oxide NP that can quickly oxidize in the air, resulting in aqueous solu
early reaction of iron with air, such as controlling the NPs in a liquid or bility and magnetic loss. In order to maintain the consistency of IONPs, it
solid suspension. Delaying the oxygen arrival at the NPs surface prevents is necessary to develop efficient protection techniques as well as an
the oxidation reaction. Pre-oxidizing the NPs is an additional technique appropriate surface coating (or grafting) with organic molecules, bio
for process control. IONPs exposed to the low partial pressure of air can molecules, polymers, surfactants, or inorganic layers like metal, metal
be treated outdoors without experiencing too much oxidation by adding oxide, metal sulfides, silica, or non-metallic compounds [182].
a small amount of diluted, air-free water, a carboxylic acid, or another Advancing research in the chemical properties of IONPs can take a new
weak oxidant [180]. The magnetic moment is retained, and super direction by focusing on tailored surface functionalization. Exploring
paramagnetic behavior only occurs in an external magnetic field. These innovative ligands and coatings allows precise control over the NPs
NPs return to their nonmagnetic states when the magnetic field is not an chemical reactivity, stability, and biocompatibility, which is crucial for
issue. After production, IONPs rapidly develop layers of iron oxide on biomedical applications. Likewise, investigating the influence of varying
their surface. These layers may not always penetrate the entire particle, synthesis parameters on the chemical composition and crystal structure
and the NPs core–shell structure may vary from that of pure iron NPs of IONPs opens avenues for optimizing their magnetic and catalytic
[181]. In the environment, Fe3O4 NPs are unstable and easily oxidize to properties. Understanding the interactions between IONPs and biolog
Fe2O3 or dissolve in an acidic medium. Preparation must be done in an ical environments and exploring eco-friendly synthesis routes aligns
12
with emerging green chemistry principles. Such a nuanced approach after being inoculated with various concentrations of IONPs. Tetracy
promises to enhance the versatility and efficacy of IONPs in diverse cline was used as a standard treatment for bacterial species, and it has
fields, including medicine and environmental science. been used as a commercial antimicrobial activity control [190]. The use
of IONPs in biomedicine includes applications for hyperthermia, mag
4.4. Toxicity of IONPs netic resonance imaging, magnetic separation, magnetically facilitated
drug administration, tissue restoration, and molecular diagnostics, to
Evaluating the toxicity of IONPs is crucial, especially before their name just a few. Antibacterial substances had to create a stock solution
implementation in medicine [183]. Fe2O3 NPs are licensed by the United with a 5 mg/mL concentration for their infomercial appearance (20 μg
States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for clinical applications. per well) [191]. The results showed that A. hydrophilic and Escherichia
However, despite the growing use of products containing these NPs, the coli (E. coli) were inhibited by IONPs. At a dose of 20 mg/mL, the IONPs
knowledge about the toxicity associated with their exposure at different did not exhibit any noticeably enhanced antibacterial characteristic
levels of the biological organization still represents an opportunity for features, but there was substantial growth in inhibition with increasing
exploration and concern. It has been shown that NPs can trigger some dosages [192]. A fascinating invention was that earlier research had
cytotoxic effects, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, or genotoxicity. shown that Fe2O3 produced chemically inhibits potential against path
Diverse factors can dramatically modify their toxicity and efficiency in ogens such as Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), E. coli,
vivo, for example, their biodistribution and pharmacokinetics. Research and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) development at high con
has shown that in IONPs the iron oxide core size, hydrodynamic size, centrations like 50 mg/mL [193]. It is possible to alter the surface po
synthesis method, and coating type are the main characteristics of the tential, functional groups, and ROS production of IONPs to improve
possible toxicity mechanisms [184]. their ability to eradicate pathogens. The antibacterial efficacy of Fe2O3
The immune system can easily trap naked IONPs as foreign mate NPs was evaluated using the agar well diffusion method against S. aureus
rials. IONPs require a biocompatible targeted drug-delivery coating to and E. coli [194]. Previous research has shown that hematite NPs are
prevent aggregation or toxic effects. For example, amphiphilic coatings more effective against bacteria such as S. aureus and E. coli [195]. It is
can increase the circulation duration of superparamagnetic IONPs from believed that E. coli has a more negatively charged and stiff surface than
minutes to hours, increasing the targeting potential of a surface- S. aureus bacteria, which accounts for the difference in sensitivity to NPs
modified contrast agent and preventing harmful contact between the [196]. These observations were supported by the MIC values for ±
particles. Poor drug loading and iron overdose are also significant lim bacteria, which were 6.25 mg/mL for E. coli and 251.02 mg/mL for
itations of magnetic material used in drug delivery. However, as S. aureus, respectively [197], and previous work the MIC value of Fe2O3
mentioned above, the catalytic activity of the iron oxide can be for bacteria M. luteus MICs of 12.5 ± 1.25 mg/mL, K. pneumonia MICs of
increased with decoration, encapsulation, or doping. Sometimes, 50.0 ± 0.75 mg/mL, and B. subtilis MICs of 100 ± 0.6 mg/mL [198].
organic functional groups are employed to maintain the size and aspect Other studies have shown that IONPs stimulate the growth of bacteria
ratio of the iron oxide nanoparticles[185,186]. Regarding the synthesis such as E. coli, P. aeruginosa, E. faecalis, and Candida albicans [199]. The
method to obtain IONPs, green synthesized IONPs have been shown to ability of microbial strains to use iron oxide to produce iron, which can
overcome toxic effects associated with chemically synthesized NPs, influence the growth rate and other biological factors favorably, is
mainly due to the capping of NPs with biomolecules present in micro- essential for controlling microbial growth rate and other physiological
organisms, plants, and plant parts acting as reducing and stabilizing functions. IONPs significantly inhibited the growth of S. aureus and
agents. Since these biomolecules are non-toxic materials, they reduce E. coli at doses like those used in our research, ranging from 10 to 100
the associated risks linked with conventional synthetic methods μg/mL [200]. The mechanisms underlying the antibacterial activity of
[184,187]. IONPs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes model organisms will be covered
A comprehensive understanding of the potential adverse effects of in the subsequent sections. In their actions against bacteria, IONPs can
IONPs is essential for ensuring the safe and efficient utilization of these either be microbicidal or microbiostatic Fig. 5.
NPs. Factors such as biocompatibility, in vivo behavior, cellular toxicity,
immunological responses, dose-dependent effects, elimination, and 5.1.1. Antibacterial mechanisms of NPs
long-term considerations must be carefully scrutinized [8,188]. The The prospect diversity is influenced by how NPs act on various
interdisciplinary collaboration among nanotechnologists, biologists, bacterial infections. Numerous studies have found that NPs are less
and clinicians is emphasized to advance our comprehension and ensure effective against gram-positive bacteria due to their higher resistance to
the development of secure medical technologies utilizing IONPs [189]. their mechanisms of action. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of
Striking a balance between harnessing the benefits of IONPs, such as in action requires some background knowledge of bacteria. The two most
the medical field, and minimizing any negative impact on biological prevalent types of bacteria are Gram-positive and Gram-negative.
systems is a primary objective. Collaboration among experts in nano Compared to Gram ±, bacteria have a different cell wall structure.
technology, biology, and medicine is pivotal for advancing knowledge Gram-positive microbes have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell
and establishing guidelines to address the challenges associated with the walls, while Gram-negative microbes have a thin layer of peptidoglycan
toxicity of IONPs. and an outer layer of lipopolysaccharide membrane [202]. Generally
speaking, NPs can attack bacterial cells in various ways, as discussed in
5. Application of iron oxide nanoparticle the sections below, Fig. 6. Periplasm, an additional membrane found in
Gram-negative bacteria, may be why some people resist NPs. The
5.1. Antibacterial Properties resistance, however, is not so high that NPs can never be used against
microbes. Due to their minimal size, NPs can fight intracellular micro
IONPs are used in many applications and are crucial in biological and organisms and have antibacterial effects. There are many interactions
environmental systems. For sophisticated biological research, a wide among NPs bacteria that have been studied, including electrostatic
variety of NPs are readily available. A reliable diffusion method was attraction [203], Vander Waals forces [204], and receptor-ligand in
used to test the antimicrobial properties of IONPs against various mi teractions [205], all of which increase NPs bacterial contact for an
croorganisms. To create bacterial suspension, a pure culture was grown antibacterial effect. NPs interact with the cellular technology of micro
overnight in nutrient agar plates with the turbidity maintained at 0.5 organisms to deactivate proteins, DNA, lysosomes, enzymes, and ribo
McFarland standards. For 24 h, these plates were incubated at 37 ◦ C. somes, cause electrolyte imbalance oxidative stress, deactivate proteins,
Each middle well on the Mueller Hinton agar (MHA) plates was change the permeability of cell membranes, cause heterogeneous
measured in diameter and contained mg/mL of the bacterial suspension changes, inhibit enzymes, and modify gene expression levels [206]. The
13
Fig. 5. Mechanism of antimicrobial activity of NPs copyright © 2021 Submission ID: 1370308 [201].
Fig. 6. In bacteria cells, the activity of IONPs is mediated by a variety of mechanisms.
most frequently proposed mechanisms in the study include cell wall 5.1.1.1. NPs penetration to cell walls. As a result of NP adsorption, when
penetration, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, metal ion release, NPs are exposed to bacterial cells, they can cause membrane disruption,
and oxidative and non-oxidative stress. which is occasionally followed by cell penetration. According to
numerous studies, the primary mechanism of toxicity is the substance
14
adsorption on the cell wall after it dissolves. The cell wall loses its photocatalytic when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) and photons. However,
standard negative charge due to NPs adsorption, depolarizing it and only the UV spectrum of sunlight can be used with these materials.
making it more permeable. According to a study, superparamagnetic Compared with similar materials, α-Fe2O3 improves photocatalytic ap
iron oxide reacts with cells of microbial organisms by immediately plications due to its lower bandgap of 2.2 eV. As a result, Fe2O3 has an
entering the cell membrane and preventing transmembrane electron absorbance edge of about 600 nm and can thus absorb a sizeable portion
transfer [207]. The bacterial cell wall seems uncertain under a laser of the visible sun spectrum. It is a promising material for photocatalytic
scanning fluorescence microscope, indicating that all the researchers water treatment and water splitting applications due to its abundance,
involved in this research proposed that NPs had a heterogeneous chemical stability in aqueous media, low cost, and harmless nature
mechanism of action. The first stage involves cell wall damage, followed [214]. For the reduction of 4-nitrotoluene, the catalytic activities of
by NP penetration and cell wall disintegration. In the second stage, ROS numerous iron oxides and oxide hydroxides of various particle sizes
are generated and prevent the production of ATP and DNA replication. were studied, and it was discovered that Fe-OOH was the most efficient
As a result, ROS production could contribute to the first stage [208]. catalyst [215]. The potential for photo-assisted water oxidation was
eliminated due to specific characteristics, such as high electron and hole
5.1.1.2. Reactive oxygen species (ROS). Reactive intermediates and recombination rates, low diffusion lengths (2–4 nm), and poor conduc
substances with a high positive redox potential are called ROS. Reactive tivity, which restrict the photocatalytic activity of α-Fe2O3. This leads to
oxygen species (ROS) are created when oxygen atoms are reduced. negligible efficiencies and a higher requirement [216]. On catalytic
These include singlet oxygen (O2), hydrogen peroxides (H2O2), hydroxyl characteristics, the effects of calcination temperature, reaction temper
radicals (OH•), and superoxide radicals (O− ) [209]. Oxygen and ature, catalyst quantity, and reaction time were investigated
hydrogen peroxide are produced during particular stress reactions, [44,217,218]. The photoreaction of α-Fe2O3 resulted in a higher degree
which endogenous antioxidants like superoxide and catalases can con of electron and hole transfer to the valence band of Fe3O4 in a mixed-
trol. Singlet oxygen (O2) is thought to be primarily responsible for the phase sample, which decreased recombination rates [219]. For
physiological harm ROS brings. Alternatively, O2 can result in microbial research on the magnetic and photocatalytic properties of α-Fe2O3 NPs,
mortality [210]. The intracellular redox status is altered by generating a hydrothermal method produces uniformly sized particles (170 nm to 2
ROS, which encourages oxidation. Changes in bacterial membrane µm) [208]. Up to a specific stage in the future, increasing the Fe2O3
permeability brought on by oxidative stress significantly contribute to concentration increases photocatalytic activity; however, after that
cell membrane damage [211]. point, the activity declines. Iron oxide materials like α-Fe2O3, γ-Fe2O3,
and Fe3O4 can be considered efficient photocatalysts because they have
5.1.1.3. Ions Release. Following contact with the surface with organic the right valence band location for oxygen evolution and small bandgap
components of proteins and nucleic acids like mercapto (-SH), amino energies [220].
(–NH), and carboxyl (–COOH), metal ions become increasingly absorbed IONPs showcase various characteristics shaped by composition,
through cell membranes after being liberated from metal oxides in an magnetic traits, size, shape, and surface coating. Among the prevalent
aqueous solution [212]. These interactions disrupt typical physiological types are Fe3O4 and γ-Fe2O3, each serving distinct purposes. Magnetites
processes in various ways, including changes to cell structure and robust magnetism renders it well-suited for biomedical applications. In
abnormal enzyme activity [213]. Additionally, the antibacterial prop contrast, α-Fe2O3 lacks magnetic properties but proves valuable in ap
erties of ions can be used in multiple settings to stop bacterial growth plications like photoelectrochemical cells. The magnetic behavior of
and biofilm development, such as in medical devices, wound dressings, IONPs can be either superparamagnetic or ferromagnetic, influencing
water purification, and food packaging. However, a thorough evaluation their response to external magnetic fields. Varied sizes and shapes,
of ion release kinetics and potential cytotoxicity to human cells is spanning from nanometers to tens of nanometers and encompassing
required to achieve secure and reliable antibacterial techniques. spheres, cubes, and rods, impact magnetic properties and interactions
Research in a novel direction within antibacterial properties in within biological systems. Surface coatings, including silica, dextran,
IONPs holds immense potential for transformative applications. Delve and polyethylene glycol, enhance stability and biocompatibility.
into inventive strategies for modifying the surface and functionality of The electronic band structures of IONPs, namely α-Fe2O3, γ-Fe2O3,
IONPs, aiming to bolster their antibacterial effectiveness while mini and Fe3O4, delineate their unique characteristics. α-Fe2O3, characterized
mizing any adverse effects on cells. Precision in tailoring the size and as a wide bandgap semiconductor, exhibits a valence band primarily
composition of IONPs holds promise for optimizing their interaction constituted by oxygen 2p states. Its bandgap energy, falling within the
with bacterial cell membranes, thereby maximizing their antibacterial range of 2.0 to 2.2 electron volts (eV), positions α-Fe2O3 for applications
impact. Examining the synergies between IONPs and other antibacterial in photoelectrochemical cells and solar energy conversion. γ-Fe2O3, a
agents or therapeutic approaches presents a compelling avenue. This counterpart iron (III) oxide, shares a valence band composition with
research advances nanomedicine and addresses evolving challenges in α-Fe2O3 but generally possesses a narrower bandgap, typically between
antibacterial resistance, offering more effective and targeted antibac 1.9 and 2.1 eV. Fe3O4, a mixed-valence iron oxide, displays a valence
terial solutions. band amalgamating feature from Fe2O3 and Fe3O4.
With a notably lower bandgap energy, spanning from 0.2 to 0.6 eV,
demonstrates metallic conductivity at higher temperatures. These dis
5.2. Photocatalytic activity tinctions in band structures and bandgap energies intricately govern the
optical, electronic, and magnetic properties of each IONP, influencing
This technology can be used to recover wastewater with weak their applicability across diverse fields such as catalysis, electronics, and
biodegradability and high levels of contaminants because it applies to energy conversion. Researchers strategically exploit these unique
wastewater with those characteristics. Photocatalysis, one of the so properties to tailor the NPs for specific applications, aligning them with
phisticated oxidation processes created since the discovery of photo the desired characteristics for optimal functionality. In addition, from
electrochemical water splitting, is one of the technologies[10]. both a catalytic and financial perspective, the longevity of iron oxide
High-tech, nanoscale materials like nanoscale plasmonic metal par catalysts is essential for avoiding transition metals harmful effects on the
ticles, quantum dots, and 2D materials can now effectively absorb light, aquatic environment [221]. Exploring new research avenues in photo
separate charges, and transfer charges attributable to using photo catalytic activity within IONPs holds significant potential for advancing
catalyst materials in large-scale applications. Due to many applications environmental remediation and energy conversion applications. In
for photocatalysis in renewable energy sources and environmental novations in surface modifications, such as introducing specific dopants
remediation, many materials have been discovered to be highly or employing unique coatings, present opportunities to enhance the
15
efficiency of photocatalysis. Tailoring the size and morphology of Water Dissociation

IONPs, optimizing reaction conditions, and investigating synergistic *
h+ +
vb + H2 O→H + OH (3)
effects with other materials are promising directions. Also, incorpo
rating IONPs into composite structures or supporting matrices could
Anion/ Free Radical Generation
offer improved stability and catalytic performance. These research ini
tiatives aim to broaden the application scope of IONPs in photocatalysis, e−cb + O2 →O−2 (4)
addressing critical challenges in areas such as wastewater treatment, air
purification, and solar energy conversion. Fig. 7 highlights the appli O−2 + H + →HO*2 (5)
cation of photocatalytic properties of IONPs.
h+ −
vb + OH →OH
.
(6)
5.2.1. Photocatalytic mechanisms of IONPs
The photocatalytic mechanism reaction is a surface phenomenon, H2 O2 →OH . + OH . (7)
and the creation of the free radical is mediated by several fundamental
processes, as shown in Fig. 8. The first and most essential step is the Degradation of Organic Pollution
diffusion and subsequent adsorption of the reactant (organic pollutant) OrganicPollutant + HO*/HO*2 →CO2 ↑+H2 O (8)
on the catalyst surface. A reaction breaks down organic contaminants on
the following surface and creates a free radical. The final step involves Pair formed during recombination
desorption and separation of the catalyst, followed by reactant diffusion
on the catalyst’s surface, and so forth [3,222]. The following is the e−cb + h+
vb →heat + catalyst (9)
general mechanism of organic pollutant degradation (Eqs. (2)–(9)):
Generation of electron-hole pairs When photocatalyst IONPs absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
sun or a light source, it generates electrons and holes in pairs. When the
Iron NPs (Catayst) + hv→e−cb + h+
vb (2) iron oxide valence band is exposed to light, the electron within the band
is excited [223]. The excess energy of this excited electron advanced the
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the applications spectrum of IONPs as photocatalysts. IONPs photocatalytic activities can positively impact the environment, health,
energy, and agriculture sectors, emerging as ideal materials for large-scale and real-time applications.
16
Fig. 8. The photocatalytic process of IONPs is depicted in a schematic diagram.
electron into the conduction band of iron oxide, producing a pair of 5.3. Antioxidant properties
negative electrons (e‾) and positive holes (h+). This stage is the photo-
excitation state of the semiconductor [224]. The water molecule is A substantial body of research and published articles demonstrate
split apart by the positive hole in iron oxide, creating the hydroxyl the significance of antioxidants in maintaining cellular health. The
radical. When an oxygen molecule interacts with a negative electron, a body’s natural defense system against free radicals can usually handle
superoxide anion is created [67]. The mechanism of a photocatalytic them, but in situations where disease development is at a threshold,
reaction is primarily based on a superoxide radical (O‾2) and hole (h+), exogenous antioxidants are required [226]. Recent research in the
also according to photocatalytic data analysis [225]. rapidly evolving field of nanotechnology has shown astounding resolu
tion that can even outperform exogenous antioxidant causes in food
[227]. Antioxidants are compounds that can safely engage with free
radicals, stop the chain reaction, and donate an electron to another
Fig. 9. Nano antioxidants: Recent trends in free radical and antioxidant delivery applications of NPs. Permission from Copyright © [232].
17
molecule, as shown in Fig. 9. When functionalized IONPs are present, It has recently been shown that it is possible to produce IONPs with a
the color of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) solution gradu size of 3.5 nm using this particular design concept. A new MRI agent that
ally changes from deep violet to pale yellow, enabling for monitoring reacts with glutathione (GSH) can be developednd may enhance image
and analysis of the antioxidant activity of the NPs. Antioxidant activity contrast by cross-linking adjacent Fe3O4 NPs [241,242]. Using ul
was measured using the modified DPPH method for insoluble materials. trasmall IONPs as an MRI contrast agent has several significant benefits,
The items were rinsed with distilled water to create a pH-neutral su which are briefly highlighted in this paper and need further investiga
pernatant. The transfer of an electron that neutralizes the free-radical tion in Fig. 10.
nature of DPPH may be responsible for the observed antioxidant effect High saturation magnetization values and their superparamagnetic
[228]. properties result in good T2 reduction in MRI images and are initiated by
If the antioxidant activity assay observation can be improved, it will magnetic mono-domains at the nanometric dimension in the suitable
be possible to assess particle size in the future using a low-cost and iron oxide material. Iron oxide-based T1 agents have been created due to
energy-efficient method based on the size-dependent activity of parti the limitations of T2-driven diagnostics. The NPs must be stable to
cles. It is a profitable technology because iron is a plentiful natural prevent aggregation, which makes several particles function as a single
resource and because iron oxide particles have antioxidant properties magnetic domain and amplifies the T2 effect [244]. Various coatings
that can increase the lifespan of rubber and its composites. Biological have been used as stabilizers in this context, including those made of
processes, like antioxidant activity in cells [229]. Estimating antioxidant proteins, macro-molecules, and small compounds. In addition, it has
activity (FRAP) [230], CUPRAC assays [231], DPPH, and ABTS assays been established that the size of the coating plays a significant role in
can all be done using chemical-based methodologies. A colorless Fe3+- investigating the effects of varying an organic coating thickness on the
TPTZ complex changes into a vivid blue Fe2+-TPTZ complex when it relaxometry characteristics of IONPs [245]. Innovative research di
interacts with a potent antioxidant, which is the basis of the Ferric rections in MRI with IONPs could focus on enhancing imaging efficiency
Reducing Antioxidant Power assay (FRAP). and functionality. Scientists might explore novel IONP formulations,
Pursuing a fresh avenue in investigating antioxidant properties optimizing their magnetic properties for improved contrast and detec
within IONPs holds substantial potential for diverse applications. tion sensitivity. Functionalizing IONP surfaces with specific ligands
Explore inventive synthesis methods to amplify the inherent antioxidant could enable targeted imaging for precise diagnostics and therapeutic
capabilities of IONPs and fine-tune parameters like size, surface func monitoring. Investigating multi-functional IONPs with dual imaging and
tionalization, and composition to enhance their effectiveness. Addi therapeutic capabilities could also advance theragnostic applications.
tionally, examining potential synergies by amalgamating IONPs with Exploring emerging MRI techniques, such as hyperpolarized imaging or
natural antioxidants or assessing their viability in targeted delivery magnetic resonance fingerprinting, in conjunction with IONPs, offers
systems for oxidative stress-related conditions introduces unexplored avenues for more nuanced and specialized imaging. Such research en
possibilities. This exploration may ultimately lead to the development of deavors aim to push the boundaries of MRI technology, opening new
advanced antioxidant nanostructures, offering significant implications possibilities for diagnostic precision and personalized medicine.
for biomedical applications and novel therapeutic approaches targeting
oxidative stress across a spectrum of physiological contexts. 5.5. Hyperthermia
5.3.1. Antioxidant mechanisms of NPs Many conventional cancer treatments can experience synergistic or
DPPH technique for evaluating the antioxidant activity of insoluble additive benefits when combined with therapeutic hyperthermia. Ex
materials [233]. The ability of NPs to scavenge free radicals like DPPH perts have experimented with combining therapeutic hyperthermia with
underlies their antioxidant activity. Several other assays are being radiation and chemotherapy for the past thirty years [246]. Hyper
looked into, including ABTS, DMPD, FRAP, ORAC, TOSCA, and CBAs. thermia harms cell membranes, fragments DNA, and increases intra
They have undergone extensive research to use NPs as an applicable cellular calcium concentrations (which results in cellular death) [247].
material in treating diseases brought on by free radicals [234]. For the Different types of hyperthermia (with varying degrees of localization)
given weight of the materials, the increased surface area for the reaction have been caused by chemotherapy when combined with radiotherapy
was caused by the IONPs higher antioxidant activity. In the study of [248]. A significant and frequently prohibitive barrier to the use of
antioxidant capabilities, it can be found that the mechanism occurs in hyperthermia in cancer treatment has been the inability to direct energy
two different ways depending on the reaction used in the chemical test. and heat toward the tumors [249]. A schematic illustration of the crucial
The various assays demonstrate two chemical reactions: hydrogen atom factors that must be considered when designing IONPs with improved
and electron transfer [235]. The electron transfer used by DPPH to heating efficiency for various magnetic hyperthermia applications is
perform its antioxidant function is based on the ability [236]. shown in Fig. 11.
A hyperthermia medical procedure involves heating tissue, particu
5.4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) larly cancerous tissue, for about 30 min [251]. Heat can change the
tumor vascular parenchyma cells (VPCs), so the environment around the
Due to the use of IONPs, MRI is currently the most sophisticated tumor cells would likely differ. While heating diseased tissue presents
application of nanoscale materials in modern medicine. Over the past challenges, magnetic particle heating has been investigated for decades
50 years, diagnostic imaging techniques for identifying tumors, as a potential method of selectively heating malignant tumors [252].
damaged tissues, and neurological issues have advanced significantly. Combined chemotherapy and hyperthermia effects have been studied in
When discussing cancer imaging, one must consider that size and charge vivo and in vitro using IONPs and various hyperthermia-inducing tech
strongly correlate with the toxicity of IONPs, have longer half-lives in niques[253]. IONPs can be injected directly into tumors and heated with
the blood, and are small enough to pass through small blood vessels an external irregular magnetic field. Even antibody-directed IONPs, can
[237]. The method selected for producing superparamagnetic IONPs treat serious tumors and metastases. In this method, high-hysteretic
depends on the critical attributes of a specific application. The dual particles are preferred [251-253].
imaging agent MRI technique might be used clinically to indicate mul Utilizing the hysteresis in ferromagnetic substances is the most
tiple sclerosis disease activity [238]. The toxicity of the NPs is decreased apparent way to heat something with magnetic particles. The area
by coating them with the coating material, which also shields them from privileged by the hysteresis loop indicates the energy loss caused by
deterioration, increasing their effectiveness as MRI contrast agents hysteresis on the hysteresis curve. This energy expenditure results in
[239]. The size of MRI agents, closely related to the size of IONPs, is heat production, and if particles are correctly targeted, a tissue area can
strongly correlated with their high superparamagnetic properties [240]. be selectively heated [254]. Exploring new directions in hyperthermia
18
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of the IONPs for magnetic resonance imaging. Reprinted with permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry (License Number
5240751431763) [243].
Fig. 11. The following diagrams illustrate the various biomedical magnetic hyperthermia applications and the critical elements influencing their effectiveness
copyright 2016 © Abenojar et al., under the CC BY-NC-ND license [250].
research with IONPs holds tremendous potential for advancing cancer Exploring synergies with emerging technologies, like MRI guidance
therapy. Focus on refining IONP synthesis methods to enhance heating during hyperthermia, can further elevate precision. This multidimen
efficiency and biocompatibility. Tailoring the size, shape, and surface sional approach aims to unlock new avenues for IONP-mediated hy
properties of IONPs could optimize heat generation for effective hy perthermia, fostering advancements in cancer treatment modalities.
perthermia treatment. Investigating innovative targeting strategies,
such as surface functionalization or magnetic guidance, may improve
IONP accumulation at tumor sites, enhancing therapeutic outcomes.
19
5.6. Drug delivery modifications and functionalization enhance biocompatibility, facili

tating targeted interactions. Investigation into stimuli-responsive
The idea of magnetic drug delivery was first put forth more than 40 IONPs, activated by factors like pH or magnetic fields, provides tem
years ago as a highly effective use for IONPs [255]. According to mag poral control over drug release. Advancements in multifunctional IONPs
netic targeting, drug molecules are attached to IONPs, then injected and simultaneously enable real-time monitoring through imaging. More
guided to a target under magnetic field gradients. The drug molecules over, exploring biodegradable materials for IONP formulations aligns
are then retained in the target until the therapy is finished and the with sustainable practices. This pioneering research has the potential to
particles are removed. Drug delivery using IONPs involves synthesizing redefine drug delivery, optimizing therapeutic outcomes while mini
NPs with controlled properties, loading drugs onto their surfaces, and mizing potential side effects.
achieving controlled drug release. These NPs can be targeted to specific
cells by attaching ligands, and their magnetic properties allow for 6. Scope of future applications IONPs
tracking via imaging and can even enable hyperthermia-based cancer
therapy. We will primarily review key findings from studies on creating The sizes and forms of these NPs, as well as their accurate and
various NPs and targeted drug delivery methods using living cells, as complete information and poor bioavailability within the human sys
shown in Fig. 12. tem, are significantly influenced by the type of surface changes and the
IONPs hold promise for innovative cancer therapies utilizing their resulting geometric arrangement of the NPs. Most studies have
magnetic properties. They can induce hyperthermia to destroy cancer concentrated on enhancing the biocompatibility of materials; however,
cells, enable targeted drug delivery, enhance imaging for diagnostics, only a few studies have documented the refinement of magnetic parti
and can be used in combination therapies. By guiding NPs to tumor sites cles after coating or the creation of a composite structure. The saturation
using external magnetic fields, treatment becomes more targeted and magnetization significantly decreased following the surface modifica
effective. Challenges include optimizing properties, ensuring safety, tion of IONPs. Ongoing research aims to enhance imaging technologies,
refining targeting strategies, and conducting thorough clinical trials for especially MRI and multimodal imaging. Cancer therapy is expected to
broader use. An external magnetic field concentrates the particles and, benefit from optimized magnetic hyperthermia and the exploration of
consequently, the medicine associated with them inside the tumor combination therapies using IONPs. Environmental applications,
Fig. 13. Biodegradable polymers and dendrimers were used in experi particularly in water treatment, are gaining attention. Integrating IONPs
mental drug delivery systems, and the results looked promising [256]. into nanocomposites for enhanced properties is a notable area of interest
Despite being ideal carriers, dendrimers are inadequate as magnetic NP in material science. Regulatory considerations and safety assessments
coating material due to their size and structure, which can be easily are pivotal for the practical implementation of IONPs. The future also
modified to make them biocompatible and biodegradable [257,258]. holds promise for the development of intelligent nanomedicine and a
There are numerous uses of IONPs for drug delivery, including the deeper understanding of biocompatibility and long-term effects.
treatment of cancer, as the targeted tumors with doxorubicin (DOX)- Collaborative interdisciplinary efforts are imperative to unlock the full
loaded dendrimer-functionalized IONPs via magnetically guided de potential of IONPs across various applications. A more effective way to
livery [260–262]. Innovative research in drug delivery using IONPs enhance the magnetic property without affecting the other properties is
opens new avenues for precision medicine. IONPs encapsulate thera required for a safe and effective medication delivery agent. Numerous
peutic agents, ensuring precise release at targeted sites [263]. Surface intriguing biomedical uses of IONPs, among other significant
Fig. 12. Schematic illustration of the use of nanoparticles as drug delivery application. Reprinted with Elsevier’s permission (License No. 5240741135120 [256].
20
Fig. 13. The treatment of magnetic IONPs drug targeting copyright ©2013 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin Boston[259].
applications, have already been covered. In a more thorough investi chemical usage, making them suitable for specific applications.
gation, many simple synthesis methods and their modes of action and Conversely, chemical methods are preferred when precise control over
intimate integration with neighboring molecules must be assessed. factors such as size, shape, and surface properties is crucial. The decision
Additional essential investigations are required to create IONPs that are is guided by a balance between the simplicity offered by physical
affordable and high-quality quality without lengthy purification pro methods and the nuanced control achievable through chemical
cesses. Applications in vivo and analytical require particular IONPs with methods, aligning with the desired NPs specifications and the scale and
predetermined characteristics (quantity, symmetrical arranging). Before purpose of the production process. Physical methods like co-
use in humans, the safety and biocompatibility of IONPs must be eval precipitation and hydrothermal methods offer control over particle
uated over an extended period; hence, more thorough toxicity studies size and properties. Chemical methods such as laser ablation provide
must be carried out. Futuristic nanotechnology will see medical sub well-defined structures for various applications.
stitutes as a second market for enhanced medical applications, such as Authors have also studied the synthesis of IONPs using microor
versatile drug-loaded implants with alternating electromagnetic ganisms, mushrooms, and plants. The existence of many biological
actuation. sources that have been found to have significant therapeutic properties
offers an opportunity for the biosynthesis of IONPs to improve their
7. Conclusions effect with the possibility of reducing their side effects and enhancing
their selectivity. Plant-based synthesis methods are comparatively more
This article describes the properties of IONPs and their synthesis environmentally friendly and have better results by allowing surface
methods, characterization techniques, and different applications to modification. The medicinal properties of mushrooms are less studied
provide propellants in composite solids. It extensively discusses syn compared to plants, so mushrooms present even more opportunities for
thesizing IONPs through physical, chemical, and biological methods, developing IONPs to treat diseases for which there are no effective
considering the role of microorganisms, mushrooms, and plants. It therapies. Mushrooms can act as effective reducing agents, and some
highlights the significance of managing particle size and shape, mag mushroom-derived IONPs exhibit good antibacterial properties. Derived
netic characteristics, surface modification, biocompatibility, stability, from mushrooms through a reduction process, these NPs exhibit potent
and scalability. Depending on the intended use, the synthesis method is antibacterial properties, effectively impeding bacterial growth. The
chosen, and ongoing research is crucial for improving and creating novel underlying mechanism of this antibacterial activity is likely rooted in the
synthesis techniques for IONPs. The selection between physical and interaction between the mushroom-derived IONPs and the bacterial cell
chemical methods for IONP synthesis hinges on the specific NPs char membrane. This interaction may disrupt cellular processes or induce
acteristics required, the scale of production, and the intended applica oxidative stress.
tions. Physical methods are favored for their simplicity and minimal It has been discovered that IONPs are incredibly flexible tools for the
21
distribution of a variety of capabilities, including image-based di References

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28

Fe 1

Uploaded by

Fe 1

Uploaded by

Coordination Chemistry Reviews 507 (2024) 215750

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Coordination Chemistry Reviews

Catalyzing innovation: Exploring iron oxide nanoparticles - Origins,

1. Introduction probability of growing new classifications, structures, strategies, and

nanotechnology and beyond. 2.3. Physical routes

2.2.5. Sol-Gel reaction and polyol method 2.3.1. Pyrolysis method

1 Chemical vapor deposition Fe2O3 20 Spherical Optoelectrical [50]

1 Bacillus subtilis FeCl3 12–32 nm Spherical Photocatalytic, antibacterial [119]

Doping metal and metal oxide coating over iron oxide

Polymers coating or encapsulation over IONPs

Fig. 6. In bacteria cells, the activity of IONPs is mediated by a variety of mechanisms.

efficiency of photocatalysis. Tailoring the size and morphology of Water Dissociation

Fig. 8. The photocatalytic process of IONPs is depicted in a schematic diagram.

5.6. Drug delivery modifications and functionalization enhance biocompatibility, facili

distribution of a variety of capabilities, including image-based di References

You might also like

Fe 1

Uploaded by

Fe 1

Uploaded by

Coordination Chemistry Reviews 507 (2024) 215750

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Coordination Chemistry Reviews

Catalyzing innovation: Exploring iron oxide nanoparticles - Origins,

1. Introduction probability of growing new classifications, structures, strategies, and

nanotechnology and beyond. 2.3. Physical routes

2.2.5. Sol-Gel reaction and polyol method 2.3.1. Pyrolysis method

1 Chemical vapor deposition Fe2O3 20 Spherical Optoelectrical [50]

1 Bacillus subtilis FeCl3 12–32 nm Spherical Photocatalytic, antibacterial [119]

Doping metal and metal oxide coating over iron oxide

Polymers coating or encapsulation over IONPs

Fig. 6. In bacteria cells, the activity of IONPs is mediated by a variety of mechanisms.

efficiency of photocatalysis. Tailoring the size and morphology of Water Dissociation

Fig. 8. The photocatalytic process of IONPs is depicted in a schematic diagram.

5.6. Drug delivery modifications and functionalization enhance biocompatibility, facili­

distribution of a variety of capabilities, including image-based di­ References

You might also like

5.6. Drug delivery modifications and functionalization enhance biocompatibility, facili

distribution of a variety of capabilities, including image-based di References