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CHAPTER 9
THE PERIODIC TABLE AND SOME ATOMIC
PROPERTIES
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1A (E) Atomic size decreases from left to right across a period, and from bottom to top in a
family. We expect the smallest elements to be in the upper right corner of the periodic table.
S is the element closest to the upper right corner and thus should have the smallest atom.
S = 104 pm As = 121 pm I = 133 pm
1B (E) From the periodic table inside the front cover, we see that Na is in the same period as Al
(period 3), but in a different group from K, Ca, and Br (period 4), which might suggest that
Na and Al are about the same size. However, there is a substantial decrease in size as one
moves from left to right in a period due to an increase in effective nuclear charge. Enough in
fact, that Ca should be about the same size as Na.
2A (E) Ti2+ and V3+ are isoelectronic; the one with higher positive charge should be smaller:
V3+ < Ti2+. Sr 2+ and Br  are isoelectronic; again, the one with higher positive charge
should be smaller: Sr 2+  Br  . In addition Ca 2+ and Sr 2+ both are ions of Group 2A; the
one of lower atomic number should be smaller. Ca 2+  Sr 2+  Br  . Finally, we know that
the size of atoms decreases from left to right across a period; we expect sizes of like-
charged ions to follow the same trend: Ti 2+  Ca 2+ . The species are arranged below in
order of increasing size.
b g b g b g b g
V 3+ 64 pm  Ti 2+ 86 pm  Ca 2+ 100 pm  Sr 2+ 113 pm  Br  196 pm b g
2B (E) Br- clearly is larger than As since Br  is an anion in the same period as As. In turn, As
is larger than N since both are in the same group, with As lower down in the group.
As also should be larger than P, which is larger than Mg 2+ , an ion smaller than N. All that
remains is to note that Cs is a truly large atom, one of the largest in the periodic table.
The As atom should be in the middle. Data from Figure 9-11 shows:
Mg 2  N  As  Br   Cs
3A (E) Ionization increases from bottom to top of a group and from left to right through a
period. The first ionization energy of K is less than that of Mg and the first ionization
energy of S is less than that of Cl. We would expect also that the first ionization energy of
Mg is smaller than that of S, because Mg is a metal.
3B (E) We would expect an alkali metal (Rb) or an alkaline earth metal (Sr) to have a low first
ionization energy and nonmetals (e.g., Br ) to have relatively high first ionization energies.
Metalloids (such as Sb and As) should have intermediate ionization energies. Since the first
ionization energy for As is larger than that for Sb, the first ionization energy of Sb should be
in the middle.
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Chapter 9: The Periodic Table and Some Atomic Properties
4A (E) Cl and Al must be paramagnetic, since each has an odd number of electrons. The
electron configurations of K + ([Ar]) and O 2 ([Ne]) are those of the nearest noble gas.
Because all of the electrons are paired, they are diamagnetic species. In Zn: [Ar] 3d 10 4 s 2
all electrons are paired and so the atom is diamagnetic.
4B (E) The electron configuration of Cr is [Ar] 3d 5 4 s1 ; it has six unpaired electrons. The
electron configuration of Cr 2+ is [Ar] 3d 4; it has four unpaired electrons. The electron
configuration of Cr 3+ is [Ar] 3d 3; it has three unpaired electrons. Thus, of the two ions,
Cr 2+ has the greater number of unpaired electrons.
INTEGRATIVE EXAMPLE
A. (M) The physical properties of elements in the same period follow general trends. Below is a
tabulation of the melting points, densities, and atomic radii of the alkali earth metals.
Z M.P. Density Metallic Radii
(ºC) (g/cc) (Å)
Li 3 180.54 0.53 2.05
Na 11 97.81 0.97 2.23
K 19 63.25 0.86 2.77
Rb 37 38.89 1.53 2.98
Cs 55 28.4 1.87 3.34
Accompanying this table is the plot of the data. Based on rough approximations of the trends
of data, the properties of francium can be approximated as follows:
Melting point: 22 °C, density: 2.75 g/cc, atomic radius: 4.25 Å
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B. (M) Element 168 should be a solid since the trend in boiling point and melting point would
put the boiling point temperature above 298 K. The electronic configuration is [Unk] 8s2
5g18 6f14 7d10 8p6, where Unk represents element 118.
EXERCISES
The Periodic Law
1. (E) Element 114 will be a metal in the same group as Pb, element 82 (18 cm3 /mol);
Sn, element 50 (18 cm3 /mol); and Ge, element 32 (14 cm3 /mol). We note that the
atomic volumes of Pb and Sn are essentially equal, probably due to the lanthanide
contraction. If there is also an actinide contraction, element 114 will have an atomic volume
of 18 cm3 / mol. If there is no actinide contraction, we would predict a molar volume of ~
22 cm3 / mol. This need to estimate atomic volume is what makes the value for density
questionable.
g g
298 298
 g  mol = 16 g  g  mol = 14 g
density  3  = 3 3
density  3  = 3
 cm  18 cm cm  cm  22 cm cm3
mol mol
2. (E) Lanthanum has an atomic number of Z = 57, and thus its atomic volume is somewhat
less than 25 cm3 / mol. Let us assume 23 cm3 / mol.
atomic mass = density  atomic volume = 6.145 g / cm3  23 cm3 / mol = 141 g / mol
This compares very well with the listed value of 139 for La.
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3. (M) The following data are plotted at right. Density clearly is a periodic property for these
two periods of main group elements. It rises, falls a bit, rises again, and falls back to the
axis, in both cases.
Element Atomic Density
Number g cm3
Z
Na 11 0.968
Mg 12 1.738
Al 13 2.699
Si 14 2.336
P 15 1.823
S 16 2.069
Cl 17 0.0032
Ar 18 0.0018
K 19 0.856
Ca 20 1.550
Ga 31 5.904
Ge 32 5.323
As 33 5.778
Se 34 4.285
Br 35 3.100
Kr 36 0.0037
4. (M) The following data are plotted at right below. Melting point clearly is a periodic
property for these two periods. It rises to a maximum and then falls off in each case.
Element Atomic Melting
Number Point
Z C
Li 3 179
Be 4 1278
B 5 2300
C 6 3350
N 7 210
O 8 218
F 9 220
Ne 10 249
Na 11 98
Mg 12 651
Al 13 660
Si 14 1410
P 15 590
S 16 119
Cl 17 101
Ar 18 189
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The Periodic Table

5. (E) Mendeleev arranged elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic weight.
Of course, atomic masses with non-integral values are permissible. Hence, there always is
room for an added element between two elements that already are present in the table. On
the other hand, Moseley arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number. Only
integral (whole number) values of atomic number are permitted. Thus, when elements with
all possible integral values in a certain range have been discovered, no new elements are
possible in that range.
6. (E) For there to be the same number of elements in each period of the periodic table, each
shell of an electron configuration would have to contain the same number of electrons. This,
however, is not the case; the shells have 2 (K shell), 8 (L shell), 18 (M shell), and 32 (N
shell) electrons each. This is because each of the periods of the periodic table begins with
one s electron beyond a noble gas electron configuration, and the noble gas electron
configuration corresponds to either s 2 (He) or s 2 p 6 , with various other full subshells.
7. (E)
b g
The noble gas following radon Z = 86 will have an atomic number of (86  32 ) 118.
b g
The alkali metal following francium Z = 87 will have an atomic number of
(87  32 ) 119.
b g
The mass number of radon A = 222 is (222  86 ) 2.58 times its atomic number. The
mass number of Lr  A = 262  is (262  103 ) 2.54 times its atomic number. Thus, we
would expect the mass numbers, and hence approximate atomic masses, of elements 118
and 119 to be about 2.5 times their atomic numbers, that is, A119  298 u and A118  295 u.
8. (E)
(a) The 6d subshell will be complete with an element in the same group as Hg. This is
three elements beyond Une (Z = 109) and thus this element has an atomic number of
Z = 112.
(b) The element in this period that will most closely resemble bismuth is six elements
beyond Mt (Z=109) and thus has Z = 115.
(c) The element in this period that would be a noble gas would fall below Rn, nine
elements beyond Mt (Z=109) and thus has Z = 118.
Atomic Radii and Ionic Radii
9. (E) In general, atomic size in the periodic table increases from top to bottom for a group and
increases from right to left through a period, as indicated in Figure 9-4. The larger element
is indicated first, followed by the reason for making the choice.
(a) Te: Te is to the left of Br and also in the period below that of Br in the 4th period.
(b) K: K is to the left of Ca within the same period, Period 4.
(c) Cs : Cs is both below and to the left of Ca in the periodic table.
(d) N: N is to the left of O within the same period, Period 2.
(e) P: P is both below and to the left of O in the periodic table.
(f) Au: Au is both below and to the left of Al in the periodic table.
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10. (E) An Al atom is larger than a F atom since Al is both below and to the left of F in the
periodic table. As is larger than Al, since As is below Al in the periodic table. (Even though
As is to the right of Al, we would not conclude that As is smaller than Al, since increases in
size down a group are more pronounced than decreases in size across a period (from left to
right). A Cs+ ion is isoelectronic with an I  ion, and in an isoelectronic series, anions are
larger than cations, thus I  is larger than Cs+. I  also is larger than As, since I is below
As in the periodic table (and increases in size down a group are more pronounced than
those across a period). Finally, N is larger than F, since N is to the left of F in the periodic
table. Therefore, we conclude that F is the smallest species listed and I  is the largest.
In fact, with the exception of Cs+, we can rank the species in order of decreasing size.
I   As  Al  N  F and also I   Cs+
11. (E) Sizes of atoms do not simply increase with atomic number is because electrons often
are added successively to the same subshell. These electrons do not fully screen each other
from the nuclear charge (they do not effectively get between each other and the nucleus).
Consequently, as each electron is added to a subshell and the nuclear charge increases by
one unit, all of the electrons in this subshell are drawn more closely into the nucleus,
because of the ineffective shielding.
12. (E) Atomic sizes are uncertain because the electron cloud that surrounds an atom has
no fixed limit. It can be pictured as gradually fading away, rather like the edge of a town.
In both cases we pick an arbitrary boundary.
13. (E)
(a) The smallest atom in Group 13 is the first: B
(b) Po is in the sixth period, and is larger than the others, which are rewritten in the
following list from left to right in the fifth period, that is, from largest to smallest:
Sr, In, Sb, Te. Thus, Te is the smallest of the elements given.
14. (M) The hydrogen ion contains no electrons, only a nucleus. It is exceedingly tiny, much
smaller than any other atom or electron-containing ion. Both H and H  have a nuclear
charge of +1, but H  has two electrons to H’s one, and thus is larger. Both He and H 
contain two electrons, but He has a nuclear charge of +2, while H  has one of only +1. The
smaller nuclear charge of H  is less effective at attracting electrons than the more positive
nuclear charge of He. The only comparison left is between H and He; we expect He to be
smaller since atomic size decreases from left to right across a period. Thus, the order by
increasing size: H +  He  H  H  .
15. (E) Li + is the smallest; it not only is in the second period, but also is a cation. I  is the
largest, an anion in the fifth period. Next largest is Se in the previous (the fourth) period.
We expect Br to be smaller than Se because it is both to the right of Se and in the same
period.
Li +  Br  Se  I 
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16. (E) Size decreases from left to right in the periodic table. On this basis I should be smaller
than Al. But size increases from top to bottom in the periodic table. On this basis, I should
be larger than Al. There really is no good way of resolving these conflicting predictions.
17. (M) In the literal sense, isoelectronic means having the same number and types of electrons.
(In another sense, not used in the text, it means having the same electron configuration.) We
determine the total number of electrons and the electron configuration for each species and
make our decisions based on this information.
Fe 2+ 24 electrons [Ar] 3d 6 Sc 3+ 18 electrons [Ar]

Ca 2+ 18 electrons [Ar] F 10 electrons [He] 2 s 2 2 p 6
Co 2+ 25 electrons [Ar] 3d 7 Co 3+ 24 electrons [Ar] 3d 6
Sr 2+ 36 electrons [Ar] 3d 10 4s 2 4 p 6 Cu + 28 electrons [Ar] 3d 10
Zn 2+ 28 electrons [Ar] 3d 10 Al 3+ 10 electrons [He] 2 s 2 2 p 6
Thus the species with the same number of electrons and the same electron configuration are
the following. Fe 2+ and Co3+ Sc3+ and Ca 2+ F and Al3+ Zn 2+ and Cu +
18. (E) In an isoelectronic series, all of the species have the same number and types of electrons.
The size is determined by the nuclear charge. Those species with the largest (positive) nuclear
charge are the smallest. Those with smaller nuclear charges are larger in size. Thus, the more
positively charged an ion is in an isoelectronic series, the smaller it will be.
Y 3+  Sr 2+  Rb +  Br   Se 2
19. (E) Ions can be isoelectronic without having noble-gas electron configurations. Take, for
instance, Cu+ and Zn 2+ . Both of these ions have the electron configuration [Ar] 3d 10 .
20. (E) Isoelectronic species must have the same number of electrons, and each element has a
different atomic number. Thus, atoms of different elements cannot be isoelectronic. Two
different cations may be isoelectronic, as may two different anions, or an anion and a cation. In
fact, there are many sets of different cations and anions that have a common configuration. For
example, all of the ions listed below share the same electron configuration, namely that of the
noble gas Ne: O 2 and F  , Na + and Mg 2+ , or F  and Na + .
Ionization Energies; Electron Affinities

21. (E) Ionization energy in the periodic table decreases from top to bottom for a group, and
increases from left to right for a period, as summarized in Figure 9-12. Cs has the lowest
ionization energy as it is farthest to the left and nearest to the bottom of the periodic table.
Next comes Sr, followed by As, then S, and finally F, the most nonmetallic element in the
group (and in the periodic table). Thus, the elements listed in order of increasing ionization
energy are:
Cs  Sr  As  S  F
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22. (E) The second ionization energy for an atom cannot be smaller than the first ionization
energy for the same atom. The reason is that, when the first electron is removed it is
being separated from a species with a charge of zero. On the other hand, when the second
electron is removed, it is being separated from a species with a charge of +1. Since the force
between two charged particles is proportional to q+ q / r 2 ( r is the distance between the
particles), the higher the positive charge, the more difficult it will be to remove an electron.
23. (E) In the case of a first electron affinity, a negative electron is being added to a neutral
atom. This process may be either exothermic or endothermic depending upon the electronic
configuration of the atom. Energy tends to be released when filled shells or filled subshells
are generated. In the case of an ionization potential, however, a negatively charged electron
is being separated from a positively charged cation, a process that must always require
energy, because unlike charges attract each other.
24. (E) First we convert the mass of Na given to an amount in moles of Na. Then we compute
the energy needed to ionize this much Na.
1g 1 mol Na 495.8 kJ 1000 J
Energy = 1.00 mg Na    = 0.0216 kJ  = 21.6 J
1000 mg 22.99 g Na 1 mol Na 1 kJ
25. (E) Ionization energies for Si: Ei,1 = 786.5 kJ/mol, Ei,2 = 1577 kJ/mol, Ei,3 = 3232 kJ/mol,
Ei,4 = 4356 kJ/mol. To remove all four electrons from the third shell (3s23p2) would require
the sum of all four ionization energies or 9951.5 kJ/mol. This would be 9.952×106 J per mole
of Si atoms.
26. (E) Data ( Ei  375.7 kJ/mol) are obtained from Table 9.3.
1 kJ 1 mol Cs + 6.022 1023 Cs + ions
no. Cs + ions = 1 J    +
= 1.603 1018 Cs + ions
1000 J 375.7 kJ 1 mol Cs ions
27. (M) The electron affinity of bromine is 324.6 kJ/mol (Figure 9-15). We use Hess’s law to
determine the heat of reaction for Br2  g  becoming 2 Br   g  .
Br2  g   2 Br(g) H = +193 kJ
2 Br  g  + 2 e  2 Br  g 
 
2   ea H = 2  324.6 kJ
Br2  g  + 2 e   2 Br   g  H = 456 kJ Overall process is exothermic.
28. (M) The electron affinity of fluorine is 328.0 kJ/mol (Figure 9-15) and the first and
second ionization energies of Mg (Table 9.4) are 737.7 kJ/mol and 1451 kJ/mol,
respectively.
bg
Mg g  Mg + g + e  b g Ei (Mg)  737.7 kJ/mol
Mg +  g   Mg 2+  g  + e  Ei (Mg  )  1451 kJ/mol
2 F  g  + 2 e   2 F  g  2  ea H  2  328.0 kJ/mol
Mg  g  + 2 F  g   Mg 2+  g  + 2 F  g  H = +1533 kJ / mol Endothermic.
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29. (E) The electron is being removed from a species with a neon electron configuration.
But in the case of Na + , the electron is being removed from a species that is left with
a +2 charge, while in the case of Ne, the electron is being removed from a species
with a +1 charge. The more highly charged the resulting species, the more difficult
it is to produce it by removing an electron.
30. (M) The electron affinity of Li is 59.6 kJ/mol. The smallest ionization energy listed in
Table 9.3 (and, except for Fr, displayed in Figure 9-12) is that of Cs, 375.7 kJ/mol. Thus,
insufficient energy is produced by the electron affinity of Li to account for the ionization
of Cs. As a result, we would predict that Li  Cs + will not be stable and hence Li  Li +
and Li  Na + , owing to the larger ionization energies of Li and Na, should be even less
stable. (One other consideration not dealt with here is the energy released when the positive
and negative ion combine to form an ion pair. This is an exothermic process, but we have no
way of assessing the value of this energy.)
31. (M)
(a) Ionization energy in the periodic table decreases from top to bottom in a group, and
increases from left to right across a period, as summarized in Figure 9-12. Therefore,
the elements listed in order of increasing ionization energy are:
Al < Si < S < Cl
(b) Electron affinity is the measure of the energy change that occurs when a gaseous atom
gains an electron. If energy is given off when this occurs, the process is exothermic and
the electron affinity is negative. It is harder to make generalizations about electron
affinities. If an atom has a high affinity for an electron, the electon affinity tends to be a
large negative value. Chlorine hast the greatest affinity for an electron, becuase it will
have a noble gas configuration when this occurs. In this series, aluminum has the
smallest affinity for an electron. Therefore, the elements listed in order of increasing
electron affinity are:
Al < Si < S < Cl
(c) Polarizability increases with increasing size and, as a result, decreases going from left
to right across a period. Al, Si, S, and Cl are in the same period, which means that Cl
has the lowest polarizability and Al has the highest polarizability. Since Si is larger than
S, Si will have a larger polarizability. Therefore, polarizability increases as follows: Cl
< S < Si < Al.
32. (M)
(a) Ionization energy in the periodic table decreases from top to bottom in a group, and
increases from left to right across a period, as summarized in Figure 9-10. Therefore,
the elements listed in order of increasing ionization energy are:
Na < Mg < P < O
(b) If an atom has a high affinity for an electron, the electon affinity tends to be a large
negative value. Non-metals have a greater affinity to gain electrons compared with
metals. Metals prefer to lose electrons to form cations.
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Oxygen has the greatest affinity since it would only have to add two electrons to reach a
noble gas configuration, as compared with phosphorus. Sodium has more affinity for an
electron than magnesium because sodium’s 3s orbital would be full upon addition of an
electron. Magnesium is less likely to add an electron because its electron would
populate the higher energy 3p orbital.
Therefore, the elements listed in order of increasing electron affinity are:
Mg < Na < P < O
(c) Polarizability decreases going from left to right across a period and increases from top
to bottom within a group. Since O is in the second period and P, Mg, and Na are in the
third, O has the lowest polarizability. Because P, Mg, and Na are all in the same period,
Na will have the highest polarizability since it is the largest, followed by Mg and then
P. Therefore, the order of increasing polarizability is O < P < Mg < Na.
Magnetic Properties
33. (E) Three of the ions have noble gas electron configurations and thus have no unpaired
electrons: F  is 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 Ca 2+ and S2  are Ne 3s2 3 p 6
Only Fe 2+ has unpaired electrons. Its electron configuration is [Ar] 3d 6 .
34. (E)
(a) Ge[Ar]3d104s24p2 with two unpaired electrons
(b) Cl [Ne]3s23p5 with one unpaired electron
(c) Cr3+[Ar]3d3 with three unpaired electrons
(d) Br-[Ar]3d104s24p6 with no unpaired electrons
Clearly, (b) Cr3+ has the most unpaired electrons of the four elements listed.
35. (E)
(a) K+ is isoelectronic with Ar, with no unpaired electrons. It is diamagnetic.
(b) Cr3+ has the configuration [Ar]3d3 with three unpaired electrons. It is paramagnetic.
(c) Zn2+ has the configuration [Ar]3d10, with no unpaired electrons. It is diamagnetic.
(d) Cd has the configuration [Kr]4d105s2 , with no unpaired electrons. It is diamagnetic.
(e) Co3+ has the configuration [Ar]3d6 with four unpaired electrons. It is paramagnetic
(f) Sn2+ has the configuration [Kr]4d105s2 , with no unpaired electrons. It is diamagnetic.
(g) Br has the configuration [Ar]3d104s25p5 with one unpaired electron. It is paramagnetic.
From this, we see that (a), (c), (d), and (f) are diamagnetic and (b), (e), and (g) are
paramagnetic.
36. (E) First we write the electron configuration of the element, then that of the ion. In each
case, the number of unpaired electrons written beside the configuration agrees with the data
given in the statement of the problem.
(a) Ni [Ar] 3d 8 4 s2  Ni 2+ [Ar] 3d 8 Two unpaired e–
(b) Cu [Ar] 3d 10 4 s1  Cu 2+ [Ar] 3d 9 One unpaired e–
(c) Cr [Ar] 3d 5 4 s1  Cr 3+ [Ar] 3d 3 Three unpaired e–
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37. (E) All atoms with an odd number of electrons must be paramagnetic. There is no way to
pair all of the electrons up if there is an odd number of electrons. Many atoms with an even
number of electrons are diamagnetic, but some are paramagnetic. The one of lowest atomic
b g
number is carbon Z = 6 , which has two unpaired p-electrons producing the paramagnetic
behavior: [He] 2s22p2.
38. (E) The electron configuration of each iron ion can be determined by starting with the
electron configuration of the iron atom.  Fe  =  Ar  3d 6 4 s 2 Then the two ions result from
the loss of both 4 s electrons, followed by the loss of a 3d electron in the case of Fe 3+ .
 Fe 2+  =  Ar  3d 6 four unpaired electrons
 Fe3+  =  Ar  3d 5 five unpaired electrons
Predictions Based on the Periodic Table

39. (M)
(a) Elements that one would expect to exhibit the photoelectric effect with visible light
should be ones that have a small value of their first ionization energy. Based on Figure
9-12, the alkali metals have the lowest first ionization energies of these. Cs, Rb, and K
are three suitable metals. Metals that would not exhibit the photoelectric effect with
visible light are those that have high values of their first ionization energy. Again from
Figure 9-9, Zn, Cd, and Hg seem to be three metals that would not exhibit the
photoelectric effect with visible light.
(b) From Figure 9-1, we notice that the atomic (molar) volume increases for the solid
forms of the noble gases as we travel down the group (the data points just before the
alkali metal peaks). But it seems to increase less rapidly than the molar mass. This
means that the density should increase with atomic mass, and Rn should be the
densest solid in the group. We expect densities of liquids to follow the same trend as
densities of solids.
(c) To estimate the first ionization energy of fermium, we note in Figure 9-12 that the
ionization energies of the lanthanides (following the Cs valley) are approximately
the same. We expect similar behavior of the actinides, and estimate a first ionization
energy of about +600 kJ/mol.
(d) We can estimate densities of solids from the information in Figure 9-1. Radium has
Z = 88 and an approximate atomic volume of 40 cm3 /mol. Then we use the molar
mass of radium to determine its density:
1 mol 226 g Ra
density =  = 5.7 g / cm3
40 cm3 1 mol
40. (E) Recall that polarizability decreases going from left to right across a period and increases
from top to bottom within a group. Therefore, the least polarizable atom is F. P and Na are
both in the same period, and since polarizability decreases from left to right, P will be less
polarizable than Na. Finally, Br and As are also in the same period, and applying the same
logic, Br is less polarizable than As. Therefore, the order of increasing polarizability is
F < P < Na < Br < As.
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41. (E) Polarizability decreases going from left to right across a period and increases from top
to bottom within a group. Be, N, and O are in the same period, which means that O has the
lowest polarizability and Be has the highest polarizability in this period. S belongs to period
3 and is farther to the right than K, which is in period 4. Therefore, S is less polarizable than
K. In order of increasing polarizability, they are O < N < Be < S < K.
42. (E)
(a) Size increases down a group and from right to left in a period. Ba is closest to the
lower left corner of the periodic table and thus has the largest size.
(b) Ionization energy decreases down a group and from right to left in a period. Although
Pb is closest to the bottom of its group, Sr is farthest left in its period (and only one
period above Pb). Sr should have the lowest first ionization energy.
(c) Electron affinity becomes more negative from left to right in a period and from
bottom to top in a group. Cl is closest to the upper right in the periodic table and has
the most negative (smallest) electron affinity.
(d) The number of unpaired electrons can be determined from the orbital diagram for each
species. Atomic nitrogen ([He]2s22p3), by virtue of having three half-filled p-orbitals,
possesses the greatest number of unpaired electrons.
43. (E) Polarizability increases with increasing size. Given the choice of Cl, Cl+, and Cl–, size
depends on the number of electrons in the valence shell. Therefore, polarizability increases
as follows: Cl+ < Cl < Cl–.
44. (E) Polarizability increases with increasing size, which for a given atom is also dictated
by the number of electrons in the valence shell. For the given atom–ion pairs, F– is more
polarizable than F, and Na+ is less polarizable than Na. Both Na+ and F– have the same
electron configuration, but Na+ has a higher nuclear charge. Therefore, Zeff for Na+ is larger
than that of F–, which means that Na+ holds its valence electrons more tightly. Therefore,
Na+ is the least polarizable and F– most polarizable.
45. (E)
(a) Z = 32 1. This is the element Ge, with an outer electron configuration of
3s 2 3 p 2 . Thus, Ge has two unpaired p electrons.
(b) Z =8 1. This is the element O. Each atom has an outer electron configuration
of 2s 2 2 p 4 . Thus, O has two unpaired p electrons.
(c) Z = 53 3. This is the element I, with an electron affinity more negative than
that of the adjacent atoms: Xe and Te.
(d) Z = 38 4. This is the element Sr, which has two 5s electrons. It is easier to
remove one 5s electron than to remove the outermost 4 s electron
of Ca, but harder than removing the outermost 6s electron of Cs.
(e) Z = 48 2. This is the element Cd. Its outer electron configuration is s2 and thus
it is diamagnetic.
(f) Z = 20 2. This is the element Ca. Since its electron configuration is [Ar] 4 s2 ,
all electrons are paired and it is diamagnetic.
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46. (E)
(a) 6. Tl’s electron configuration [Xe] 4 f 14 5d 10 6s2 6 p1 has one p electron in its
outermost shell.
(b) 8. Z = 70 identifies the element as Yb, an f block of the periodic table, or an inner
transition element.
(c) 5. Ni has the electron configuration [Ar] 4 s2 3d 8 . It also is a d block element.
(d) 1. An s2 outer electron configuration, with the underlying configuration of a noble
gas, is characteristic of elements of group 2(2A), the alkaline earth elements. Since the
noble gas core is [Ar], the element must be Ca.
(e) 2. The element in the fifth period and Group 15 is Sb, a metalloid.
(f) 4 and 6. The element in the fourth period and Group 16 is Se, a nonmetal. (Note, B is
a nonmetal with electron configuration 1s22s22p1 (having one p electron in the shell of
highest n). 6 is also a possible answer.
47. (M) Ga4+ and Ge5+ are unlikely to be found in chemical compounds because these ions are
unstable. Atoms tend to gain or lose electrons such that they achieve a noble gas
configuration. Removing 4 electrons from Ga and 5 from Ge does not give these atoms a
noble gas configuration due to the electrons populating the 3d orbitals.
48. (E) Li+ and Te2– are likely to be found in chemical compounds because these are the most
stable ions that lithium and tellurium form. Both Li+ and Te2– have noble gas configurations.
INTEGRATIVE AND ADVANCED EXERCISES

49. (M)
(a) Not possible. C (77 pm) and Ca2+(100 pm) are very different in size; however the
diagram requires these to be nearly the same size
(b) This is a possibility. Na+ is approximately the same size as Sr (99 pm). Cl– (181 pm)
and Br-(196 pm) are comparable, with one being slightly smaller.
(c) Not possible. There are three large atoms and only one small one. Y (165 pm), K
(227 pm), Ca (197 pm), and the small Na+ (99 pm).
(d) Not possible. The smaller atoms are of noticeably different sizes: Zr2+ (95 pm) and
Mg2+ (72 pm).
(e) This is possible. Fe and Co are of comparable sizes (~125 pm), and Cs (265 pm) and
Rb (248 pm) are comparable, with one being slightly smaller.
Thus, the answer is that both (b) and (e) are compatible with the sketch.
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50. (M) This periodic table would have to have the present width of 18 elements plus the width of
the 14 lanthanides or actinides. That is, the periodic table would be (18 + 14 =) 32 elements
wide.
51. (E) We can determine the atomic mass of indium by beginning with the atomic mass
of oxygen, and using the chemical formula of InO to determine the amount (in moles)
of indium in 100.0 g InO. In 100.0 g InO there is 82.5 g In and also 17.5 g O.
1 mol O 1 mol In 82.5 g In
17.5 g O    1.09 mol In Atomic mass of In   75.7 g In/mol
16.0 g O 1 mol O 1.09 mol In
With this value of the atomic mass of indium, Mendeleev might well have placed the element
between As (75 g/mol) and Se (78 g/mol), that is, in his “Gruppe V” or “Gruppe VI.”
82.5 g In 16.00 g O 3 mol O

52. (E) For In2O3: atomic mass of In     113 g In/mol In
17.5 g O 1 mol O 2 mol In
Indium now falls between Cd (112 g/mol) and Sn (118 g/mol), which places the element in
“Gruppe III,”, where it remains in the modern periodic table (Group 3A).
53. (M) Sizes of atoms do not simply increase uniformly with atomic number because electrons
do not effectively screen each other from the nuclear charge (they do not effectively get
between each other and the nucleus). Consequently, as each electron is added and the nuclear
charge increases, all of the electrons in the subshell are drawn more closely. As well, in a
particular group, atomic size does not increase uniformly owing to the penetration of
electrons of a particular shell. Penetration is very dependent on the magnitude of the positive
charge in the nucleus and how tightly held electrons are to that nucleus. For instance, a 2p
electron will have a different penetration when compared to a 5p electron because the core
electrons are more tightly held for an atom with 5p orbitals than those with only the 2p
orbitals filled. Finally, electron-electron repulsion is not constant for the outer electrons as
one goes down a particular group owing to the volume of the orbital occupied by the electron.
2p orbitals are smaller and have a higher electron-electron repulsion than do electrons in a 5p
orbital.
54. (M) The ground-state electron configuration of Li is 1s2 2s1. The third ionization energy of
Li(g) corresponds to the removal of the last remaining electron (from the 1s orbital). For a
one-electron atom or atomic ion, the energy levels are given by equation (8.9).
RH Z 2
En  
n2
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The energy of the last remaining electron in a lithium atom is

2.179  1018 J  32
E1   2
 1.96 1017 J  1.96 1020 kJ (per ion)
1
Removing this electron requires the input of 1.96 × 10−20 kJ of energy (per ion). For one
mole of ions, we require 1.96 × 10−20 kJ ion−1 × 6.022 × 1023 ions/mol = 1.18 × 104 kJ mol−1.
The energy formula given above for En is sometimes applied to atoms or ions containing
more than one electron by replacing Z by Zeff, as we did in the Integrative Example.
However, accurate values of Zeff are not easily calculated or readily available. In fact, one
way of estimating Zeff values is to calculate them from the measured ionization energies.
55. (E)
(a) A; Element “A” (K) has an electron configuration consistent with group 1A, which is
the alkali metals.
(b) B; Element “B” (As) is a non-metal. It is easier for As to gain an electron to form
As– than for K to form K–.
(c) A; Element “A” (K) has the larger atomic radius. In general, size decreases going
across a period.
(d) B; Element “B” (As) has the greatest electron affinity. Non-metals have a greater
tendency to add electrons compared with metals.
56. (M)
(a) A; Element “A” (Sr) has an electron configuration consistent with group 1A which are
the alkali metals.
(b) B; Element “B” (Br) is a non-metal. It is easier for Br to gain an electron to form
Br– than for Sr to form Sr–.
(c) A; Element “A” (Sr) has the larger atomic radius. In general, size decreases going
across a period and increases going down a group. Since Sr has valence electrons in
the higher energy 5s orbital, which is farther from the nucleus, Sr will be larger in size.
(d) B; Element “B” (Br) has the greatest electron affinity. Non-metals have a greater
tendency to add electrons compared with metals.
57. (M) Since (0.3734)(382) = 143 u, if we subtract 143 from 382 we get 239 u, which is very
close to the correct value of 238 u.
First we convert to J/g°C: 0.0276 × (4.184 J/cal) = 0.1155 J/g°C, so:
0.1155 = 0.011440 + (23.967/atomic mass); solving for atomic mass yields a value of 230 u,
which is within about 3% of the correct value.
58. (M) The volume of a sphere is given by

4 4
V   r 3   3.142  (186 pm) 3  2.70  10 7 pm 3  VNa atom One would then expect the
3 3
volume of a mole of sodium (atoms) to be Avogadro’s constant times the volume of one atom.
3
Na atoms pm3  100 cm 
Na molar volume  6.022  10 23
 2.70  10 7
  12   16.3 cm 3 /mol
mole Na Na atom  10 pm 
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This value is about two-thirds of the value of 23 cm3/mole in Figure 9-1. An explanation for
the great disagreement is that we have assumed that the entire volume of the solid is occupied
by the spherical atoms. In fact, spheres leave some free space when they are packed together.
(Recall how marbles do not completely fill the space when they are placed in a box.)
59. (E) The reaction given is the sum of the reverse of two reactions: those for the first ionization
energy of Na and for the electron affinity of Cl.
Na+(g) + e–  Na(g) –Ei(Na) = –495.8 kJ/mol
– –
Cl (g)  Cl(g) + e –EAea(Cl) = +349.0 kJ/mol
+ –
Na (g) + Cl (g)  Na(g) + Cl(g) Energy = –146.8 kJ/mol
Thus this is clearly an exothermic reaction.
22  2.179 1018 J
60. (M) E1   8.716 1018 J/atom
12
This is the energy released when an electron combines with an alpha particle (He2+) to
the nucleus to form the ion He+. The energy absorbed when the electron is removed from He+,
the ionization energy of He+ or the second ionization energy of He, is the negative of this
value. Then the energy per mole, Em, is computed.
8.716 1018 6.022 1023 1 kJ
E1  E1  N A     5249 kJ/mol
1 atom 1 mol 1000J
This is in excellent agreement with the tabulated value of 5251 kJ/mol.
61. (M) It should be relatively easy to remove electrons from ions of metallic elements, if the
metal does not have a noble gas electron configuration. Thus, the third ionization energy for
Sc and the second ionization energy for Ba should be small, with the second being smaller,
since the electron is being removed from a more highly charged species in the case of the
third ionization energy for Sc. The first ionization energy for F might be smaller than either of
these because it involves removing only the first electron from a neutral atom, rather than
removing an electron from a cation. There is some uncertainty here, because the electron
being removed from F is not well shielded from the nuclear charge, and this value could be
larger than the other two. The remaining ionization energies are both substantially larger than
the other three because they both involve disrupting a noble gas electron configuration. The
third ionization energy for Mg is larger than the second ionization energy for Na because it is
more difficult to remove an electron from a more highly charged species.
Literature values (in kJ/mol) are given below.
First ionization energy of F: 1681 kJ/mol
Second ionization energy of Ba: 965
Third ionization energy of Sc: 2389
Second ionization energy of Na: 4562
Third ionization energy of Mg: 7733
Note that we have overestimated the difficulty of removing a second electron from Ba
(a relatively large metal atom) and underestimated the difficulty of removing the first
electron from F (a small nonmetal atom).
1 eV 6.02214  10 23 atoms 1.60218  10 19 C 1J 1 kJ
62. (M)      96.4855 kJ/mol
1 atom 1 mol 1 electron 1 V  C 1000 J
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63. (D) Ionization energy (I.E.) data is tabulated below and plotted in the graphs below.
GRAPH 1 GRAPH 2
Atom/Ion I.E. (kJ) Z root of I.E. Atom/Ion I.E. (kJ) Z root of I.E.
Na 495.8 11 22.26657 Li 520 3 22.80351
+ +
Mg 1451 12 38.09199 Be 1757 4 41.91658
Al2+ 2745 13 52.39275 B2+ 3659 5 60.48967
3+
Si 4356 14 66 C3+ 6221 6 78.87332
2 2
Z eff 1 Z eff
From the Bohr model: I.E. = R H   1312.1kJ mol
n2 n2
If we take the root of both sides, we obtain the following expression
2 2
Z eff 1 Z eff Z
I.E.  2
 1312.1kJ mol 2
 36.22 eff
n n n
Z
For graph 1: n  3 hence I.E.  36.22 eff Hence: I.E.  12.1 Z eff
3
The expected slope for the graph is 12.1, while the actual slope from data is 14.55.
Although the y -intercept is not zero, we do see a linear relationship (R  0.9988).
Z
For graph 2: n  2 hence I.E.  36.22 eff Hence: I.E.  18.1 Z eff
2
The expected slope for the graph is 18.1, while the actual slope from data is 18.68.
Although the y -intercept is not zero, we do see a linear relationship (R  1.00)
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The apparent discrepancy lies in the fact that there are electrons in lower shells. For the series
plotted in graph 1, there are electrons in the n = 1 and n = 2 shells. This results in deviation
from the theoretical slope and explains why the y-intercept is not zero. We have assumed that
the nuclear charge is also the effective nuclear charge. For the series plotted in graph 2, there
are electrons in the n = 1 shell. This results in a much smaller deviation from the theoretical
slope and a y-intercept that is closer to zero. Again, we have made the assumption that the
nuclear charge is also the effective nuclear charge, which is not correct.
A plot using H and He+ yields a slope of 36.24 (theoretical = 36.22) and a y-intercept of
0.014. There is excellent agreement here because both are Bohr atoms, with no underlying
electrons. In this case, the nuclear charge is also the effective nuclear charge. This is an
excellent assumption as can be seen by the agreement with the theoretical slope and
y-intercept.
64. (M)
Fl 114 Unp 115 Lv 116
7s27p2 289 7s27p3 291 7s27p4 293
2 upe 215 3 upe 175 1 upe 240
20 -37 24 79 25 190
723 15 572 13 755 12
FEATURE PROBLEMS
65. (M)
(a) The work function is the energy required for an electron to escape from the solid
surface of an element.
(b) Work functions tend to decrease down a group and increase across a period in the
periodic table. The work function increases across the periodic table from left to right
following the steady increase in effective nuclear charge. As one proceeds down a
given group, the principal quantum number increases and so does the distance of the
outer electrons from the nucleus. The farther the electrons are from the nucleus, the
more easily they can be removed from the solid surface of the element, and hence, the
smaller will be the value of the work function for the element.
(c) Through the process of interpolation, one would predict that the work function for
potassium should fall somewhere close to 3.9. The published value for the work
function of potassium is 3.69 (CRC handbook). Had we been provided more
information on the nature of the bonding in each of these metals, and had we been
told what type of crystalline lattice each metal adopts, we would have been able to
come up with a more accurate estimate of the work function.
(d) The periodic trends in work function closely follow those in ionization energy. This
should come as no surprise since both ionization and the work function involve the
loss of electrons from neutral atoms.
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66. (D) The Moseley equation,  = A(Z – b)2, where  is the frequency of the emitted X-ray
radiation, Z is the atomic number, and A and b are constants, relates the frequency of
emitted X-rays to the nuclear charge for the atoms that make up the target of the cathode ray
tube. X-rays are emitted by the element after one of its K-level electrons has been knocked
out of the atom by collision with a fast moving electron. In this question, we have been
asked to determine the values for the constants A and b. The simplest way to find these
values is to plot  vs. Z. This plot provides A as the slope and  A (b) as the y –
intercept. Starting with  = A(Z  b)2, we first take the square root of both sides. This affords
  A (Z  b). Multiplying out this expression gives  = A (Z)  A (b). This
expression follows the equation of a straight line y = mx + b, where y =  , m = A , x = Z
and b =  A (b). So a plot of  vs. Z will provide us with A and b, after a small amount of
mathematical manipulation. Before we can construct the plot, we need to convert the
provided X-ray wavelengths into their corresponding frequencies. For instance, Mg has an
X-ray wavelength = 987 pm. The corresponding frequency for this radiation = c/, hence,
2.998 108 m s 1
= 10
= 3.04  1017 s–1
9.87 10 m
Performing similar conversions on the rest of the data allows for the construction of the
following table and plot (below).
(Z) 
12 5.51  108
16 7.48  108
20 9.49  108
24 1.14  109
30 1.45  109
37 1.80  109
The slope of the line is 4.98  107 = A and the y-intercept is –4.83 107 =  A (b).
15 4.83 107
Thus, A = 2.30  10 Hz and b = = 0.969.
4.98 107
According to Bohr’s theory, the frequencies that correspond to the lines in the emission
 1 1 
spectrum are given by the equation: (3.2881  1015 s–1)   ,
 (ni ) (nf ) 2 
2
where (3.2881  1015 s–1) represents the frequency for the lowest energy photon that is capable
of completely removing (ionizing) an electron from a hydrogen atom in its ground state. The
value of A (calculated in this question) is close to the Rydberg frequency (3.2881  1015 s–1), so
it is probably the equivalent term in the Moseley equation. The constant b, which is close to
unity, could represent the number of electrons left in the K shell after one K-shell electron has
been ejected by a cathode ray. Thus, one can think of b as representing the screening afforded
by the remaining electron in the K-shell. Of course screening of the nucleus is only be possible
for those elements with Z > 1.
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67. (D)
(a) The table provided in this question shows the energy changes associated with the
promotion of the outermost valence electron of sodium into the first four excited
states above the highest occupied ground state atomic orbital. In addition, we have
been told that the energy needed to completely remove one mole of 3s electrons from
one mole of sodium atoms in the ground state is 496 kJ. The ionization energy for
each excited state can be found by subtracting the “energy quanta” entry for the
excited state from 496 kJ mol–1.
kJ kJ kJ
e.g., for [Ne]3p1, the first ionization energy = 496 – 203 = 293
mol mol mol
Thus, the rest of the ionization energies are:
[Ne]4s1, = 496 kJ mol–1 – 308 kJ mol–1 = 188 kJ mol–1
[Ne]3d1, = 496 kJ mol–1 – 349 kJ mol–1 = 147 kJ mol–1
[Ne]4p1, = 496 kJ mol–1 – 362 kJ mol–1 = 134 kJ mol–1
(b) Zeff (the effective nuclear charge) for each state can be found by using the equation:
A(Z eff ) 2
ionization energy in kJ mol–1 (I.E.) =
n2
Where n = starting principal quantum level for the electron that is promoted out of the
atom and A = 1.3121  103 kJ mol–1 (Rydberg constant).
kJ
1.3121103 (Z eff ) 2
For [Ne]3p1 (n = 3) 2.93  102 kJmol–1 = mol Zeff = 1.42
2
3
kJ
1.3121103 (Z eff ) 2
1
For [Ne]4s (n = 4) 1.88  10 kJmol = 2 –1 mol Zeff = 1.51
42
kJ
1.3121103 (Z eff ) 2
1
For [Ne]3d (n = 3) 1.47  10 kJmol = 2 –1 mol Zeff = 1.00
32
kJ
1.3121103 (Z eff ) 2
For [Ne]4p1 (n = 4) 1.34  102 kJmol–1 = mol Zeff = 1.28
42
__
(c) r nl, which is the average distance of the electron from the nucleus for a particular
orbital, can be calculated with the equation:
__ n 2 ao  1 (  1)   Where ao = 52.9 pm,
r nl = 1  1   
Z eff  2 n 2  n = principal quantum number
 = angular quantum number for
the orbital
__ 3 (52.9 pm)  1  1(1  1)  
2
For [Ne]3p1 (n = 3,  = 1 ) r 3p = 1  2 1  32   = 466 pm
1.42   
1 __ 42 (52.9 pm)  1  0(0  1)  
  For [Ne]4s (n = 4,  = 0 ) r 4s = 1  2  1  42   = 823 pm
1.51   
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__ 32 (52.9 pm)  1  2(2  1)  

  For [Ne]3d1 (n = 3,  = 2 ) r 3d = 1+ 2 1  32   = 555 pm
1.00   
__ 42 (52.9 pm)  1  1(1  1)  
  For [Ne]4p1 (n = 4,  = 1 ) r 4p = 1+ 2 1  42   = 950 pm
1.28   
(d) The results from the Zeff calculations show that the greatest effective nuclear charge is
experienced by the 4s orbital (Zeff = 1.51). Next are the two p-orbitals, 3p and 4p,
which come in at 1.42 and 1.28 respectively. Coming in last is the 3d orbital, which
has a Zeff = 1.00. These results are precisely in keeping with what we would expect.
First of all, only the s-orbital penetrates all the way to the nucleus. Both the p- and
d-orbitals have nodes at the nucleus. Also p-orbitals penetrate more deeply than do
d-orbitals. Recall that the more deeply an orbital penetrates (i.e., the closer the orbital
is to the nucleus), the greater is the effective nuclear charge felt by the electrons in that
orbital. It follows then that the 4s orbital will experience the greatest effective nuclear
charge and that the Zeff values for the 3p and 4p orbitals should be larger than the Zeff
for the 3d orbital.
__
The results from the r nl calculations for the four excited state orbitals show that the
largest orbital in the set is the 4p orbital. This is exactly as expected because the 4p
orbital is highest in energy and hence, on average farthest from the nucleus. The 4s
orbital has an average position closer to the nucleus because it experiences a larger
effective nuclear charge. The 3p orbital, being lowest in energy and hence on average
closest to the nucleus, is the smallest orbital in the set. The 3p orbital has an average
position closer to the nucleus than the 3d orbital (which is in the same principal
quantum level), because it penetrates more deeply into the atom.
68. (D)
(a) First of all, we need to find the ionization energy (I.E.) for the process:
F–(g)  F(g) + e–. To accomplish this, we need to calculate Zeff for the species in
the left hand column and plot the number of protons in the nucleus against Zeff.
By extrapolation, we can estimate the first ionization energy for F–(g). The electron
affinity for F is equal to the first ionization energy of F– multiplied by minus one
(i.e., by reversing the ionization reaction, one can obtain the electron affinity).
For Ne(g)  Ne+(g) + e– (I.E. = 2080 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 10 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
I.E. (kJ mol–1) = mol = 2080 kJ mol–1 Zeff = 2.518
4
For Na+(g)  Na2+(g) + e– (I.E. = 4565 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 11 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
4
For Mg2+(g)  Mg3+(g) + e– (I.E. = 7732 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 12 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
4
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For Al3+(g)  Al4+(g) + e– (I.E. = 11,577 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 13 protons)

kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
I.E. (kJ mol–1) = mol = 11,577 kJ mol–1 Zeff = 5.941
4
A plot of the points (10, 2.518), (11, 3.730), (12, 4.855), and (13,5.941) gives a
straight line that follows the equation: Zeff = 1.1394(Z) –8.8421.
For F–, Z = 9; so Zeff = 1.1394(9) –8.8421 = 1.413 and n = 2. Hence,
kJ
1312.1 (1.413) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol = 654.9 kJ mol–1 for F–
4
The electron affinity for F must equal the reverse of the first ionization energy, or
–654.9 kJ. The actual experimental value found for the first electron affinity of F
is –328 kJ/mol.
(b) Here, we will use the same method of solution as we did for part (a). To find the
electron affinity for the process: O(g) + e–  O– (g) , we first need to calculate the
I.E. for O-(g). This is available from a plot of the number of protons in the nucleus vs.
Zeff for the four species in the central column.
For F(g)  F+(g) + e– (I.E. = 1681 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 9 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol = 1681 kJ mol–1 Zeff = 2.264
4
For Ne (g)  Ne (g) + e (I.E. = 3963 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 10 protons)
+ 2+ –
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
4
For Na (g)  Na (g) + e– (I.E. = 6912 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 11 protons)
2+ 3+
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
4
For Mg (g)  Mg (g) + e– (I.E. = 10,548 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 12 protons)
3+ 4+
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol = 10,548 kJ mol–1 Zeff = 5.671
4
A plot of the points (9, 2.264), (10, 3.476). (11, 4.590), and (12, 5.671) gives a
straight line that follows the equation: Zeff = 1.134(Z) –7.902.
For O–, Z =8; so Zeff = 1.134 (8) –7.902 = 1.170 and n = 2. Hence,
kJ
1312.1 (1.170) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol = 449 kJ mol–1 for O–
4
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The Electron affinity for O must equal the reverse of the first ionization energy, or
– 449 kJ. Again we will use the same method of solution as was used for part (a).
To find the electron affinity for the process: N(g) + e–  N–(g), we first need to
calculate the I.E. for N–(g). This is accessible from a plot of the number of protons in
the nucleus vs. Zeff for the four species in the last column.
For O(g)  O+(g) + e– (I.E. = 1314 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 8 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
4
For F (g)  F (g) + e (I.E. = 3375 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 9 protons)
+ 2+ –
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
4
For Ne2+(g)  Ne3+(g) + e– (I.E. = 6276 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 10 protons)
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
4
For Na (g)  Na (g) + e– (I.E. = 9,540 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 11 protons)
3+ 4+
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
I.E. (kJ mol–1) = mol = 9,540 kJ mol–1 Zeff = 5.393
4
A plot of the points (8, 2.001), (9, 3.204), (10, 4.374). and (11, 5.393), gives a straight
line that follows the equation: Zeff = 1.1346(Z) – 7.0357.
For N–, Z =7; so Zeff = 1.1346 (7) – 7.0357 = 0.9065 and n = 2. Hence,
kJ
1312.1 (0.9065) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol = 269.6 kJ mol–1 for N–
4
The electron affinity for N must equal the reverse of the first ionization energy,
or –269.6 kJ.
(c) For N, O, and F, the additional electron ends up in a 2p orbital. In all three instances the
nuclear charge is well shielded by the filled 2s orbital located below the 2p set of orbitals.
As we proceed from N to F, electrons are placed, one by one, in the 2p subshell and these
electrons do afford some additional shielding, but this extra screening is more than offset
by the accompanying increase in nuclear charge. Thus, the increase in electron affinity
observed upon moving from N via oxygen to fluorine is the result of the steady increase
in Zeff that occurs upon moving farther to the right in the periodic table.
69. (D)
(a) An oxygen atom in the ground state has the valence shell configuration 2s22p4.
Thus there are a total of six electrons in the valence shell. The amount of shielding
experienced by one electron in the valence shell is the sum of the shielding provided
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by the other five electrons in the valence shell and the shielding afforded by the two
electrons in the filled 1s orbital below the valence shell. Shielding from electrons in
the same shell contributes 5  0.35 = 1.75 and the shielding from the electrons in the
n = 1 shell contributes 2  0.85 = 1.70. The total shielding is 3.45 (=1.75 + 1.70 ).
For O, Z =8, hence, Zeff = 8 – 3.45 = 4.55.
(b) A ground state Cu atom has the valence shell configuration 3d94s2. According to
Slater’s rules, the nine 3d electrons do not shield the 4s2 electrons from the nucleus.
Thus the total amount of shielding experienced by a 4s electron in Cu is:
Shielding from the other 4s electron = 1  0.35 = 0.35
+ shielding from the electrons in the 3d subshell = 9  0.85 = 7.65
+shielding from the electrons in the 3s/3p orbitals = 8  1.00 = 8.00
+shielding from the electrons in the 1s orbital = 2  1.00 = 2.00
Total shielding for the 4s electrons = (0.35 + 7.65 + 8 + 8 + 2) = 26.00
Copper has Z = 29, so Zeff = 29 – 26.00 = 3.00
(c) 3d electron in a ground state Cu atom will be shielded by the eight other 3d electrons
and by the electrons in the lower principal quantum levels. Thus the total amount of
shielding for a 3d electron is equal to
shielding from the eight electrons in the 3d subshell = 8  0.35 = 2.80
+shielding from the electrons in the 1s orbital = 2  1 = 2.00
Total shielding for the 3d electrons= (2.80 + 8.00 + 8.00 + 2.00) = 20.80
Copper has Z = 29, so Zeff = 29 – 20.80 = 8.2
(d) To find Zeff for the valence electron in each Group I element, we first calculate the
screening constant for the electron.
For H: S = 0, so Zeff = Z and Z =1; thus Zeff = 1
For Li: S = 2(0.85) = 1.70 and Z = 3; thus Zeff = 3  1.70 = 1.30
For Na: S = 8(0.85) + 2(1) = 8.80 and Z = 11; thus Zeff = 11  8.80 = 2.20
For K: S = 8(0.85) + 8(1) + 2(1) = 16.80, Z = 19; thus Zeff = 19  16.80 = 2.20
For Rb: S = 8(0.85) + 10(1) + 8(1) + 8(1) + 2(1) = 34.80, Z = 37;
thus Zeff = 37  34.80 = 2.20
For Cs: S = 8(0.85) + 10(1) + 8(1) + 10(1) + 8(1) +8(1) + 2(1) = 52.80; Z = 55,
Thus Zeff = 2.20
Based upon Slater’s rules, we have found that the effective nuclear charge increases
sharply between periods one and three and then stays at 2.20 for the rest of the alkali
metal group. You may recall that the ionization energy for an element can be
calculated by using the equation:
kJ
1312.1 (Z eff ) 2
–1
I.E. (kJ mol ) = mol Where n = principal quantum number.
n2
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By plugging the results from our Zeff calculations into this equation, we would find
that the ionization energy decreases markedly as we descend the alkali metal group, in
spite of the fact that the Zeff remains constant after Li. The reason that the ionization
energy drops is, of course, because the value for n becomes larger as we move down
the periodic table and, according to the ionization energy equation given above, larger
n values translate into smaller ionization energies (this is because n2 appears in the
denominator). Put another way, even though Zeff remains constant throughout most
of Group I, the valence s-electrons become progressively easier to remove as we
move down the group because they are farther and farther away from the nucleus.
Of course, the further away an electron is from the nucleus, the weaker is its
attraction to the nucleus and the easier it is to remove.
(e) As was the case in part (d), to evaluate Zeff for a valence electron in each atom, we
must first calculate the screening experienced by the electron with Slater’s rules
For Li: S = 2(0.85) = 1.70 and Z = 3, thus Zeff = 3  1.70 = 1.30
For Be: S = 1(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 2.05 and Z = 4; thus Zeff = 4  2.05 = 1.95
For B: S = 2(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 2.40 and Z = 5; thus Zeff = 5  2.40 = 2.60
For C: S = 3(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 2.75 and Z = 6; thus Zeff = 6  2.75 = 3.25
For N: S = 4(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 3.10 and Z = 7; thus Zeff = 7  3.10 = 3.90
For O: S = 5(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 3.45 and Z = 8; thus Zeff = 8  3.45 = 4.55
For F: S = 6(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 3.80 and Z = 9; thus Zeff = 9  3.80 = 5.20
For Ne: S = 7(0.35) + 2(0.85) = 4.15 and Z = 10; thus Zeff = 10  4.15 = 5.85
The results from these calculations show that the Zeff increases from left to right
across the periodic table. Apart from small irregularities, the first ionization energies
for the elements within a period also increase with increasing atomic number. Based
upon our calculated Zeff values, this is exactly the kind of trend for ionization energies
that we would have anticipated. The fact is, a larger effective nuclear charge means
that the outer electron(s) is/are held more tightly and this leads to a higher first
ionization energy for the atom.
(f) First we need to calculate the Zeff values for an electron in the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals of
both a hydrogen atom and a sodium atom, by using Slater’s rules. Since there is only
one electron in a H atom, there is no possibility of shielding, and thus the effective
nuclear charge for an electron in a 3s, 3p or 3d orbital of a H atom is one. The picture
for Na is more complicated because it contains intervening electrons that shield the
outermost electrons from the attractive power of the nucleus. The Zeff calculations
(based on Slater’s Rules) for an electron in i) the 3s orbital, ii) the 3p orbital, and iii)
the 3d orbital of a Na atom are shown below:
Na (3s electron; n = 3) Zeff = 11.0 –[(8e– in the n = 2 shell  0.85/e– ) + (2e– in the
n = 1 shell  1.00/e–)] = [11.0  8.8] = 2.2
Na (3p electron; n = 3; e– was originally in the 3s orbital)) Zeff = 11.0 – [(8e– in the
n = 2 shell  0.85/e– ) + (2e– in the n = 1 shell  1.00/e–)] = [11.0  8.8] = 2.2
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Na (3d electron; n = 3; e– was originally in the 3s orbital)) Zeff = 11.0 – [(8e– in the
n = 2 shell  1.00/e– ) + (2e– in the n = 1 shell  1.00/e–)] = [11.0  10.0] = 1.0
Next, we insert these Zeff values into their appropriate radial functions, which are
gathered in Table 8.1, and use the results from these calculations to construct radial
probability plots for an electron in the 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals of H and Na. The six
plots that result are collected in the two figures presented below:
Notice that the 3s and 3p orbitals of sodium are much closer to the nucleus, on average,
than the 3s and 3p orbitals of hydrogen. Because they are pulled more strongly towards
the nucleus, the 3s and 3p orbitals of sodium end up being much smaller than the
corresponding orbitals on hydrogen. Put another way, since the 3s and 3p electrons
in sodium experience a larger effective nuclear charge, they are more tightly bound to
the nucleus and, hence, are lower in energy than s and p electrons in the third principal
shell of a hydrogen atom. If we want to express this in terms of shielding, we can say
that the radial probability distributions for the 3s and 3p orbitals of sodium are smaller
than those of hydrogen because the 3s and 3p orbitals of sodium are more poorly
shielded. The graphs also show that the radial probability plot for the 3d orbital of a
hydrogen atom is identical to that for a 3d orbital of a Na atom. This is what one would
expect since a 3d electron in H and a 3d electron in Na both experience an effective
nuclear charge of one.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
70. (E)
(a) Isoelectronic: Two elements having the same number of electrons in identical
configuration (through the gain or loss of electrons by either).
(b) Valence shell electrons: The subshell of highest energy in an atom. They are principally
responsible for bonding and chemical reaction.
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(c) Metals: Elements that are generally characterized by high electrical and thermal
conductivity, ductility, and luster.
(d) Non-metals: Elements that are generally characterized by properties the exact opposite of
metals.
(e) Metalloids: Elements in the “transition” region where the metals and non-metals meet in
the periodic table. They generally have the physical appearance of a metal, but, exhibit
some properties of non-metals as well.
71. (E)
(a) The periodic law: The original law by Mendeleev and Meyer stated that “When the
elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of properties
recur periodically.” The updated version replaces atomic mass with atomic number.
(b) Ionization energy: The energy required to remove one electron from the valence shell
of an atom in the gas phase.
(c) Electron affinity: The enthalpy change that occurs when an atom in the gas phase gains
and electron (essentially, the reverse of ionization energy).
(d) Paramagnetism: A magnetic phenomenon occurring in atoms that have unpaired
electrons and the magnetic effects of the unpaired electrons don’t cancel each other out.
72. (E)
(a) Actinide and lanthanide element: Both rare earth elements. Lanthanides have a 4f
subshell for their valence band and are generally found in nature (albeit at very small
quantities), and actinides have a 5f subshell for their valence and, with the exception of
two elements, are all synthetic.
(b) Covalent and metallic radius: Covalent radius is the distance between the nuclei of two
identical atoms in a covalent bond, whereas metallic radius is the distance between two
nuclei of metal atoms, where there is no sharing of electrons with adjacent atoms.
(c) Atomic number and effective nuclear charge: Atomic number is the number of protons in
the nucleus of the atom, whereas effective nuclear charge is the amount of the charge of
the nucleus that is actually experienced by valence electrons after some shielding by core
and other valence electrons.
(d) Ionization energy and electron affinity: Ionization energy is the energy required to
remove one electron from the valence shell of an atom in the gas phase; electron affinity
is the exact opposite.
(e) Paramagnetic and diamagnetic: Paramagnetism rises from unpaired electrons in the
valence shell of an atom, whereas diamagnetism results from fully paired valence shell.
73. (E) The answer is (b). The element in question is antimony (Sb), which is in the same group
as Bi.
74. (E) The answer is (a), K. This is because atomic radius decreases going from left to right of
the period.
75. (E) The answer is (a), Cl–. All of the choices have the same electron configuration as Ar, but
Cl– has an extra electron in the valence shell, which expands the ionic radius.
76. (E) The answer is (b), because it has the smallest radius (and highest electron affinity).
Therefore, the valence electrons are held more tightly, hence a higher first ionization energy.
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77. (E) The answer is (a), Br. This is because electron affinities increase across the periodic
table, and are greatest for nonmetallic main group elements. The other choices are for
metals.
78. (E) The answer is (d), Sr2+. They both have the electron configuration of Kr.
79. (E) The electron configurations of the first and second ionization products of Cs are as follows:
Cs+: [Xe], or [Kr] 4d105s25p6
Cs2+: [Kr] 4d105s25p5
The second ionization energy is much greater because one has to overcome the extra energy
required to remove an electron from a stable, filled subshell (which resembles that of a
stable noble atom Xe).
80. (M) The first ionization energy of Mg is higher than Na because, in the case of Mg, an
electron from a filled subshell is being removed, whereas in Na, the removing of one
electron leads to the highly stable electron configuration of Ne. The second ionization
of Mg is lower than Na, because in the case Mg, the electron configuration of Ar is
achieved, whereas in Na, the stable [Ar] configuration is being lost by removing an
electron from the filled subshell.
81. (M)
(a) As, because it is the left and bottom-most element in the choices given
(b) F–. Xe valence shell has n = 5, so it would be the largest and therefore not correct.
Among those with shells with n = 2, F– is the smallest because it has the highest
nuclear charge and therefore more attraction of the orbitals to the nucleus
(c) Cl–, because it is the most electronegative, and is being farther removed from the ideal
filled subshell electron configuration
(d) Carbon, because it is the smallest, and hence has the least amount of shielding of the
nucleus from the valence band, and the greatest attraction between the valence electrons
and the nucleus
(e) Carbon, because electron affinity increases going across a period
82. (M) The trends would generally follow higher first ionization energy values for a fuller
subshell. The exception is the case of S and P, where P has a slightly higher value. This is
because there is a slight energy advantage to having a half-filled subshell with an electron
in each of px, py and pz orbitals as in the case of P, whereas the S has one extra electron.
83. (E) The pairs are Ar/Ca, Co/Ni, Te/I and Th/Pa. The periodic table must be arranged by
atomic number because only this order is consistent with the regularity in electron
configurations that is the ultimate basis of the table.
84. (E)
(a) protons = 50
(b) neutrons = 69
(c) 4d electrons = 10
(d) 3s electrons = 2
(e) 5p electrons = 2
(f) valence shell electrons = 4
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85. (E)
(a) F; it is the top right-most reactive element and has the highest electron affinity
(b) Sc
(c) Si
86. (E)
(a) C
(b) Rb
(c) At
87. (E)
(a) Ba
(b) S
(c) Bi, because Ba < Ca < Bi < As < S
88. (E) Rb > Ca > Sc > Fe > Te > Br > O > F
89. (M)
(a) False. The s orbitals have a higher probability of being near the nucleus (whereas the
probability is zero for p and d orbitals), so they are more effective at shielding.
(b) True. The s orbitals have much better penetration than p or d orbitals and therefore are
better at shielding nuclear charge.
(c) True for all atoms except hydrogen. Zeff has a maximum theoretical value equal to Z.
In practice, it is always less in a multi-electron atom, because there is always some
shielding of the nuclear charge by the electrons.
(d) True. Electrons in p orbitals penetrate better than those in d orbitals.
(e) True. To understand this, remember that ionization energy, I = RH × Zeff2 / n2. Use the
data in Table 9-4 to determine Zeff for these elements.
90. (M)
(a) False. The 1s orbital has more penetration with the nucleus than the 2s orbital, and feels
nearly the entire charge of the nucleus (higher Zeff).
(b) False. The Zeff of a 2s orbital is greater than a 2p because of higher penetration.
(c) True, because the electron in an s orbital has greater penetration with the nucleus and is
more tightly attracted.
(d) True. Because of the greater penetration of the 2s electrons, the 2p electrons are more
effectively shielded from the full nuclear charge.
91. (M) These ionization energies are the reverse of electron affinities, for example, the ionization
energy, Ei, for Li– is –(–59.6 kJ/mol). The variations in these anions follow those seen in
Figure 9-15.
92. (M) Ionization energy generally increases with Z for a given period (and decreases going
to higher periods) with the exception of the small deviation observed going from N to O
because N has a slightly more stable configuration for N where half of the orbitals are filled.
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93. (E) Mg would have the more positive electron affinity, because Mg has the electron
configuration [Ne]3s2. Therefore, the added electron would need to occupy the higher
energy level 3p orbitals, compared with Na (electron configuration = [Ne]3s1), which
has a partially filled 3s orbital that can accommodate another electron.
94. (E) The addition of an electron is usually exothermic because the electrons in the atom
do not completely shield the incoming electron from the nuclear charge. Therefore, the
incoming electron is attracted by the nucleus. The reverse process is easier to think about.
Given a valence electron in an atom, energy (such as heat) must be expended to remove that
electron.
95. (E) The answer is (a) atomic radius. Metallic elements tend to occur earlier in a period than
nonmetals and have larger radii. Compared with nonmetal atoms, metal atoms have low
ionization energies and low electron affinities.
96. (E) The answer is (c) Ge. On the periodic table, Ge falls on the boundary line between
metals and nonmetals.
97. (E) The answer is (a) Mg2+. When Mg loses two electrons, it has the same electron
configuration as Ne. However, because Mg has two more protons in its nucleus, the
effective nuclear charge experienced by the electrons is greater, which decreases the radius.
98. (E) The answer is (c) the outer-shell electron with the highest orbital quantum number.
When an atom is ionized, it loses its electron(s) in the valence shell, which is the outer-most
shell and has the highest energy electrons. The electrons in the valence shell with highest
orbital quantum number have the highest energy. Hence, they are the first to be removed
when the atom ionizes.
99. (E) The answer is (c) 4s. The electron configuration of Fe is 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2, whereas
the electron configuration for Fe2+ is 1s22s22p63s23p63d6.
100. (M) To construct a concept map, one must first start with the most general concepts. These
concepts define and encompass other concepts discussed in those sections. In this chapter,
the concept of periodicity of the elements is the overarching concept. There are two inter-
related concepts that dominate periodicity: nuclear charge and electron configuration. Most
other periodic properties can be derived from the combination of these two concepts. Two
intermediary concepts derived from nuclear charge and electron configuration are electron
penetration and screening (together, they form the concept of effective nuclear charge, Zeff).
From these concepts, we can derive trends in atomic, covalent, and ionic radii, electron
affinity, and ionization energy. Directly coming from the electron configuration is the
concept of magnetism. Take a look at the subsection headings and problems for more
refining of the general and specific concepts.
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XVII
THE BATTLE
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To the left along the west side of the sea, the road from Kalima
wound northward. The west channel of the Virgins’ Island was very
narrow—two thousand feet at the utmost—but it was deep, with a
sandy strip of beach on the mainland, a bluff of fifty feet, with the
road on top. It was along the west side that Talon’s land forces were
coming. And on the same road from Kalima Jim’s force was
marching to oppose them.
Our water division of ten boats headed into the center of Kalima
Bay, and there I halted them. They lay drawn in a black ring on the
placid water. To one side of me, the squadron of girls flew now in a
circle at about the threshold foot level. The platforms hovered near
them.
Along the shore I could see the slow-moving line of Jim’s army,
crawling like a black snake over the winding, moonlit road. I had
hoped that the head of it would be approaching the bluff near the
west channel of the Virgins’ Island. But it was not that far as yet.
I spoke into my aerial. “Make it faster, Jim!” The image of him
showed his smiling face. Good old Jim, always smiling. “Right,” he
said.
From this height there was no sign of Talon. Behind me, from
Kalima, Maxite had sent out an aerial image-finder. Its pink whirling
ball came sailing past me overhead.
I sat enshrouded in my black insulated suit. I switched the current
into it; I could hear the current hum; smell its faint acrid odor. The
apparatus of the Frazier projector was already assembled. The
pulse-motor was on my wrist; the head-band I now adjusted on my
forehead. I made all the connections, but I did not turn on the
current.
Before me were my smaller instruments. A bank of image-grids
was lashed here; voice receivers were at my ears, my speaker aerial
was on my shoulder. I caught the rays from the image lens mounted
in Maxite’s castle room. I tuned into it, saw his pale, intent face,
heard his grave voice.
“No sign of Talon, Leonard?”
“No. I’m holding the girls and the boats ready. I’ll go higher myself
—your lens just passed me.”
“Yes. But it shows nothing yet.”
“I’ll send one beyond it.”
“Good luck, Leonard.”
I nodded and disconnected. Sonya was calling me.
“Can’t we go forward?”
“No.”
From the boats down there I caught Alice’s voice, but her image
did not register; it was dark in the boat behind the black shields
which enshrouded it.
“Len, have you seen Talon’s rafts yet? Mett says he wants to
know what our boats are to do?”
“Nothing. Stay as you are.”
“Be . . . very careful of yourself, Leonard.”
“Yes,” I said. I cut off, urged my birds upward. At nearly ten
thousand feet I hung poised. Far up the Warm Sea, on the west road
Talon’s approaching force was visible. And on the water, I saw the
black blobs of his rafts, four of them, evidently huge affairs, crowded
with men and apparatus. One of them was in the yellow moonlit
path. I could see the swimming figures in the water, harnessed,
drawing the raft slowly forward.
The pink ball I had sent out passed Maxite’s. It sped toward
Talon’s rafts. On my grid I caught a glimpse of the wooden raft, with
dead black beams standing up from it vertically in the air. Hundreds
of figures crowded there. A black beam caught my whirling lens,
burned it. The grid went dark.
Talon’s land force was almost to the Virgins’ Island channel to the
north. The rafts were over near that shore. It was what I wanted to
know. Talon would use the west channel.
I dropped my platform downward, and adjusted my helmet,
though I kept its visor open. Talon’s land force would reach the
channel before mine could get there. I had hoped that Jim would be
able to set up our wind projector on the bluff there to command the
narrow water. But Talon would be there first unless I could halt him.
I turned to my aerial and gave the order for a general attack.
I rose again, high in the air, and urged my birds forward. Beneath
me, the scene of battle spread out like a map of three dimensions.
Far down, our boats showed as tiny blobs speeding through the west
channel.
They were fast, but not so fast as the squadron of flying girls.
Sonya came leading them upward. They passed me, a giant
flying wedge heading over Talon’s rafts. There were four rafts, three
close to the shore, perhaps for protection of the land force. But one
of the rafts was farther out, separated from the others. It was still
several miles beyond the north tip of Virgins’ Island.
Sonya’s squadron was the first to make contact with the enemy.
The girls headed for this isolated raft. They were ten thousand feet
or more above it. My heart was heavy with apprehension. I could see
the black rays from the raft standing up into the air. Would they reach
that high?
It seemed not. The girls went safely over them, wheeled, and
came back. They had dropped a bomb. I saw a glowing spot of light
as it fell. It struck the water, wide of the raft. A surge of water
mounted upward, with a spot of red light where the bomb had burst,
then another, a score of them. I began to hear their sharp reports.
The raft was lashed by the waves, but still unhit. But the
brutemen pulling it were disorganized, many of them killed, no doubt.
The raft stopped its forward progress. Its black beam wavered, then
seemed to connect into one narrow black ray.
It shot up through the girls, cut a wide swath through them. Some
wavered, came fluttering down, falling, recovering, limping slowly
back toward Kalima, struggling to keep above the water. Others fell
like plumets into the sea. Half our girls, undoubtedly, were killed or
wounded by that single black blast.
Our boats swept through the channel. Three stopped in
midstream; seven surged on. Lights flared, our lurid but penetrating
red flare of light went up in an arc from one of our halted boats, and
burst over Talon’s land force. It seemed that thousands of figures
were there on the land. They had spread out from the road; over by
the bluff, just beyond the north end of the channel, they were
erecting a huge piece of apparatus.
The light flares died. But the gunners on our three boats which
had stopped in the channel had the range. I could see the streams of
their electronic needles, straight paths to the shore. Dim violet
beams, with white radiance where the great metallic needles were
striking Talon’s army.
There must have been a chaos on shore. Then from a projector
there in the darkness, a great hissing rose. A yellow glow, almost like
the moonlight, became visible. It waved, fanshaped from its source:
a light that lingered, persisted in the darkness, spread until all along
that section of the shore it hung like hovering yellow smoke, a
barrage against which our electronic needles launched harmlessly. I
could see them materialized into white solidity as they struck it, then
flaring red, and yellow as they fused and burned.
The gunners on our boats tried curving their beams. Some were
effective, curving in a great violet arc, up over the barrage, or
sidewise around its edges. I judged that some were finding their
mark, though the barrage was constantly shifted to check them.
The scene everywhere was now a chaos of flashing colored
lights. The girls who had escaped the black blast had wavered, gone
higher. Their bombs were falling wide; the sea everywhere here was
lashed into foam where the bombs were bursting. A chaos of light,
sound and smell: mingled electrical hums, the pungent, acrid
electronic odors, the hiss of the flares, the sharp crack of the
exploding bombs.
The girls for a moment withdrew, off to one side, very high up.
They could not hit their marks; the black beams from the rafts, now
spread purely for defense, rose cone-shaped, a cone extending
widely over them to protect their swimmers. The bombs, those few
that were accurately aimed, exploded in mid-air, as they struck the
cone.
A chaos of swift, simultaneous action was everywhere taking
place. Our great projectors on the flying platforms opened fire,
downward at the rafts. But now from shore a solid black beam
suddenly came sweeping out. It caught one of our platforms. The
birds fell. The platform, its insulation inadequate, shriveled on the
colorless blast, and went down, a tangled mass of birds and
struggling human figures.
The beam swung. It caught another platform, and another. All six
—the only six we had—were surprised by it, caught there, low over
the channel, before they could escape. One by one they were
crashing down into the water. The last one tried to dive; it was struck
just as it neared the water level.
This black beam from Talon’s shore projector was raking the
channel from end to end. It seemed to have a range of several miles
—a longer range than any of our weapons. It destroyed our six
platforms, and then swung upward at our girls. But they were just
beyond it. They wavered as they felt its effect, and then went higher
and farther away.
Talon’s white light flares were now continuous from shore. The
scene was a dazzling glare of white, with alternating periods of
blackness. The black beam, guided by the white flares, sought other
victims. It swung on our boats, three of which were bombarding the
shore, the other seven heading for Talon’s rafts.
The three closest ones caught the black blast full. It burned
through their insulating shields, as it had burned the platforms. One
boat sank like a stone. Another up-ended; the third tried to retreat.
But its animals evidently were caught at the water surface and
destroyed. It lay there, its needle-beam wavering. Then it, also, was
hit full by the black beam. It shriveled, disappeared. The water down
there was gruesome with black struggling figures.
The beam swung after our other seven boats. They were headed
to attack the rafts. They felt the beam but they were farther away,
and their side insulation withstood it. I roared orders at them, and by
some miracle my voice got through. Alice answered me.
“Head back!” I commanded. “Around the island. Into the east
channel.”
It was all very swift. I had been fairly high and about a mile away
when the black beam began its deadly work. It flashed by me several
times, but my lone platform, with its six birds, was a small,
inconspicuous object. The beam missed me; its handlers were
evidently after bigger game.
In my ear Maxite’s voice sounded, “Keep the girls away, Leonard!
Retreat! Our land forces are too close!”
I gave the orders. Maxite’s pink blobs of fire were constantly
arriving from Kalima. He had seen our disaster. The black beam
mounted on the shore seemed impregnable, unless perhaps from
the rear I could assault its gunners with the Frazier thought-beam. I
told Maxite my plan and he approved.
I swept back toward the Virgins’ Island. I would go back and
come up over the west mainland, flying low. I could make such
speed that in a few minutes I would be behind Talon’s barrage.
Talon’s rafts were all well out from shore now, gathered in a group.
I swung within a mile of them. Their black, cone-shaped barrage
was over them. They had made no attack, except the one upward
blast at the girls, and no attack now was being made on them.
During those brief moments when we had bombed them, their
swimming brutemen must have suffered severe loss. Many dove,
and climbed to the rafts. But some were still swimming.
The rafts were heading slowly for the north tip of the in the other
channel.
My birds were flying with tremendous speed. Occasionally I
passed wounded birds, and wounded girl riders clinging desperately
to them, trying to get back to Kalima.
I sailed over the island, toward Kalima, and then turned and
passed inland above the road. Jim’s forces were drawn up in an arc,
extending from the sea, back inland some half mile.
The heavy insulating shields were erected at intervals. The
projectors were ready, and our wind projector was erected at the
shore. It seemed a safe condition. Five miles or more of open
country was between this line and Talon’s black beam. I could not
see the beam from here.
But Talon’s yellow shore-barrage glowed clearly. Save for that
radiance, the scene up there was now dark. A lull had come to the
battle. The first engagement in which we had been so decisively
worsted, was over. A momentary lull it was, while Talon seemed
waiting to see what we would do next.
The scene was dark and silent. The night was darker now as
well. Black clouds obscured the moon and all the stars to the north.
And in the silence I heard a low muttering thunder.
I passed over our line, ordering Jim to remain inactive.
“Why?” he protested. “Don’t I get in this at all, Len?”
But I kept him there. It was no time for us to plunge recklessly at
Talon. He had surprised our first attack and worsted us in the
conflict. I was not willing to try that again.
Flying low, I headed over the rolling hills for Talon’s present land
base. I put on my helmet, drew up the insulating shields that lined
the sides of the platform. At my wrist the pulse-motor was throbbing.
I switched on the Frazier current, gripped the controls of the huge
projector. If I could concentrate my thoughts enough . . . with
intensity enough. I was letting them rove now, gathering strength. If I
could halt that devastating black beam, and then order another
attack, all our remaining forces attacking at once—
In my ears suddenly was Maxite’s voice, “I’m ordering Jim to use
the wind projector. Talon’s forces are making for the island. We may
be able to blow them away, toward the East Channel, where our
boats can get at them.”
Behind me I heard the hiss and roar as the great wind projector
got into action, a stream of expanding, heat-yielding electrons flung
in a path over the channel surface. A roar, the hot air rising, the cold
wind sweeping in; the channel was soon lashed with angry waves.
It had grown very dark. Black clouds edged with lightning were
coming down from the north. The thunder claps were louder. I swept
low over Talon’s lines. Groups of head clustered on the ground,
some mounted on the brutemen.
A crowd moved about a huge black muzzle pointed diagonally
upward toward Kalima.
I passed close over it, a hundred feet up, but I hoped that for a
moment I would not be seen in the darkness.
To my right was the yellow barrage radiance along the shore.
Large, bowl-like wire cages set at intervals of a hundred feet. They
glowed yellow, huge pots of the spreading barrage light. Mounted
heads were attending them.
I dashed at one. I shouted, stood up on my swaying platform and
screamed with menacing words. The heads looked up, surprised.
The Frazier projector spat its intensified ray.
Woodenly, the heads and the brutemen stood stricken; the pot of
light went out. I passed within fifty feet of it; my fire-flash, effective at
this short range, spat its tongue of blue flame. The brutemen and the
heads, the pot of barrage light itself, shriveled under the blast.
I swept along the barrage line, the Frazier beam preceding me.
From the other side, and from below, yellow rings of fire darted up.
They struck my upraised side-shield, and the bottom of the platform.
I could hear the crack of the reports as they struck.
The encampment was in confusion, thousands of dark, surging
figures. Small, black beams swung at me, mingled with the fire-rings.
A light-flare burst over my head. Shouts, a rush of dim figures to
avoid me; one of my birds was struck. I cut it loose. It fell.
But I was not halted; a minute or two of swift flight, the barrage
went dark as I sprayed it with the Frazier beam and the blue fire. I
came to the giant projector of the black ray; it shriveled, fused. Its
gunners vanished under my blast.
The air was acrid with metallic gases and the smell of burning
human flesh. But Talon’s shoreline was dark, devastated. Another of
my birds wavered; I urged them all upward. Fire-rings rocked my
platform with their detonations. But I was rising. They fell away. The
shouts of confusion lessened, melted beneath me.
I was over the water again, safe beyond the lines. The barrage
was gone. The giant black beam was destroyed. I tried to tune in for
Maxite, could not get him. But I got Jim.
“Forward! Attack now! Swiftly, Jim, with all you’ve got!”
Then I got Maxite. “Order the attack!”
I could not get his image. My controls were disabled, or the
atmosphere was overcharged. But I heard his triumphant voice.
“We’ll get them, Leonard, get them now!”
The storm from the north broke with fury; no rain, but a blast of
wind, sizzling lightning bolts, and the roar of thunder.
Jim had evidently abandoned his windblast. His forces were
dashing forward. A spray of the violet needle beams curved up
before him.
Talon’s line was answering. Fire-rings were floating up. Black
rays were waving. The two lines, came together as Jim’s army
rushed forward; the rolling hills off there were a confusion of darting
lights and crossing rays, myriad mid-air explosions.
Then it seemed that Talon’s line was drawing back, a retreat
northward. A yellow barrage went up to cover it. But Jim rushed it;
the barrage vanished. With some great projector, Talon’s heads
made a stand.
A great ball of fire rose into the heavens, a tremendous arc over
Jim’s army, until it fell at the horizon. Fell on Kalima? I thought so;
There was a glare against the sky over there. At five-minute intervals
these fire-balls went up, bombarding the distant city.
Sonya was fifteen thousand feet over the channel when our
second attack began. The storm was driving the girls back; the birds
could barely hold against the wind. The sea far below was a turmoil
of lashing waves.
Our boats in the east channel started forward to try and reach
Talon’s rafts. But the rafts had blown ashore, were wrecked on the
north rocky beach of the island.
Angry waves dashed over them. The heads and the brute-bodies
were washed ashore with each white surge of the water.
Our boats saw it. They dropped back into the lee of the island, in
the East Channel. The water was a little calmer there.
Close along shore they hovered, and began raking the island with
their needle beams, a steady outpour of violet streams, and blasts
from the blue fire-guns.
The island’s verdure shriveled, all along the east shore. Then
Maxite ordered Jim to set a projector on the west bluff. It soon was
sending a blue stream across the channel. The west side of the
island was raked from end to end.
Sonya’s girls were scattered by the wind. But she saw some of
them poised over the north end of the island where Talon’s men
were trying to land from the rafts. The girls dropped a bomb, then
another. The bombs were finding their marks.
Sonya urged her bird in that direction. But abruptly the thought of
Altho came clear and vivid to her mind. She had long since given
Altho up for dead, killed by our own weapons. But he was not dead.
His thoughts came to her with sudden clearness.
I saw the bombardment of Kalima finally halted. Jim, victorious,
was sweeping everything before him. His projector still raked the
island. The island’s vegetation was burning now from end to end. On
the north beach the huddled figures were nearly gone; bodies were
everywhere. The water was dotted with them.
Along the main shore now, in advance of Jim, Talon’s army was
in utter rout. Frantic brutemen with mounted heads rushed to the
beach, plunged in. The heads were torn away; floating like balloons
on the white lashing waves. Back along the shore, Jim’s men were
lined. Needle beams darted out at the floating heads.
Everywhere we were winning. Far back in the country I could see
Jim’s triumphant lights, spreading everywhere.
From the turmoil of water beneath me, a boat rose up, a long,
narrow black boat. Its cover slid back. It was heading northward,
away from Kalima, speeding swiftly, with a line of bubbles in its
wake.
I remembered it; the boat Jim had described. Talon’s boat! Talon,
who had been lurking beneath the surface of the sea, waiting in
safety for victory, so that he might rush for Kalima. Now, with defeat,
he was escaping. Altho, perhaps, was with him.
I turned my aerial, trying to pick up Maxite. But I could not get
him. Then I tried one of our nearest boats raking the island, ordered
it to follow Talon. Behind me, far down, I saw it turn and start.
I drove my birds downward in a swoop for Talon’s boat. Beneath
me, close to the water I seemed to see the shadow of a flying bird,
but in a moment I had forgotten it.
A breathless swoop and I was close upon the boat. From the dim
glow of its engines, I saw it held only four figures, three mounted
heads. Two were controlling the boat. The other was Talon. I could
see him moving about giving commands. And Altho lay in the boat’s
bottom, Altho, his body lashed and bound into an inert bundle.
My Frazier beam struck the boat’s interior. The two mounted
heads controlling it stiffened and fell. But Talon was untouched. I was
close over the stern of the boat, holding my projector downward.
Talon’s face glared up at me, untouched. His brute-body stiffened
and slumped, but Talon disconnected from it.
His head dropped to the deck upon his hands. His eyes glared up
at me. A flash of black spat from his hand-projector. At this close
range my platform crumpled. It fell, struck the boat’s stern, and
toppled half into the water. I had leaped. I fell into the boat.
But another figure had landed there before me, a giant, fluttering
bird. Sonya jumped from it, seized Altho’s bound body. Talon’s small
flash darted at her, but missed.
My wrecked platform, half on the boat’s stern, weighed it down.
The boat began to fill with water.
I saw vaguely as I leaped at Talon, that Sonya was dragging
Altho’s inert form to the gunwale. They went overboard together. My
hurtling body struck the head of Talon. It cracked, smashed under
my weight. I climbed from its noisome, sticky mass.
The boat was filling, sinking stern first. I dove over its side, into
the wave-whipped sea.
The sinking boat sucked me under. But I came up. Around me
was a white, tumultuous darkness. Overhead the storm clouds had
broken into a rift; the yellow moonlight came through. Something
was floating near me, some wreckage from the boat, a gas-filled
pontoon. I seized it.
Behind me, our boat from the island was approaching. Then I
saw, upraised near me by a surging wave-crest, a human figure
struggling. Sonya, struggling to keep Altho above the water. I
reached them.
“Sonya! Here, hold to this! I’ve got him!”
A sea animal went by us with a rush. Our pursuing boat drew up;
its black side was a wall above us. The insulating side-shield rolled
back. Anxious men’s faces stared down at us over the gunwale.
Arms came down and hauled us up.
I heard Alice’s voice; and Dolores’s, “Len! And Sonya . . . and the
prince! Thank God you’re all safe!”
And from far over the land came the scream of Jim’s siren, the
signal of victory there.
XVIII
THE GREAT RIDDLE
The homecoming! The return of our war-racked forces to the city,
with half its suburbs burned, and a thousand of its people killed by
Talon’s bombardment! I shall not describe the cheers, the laughter,
the sobbing. Victory in war can seem to be so little better than
defeat! All the paeans of triumph cannot heal the maimed, or bring
back the dead.
I was king no longer, for our prince now was ruler, with Sonya for
his queen. I was glad to be released. There is a very false, a
pseudo-glory, in ruling a nation.
But Altho would not have me wholly resign. My promised reforms,
my earthly ideas of government, were needed here. And so they
called me premier, and thrived upon a crude but humane version of
what we on earth would call a civilized government: a veneration of
the aged, a new idea of infant welfare, a monogamy of marriage with
the surplus women doing their rational work in art and industry.
Of Talon’s thousands, fully half of them escaped back into the
mountains. They are there now. They will always be a menace. But
there is not a race of humans in all the universe unmenaced by
something. The very essence of human existence is struggle. We do
not think of Talon’s brutes now as the Nameless Horror, and we are
always prepared.
It was shortly after my marriage to Alice, that one evening I came
upon Jim and Dolores in each other’s arms.
“Well!” I said. “What’s this?”
He kissed her again. “I loved her right from the beginning,” he
declared.
Which was not exactly true, but I knew he thought so.
I had never seen little Dolores so radiant. “And I always loved
him, Len. You know that.”
I did indeed. And she had never wavered in that love, from the
days when he had seized the little blind child and whirled her in the
air.
Our return to earth? We never made it. With Dr. Weatherby’s
death, the grave held the vital knowledge we needed for such a
journey. Nor did we desire it. Our lives were cast here.
Often now, from earth, thought-waves reach me, tiny earth, rolling
on with a speeding time so much faster than ours of this outer realm!
Centuries have passed on earth. Of what use for me to return—a
primitive, savage being of their past ages?
Civilizations have risen, held their peak, and declined. Great
cities have come and gone. Ice has been again where once I saw
the jungles of the tropics. And the ice has melted again through
countless ages.
The new humans of earth often communicate with me. Their
thoughts are amazed at what I have to tell them. It is all amazing to
me, the great riddle of the universe. And I think sometimes of that
ancient earth-astronomer, groping with the riddle, writing in his
ancient book:
Man, the little god of this earth, tied down to the small
star which infinite Nature gave him for an abode, storms
forth into immeasurable stellar space with his thoughts.
From that little earth I stormed forth in body, beyond the stars!
TRANSCRIBER NOTES
Numerous mis-spelled words and printer errors have been fixed,
only these were perhaps not completely obvious:
pg 21: illuminued -> illumined
pg 44: rehemence -> vehemence
pg 94: enscrouded -> enshrouded
pg 38: incrusted -> encrusted
pg 152: The rafts were heading slowly for the north tip of the in
the other channel. An unknown word has clearly been omitted by the
printer.
Inconsistency in hyphenation has been retained.
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(Download PDF) General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications 11th Edition Petrucci Solutions Manual Full Chapter

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General Chemistry Principles and

Modern Applications 11th Edition

General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications

General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications

General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications

General Chemistry 11th Edition Ebbing Solutions Manual

General Chemistry 11th Edition Ebbing Test Bank

Principles of Modern Chemistry 8th Edition Oxtoby

Principles of General Chemistry 3rd Edition Silberberg

Principles of General Chemistry 2nd Edition Silberberg

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The Periodic Table

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Fe 2+ 24 electrons [Ar] 3d 6 Sc 3+ 18 electrons [Ar]

Ionization Energies; Electron Affinities

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Predictions Based on the Periodic Table

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INTEGRATIVE AND ADVANCED EXERCISES

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82.5 g In 16.00 g O 3 mol O

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The energy of the last remaining electron in a lithium atom is

58. (M) The volume of a sphere is given by

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__ 32 (52.9 pm)  1  2(2  1)  

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For Al3+(g)  Al4+(g) + e– (I.E. = 11,577 kJ mol–1; n = 2; 13 protons)

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