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CHAPTER 8
THE SENSORIMOTOR SYSTEM: HOW YOU MOVE
4) Without the sensory feedback carried by the somatosensory nerves of the arms, human neurological
patients, such as G. O., have difficulty
A) swatting a fly.
B) maintaining a constant appropriate level of manual muscle contraction.
C) adjusting the output of the muscles of their arms to compensate for unexpected external disturbances
(e.g., somebody brushing against an arm).
D) all of the above
E) both B and C
Answer: E
5) With respect to sensorimotor learning, the advantage of transferring control to lower circuits of the
neural hierarchy is that it
A) frees the higher levels of the nervous system to deal with more complex issues.
B) increases the reliability of movements.
C) increases validity.
D) increases conscious awareness of the response.
E) all of the above
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 191
Topic: 8.1 Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function
Type: (Conceptual)
Rationale: B, C, and D are either wrong, irrelevant, or incomprehensible.
7) Which structure is thought to be involved in the integration of the sensory information that is the basis
for initiating a movement?
A) posterior parietal cortex
B) primary somatosensory cortex
C) primary auditory cortex
D) frontal cortex
E) primary visual cortex
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 191
Topic: 8.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex
Type: (Factual)
12) A neurological patient who shaves only the right side of his face and does not put his left arm into his
sweater likely has a lesion in his right
A) premotor area.
B) supplementary motor cortex.
C) posterior parietal lobe.
D) dorsolateral frontal lobe.
E) primary motor area.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 192
15) The decision to initiate a voluntary response seems, in part, to be made by the
A) posterior occipital cortex.
B) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
C) primary motor cortex.
D) premotor cortex.
E) supplementary motor area.
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 193
Topic: 8.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex
Type: (Factual)
Rationale: Other areas seem to participate in the initiation, but none of these is included as an option.
16) The supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex are considered to be areas of
A) the parietal lobe.
B) association cortex.
C) secondary somatosensory cortex.
D) secondary motor cortex.
E) the primary motor cortex.
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 194
Topic: 8.3 Secondary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
17) The supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex are in the
A) frontal lobe.
B) temporal lobe.
C) parietal lobe.
D) occipital lobe.
E) limbic lobe.
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 194
Topic: 8.3 Secondary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
20) In general the various areas of secondary motor cortex are thought to
A) terminate response sequences.
B) specialize in guiding learned sequences.
C) program specific patterns of movement.
D) mediate reflexes.
E) provide the major input to spinal motor circuits.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 194
Topic: 8.3 Secondary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
21) Neurons that fire in response to making a particular response, observing somebody else making the
response, or just thinking about the response are called
A) supplementary motor neurons.
B) premotor neurons.
C) mirror neurons.
D) ballistic neurons.
E) somatotopic neurons.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 195
Topic: 8.3 Secondary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
22) The somatotopic map of the primary motor cortex is called the
A) motor homunculus.
B) somatosensory homunculus.
C) stereognosis.
D) somatotopic homunculus.
E) supplementary map.
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 196
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
23) In 1937, the primary motor cortex was mapped by electrically stimulating the cortex of conscious
human patients who were undergoing neurosurgery. This was accomplished by
A) Hebb.
B) Pinel.
C) Jackson.
D) Penfield and Boldrey.
E) Sperry.
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 196
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
24) Which part of the body has been found to be doubly represented in each primary motor area of
monkeys?
A) tongue
B) contralateral lip
C) contralateral hand
D) genitals
E) contralateral foot
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 201
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
25) The only parts of each motor homunculus to receive somatosensory feedback directly from skin are
the
A) genital areas.
B) lip areas.
C) hand areas.
D) foot areas.
E) face areas.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 201
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
26) The primary motor cortex receives cutaneous feedback from only one part of the body: the hands.
This feedback likely plays an important role in
A) stereognosis.
B) astereognosia.
C) the homunculus.
D) the cingulate motor areas.
E) apraxia.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 197
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
27) Long bursts of stimulation applied to the primary motor cortex elicit
A) simple movements of one joint.
B) simple contractions of one muscle.
C) complex natural-looking response sequences.
D) reflexes.
E) either A or B
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 197
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
28) In the primary motor cortex, the neurons that participate in the movement of a particular finger are
A) located in one somatotopically segregated finger area.
B) widely distributed over the somatotopic hand area.
C) all located in a single column.
D) all located in the left parietal lobe.
E) all located in the right parietal lobe.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 197
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
29) A study of the firing of primary motor cortex neurons while monkeys moved freely about indicated
that their firing was often related to the
A) direction of the movement.
B) speed of the movement.
C) end point (i.e., target) of the movement.
D) acceleration of the movement.
E) purpose of the movement.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 197
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
30) In a remarkable demonstration, Belle, the owl monkey, controlled the movements of a robotic arm
A) by pressing buttons.
B) with the activity of neurons in her primary motor cortex.
C) with speech sounds.
D) with monkey calls.
E) by providing visual feedback to the arm.
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 197
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Applied)
Rationale: This indicates that eventually paralyzed patients might be able to control robots with their
brains.
33) It has been estimated that over half the neurons of the brain are in a structure that constitutes only
10% of the brain's total mass. This structure is the
A) neocortex.
B) cerebellum.
C) hippocampus.
D) brain stem.
E) corpus callosum.
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 198
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: (Factual)
36) Recent fMRI studies have changed the traditional view of the cerebellum by suggesting that in
addition to its sensorimotor functions it is involved in
A) motor learning.
B) control and learning of cognitive responses.
C) learning motor sequences.
D) correcting motor sequences.
E) integrating motor sequences.
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: (Factual)
Rationale: The cerebellum is involved in all five options, but only C was recently demonstrated by fMRI
studies.
37) Which of the following receives information from various parts of the cortex and feeds it back to
motor cortex?
A) basal ganglia
B) cerebellum
C) red nucleus
D) reticular formation
E) substantia nigra
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 198
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: (Factual)
38) Which structure is part of a neural loop including the cortex and the basal ganglia?
A) thalamus
B) vestibular nucleus
C) cerebellum
D) red nucleus
E) substantia nigra
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 198
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: (Factual)
39) Current theories of the function of the basal ganglia emphasize their
A) role in modulating motor output.
B) involvement in a variety of cognitive processes.
C) systematic anatomical organization.
D) all of the above
E) both A and B
Answer: E
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 203
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: (Factual)
40) Signals from the left primary motor cortex descend through the spinal cord white matter in one of
A) three major tracts.
B) four major tracts.
C) five major tracts.
D) six major tracts.
E) eight major tracts.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 203
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
45) In general, the dorsolateral corticospinal tract controls the muscles of the
A) thighs.
B) body core.
C) hands and feet.
D) proximal limbs.
E) legs.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 199
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
46) Only primates and a few other species, such as hamsters and raccoons, have cortical neurons that
synapse directly on
A) muscles.
B) muscles of the fingers and thumb.
C) motor neurons that project to the muscles of the fingers and thumb.
D) spinal interneurons.
E) targets in the PNS.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 199
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
49) In contrast to the ventromedial corticospinal tract, before descending to the spinal cord, the
ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal tract interacts with the
A) tectum.
B) reticular formation.
C) vestibular nuclei.
D) all of the above
E) none of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
50) Which of the following brain stem structures receives direct sensory information about balance?
A) cerebellum
B) reticular formation
C) vestibular nucleus
D) tectum
E) red nucleus
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
51) Which midbrain structure receives visual and auditory information about spatial location?
A) tectum
B) cerebellum
C) basal ganglia
D) tegmentum
E) vestibular nucleus
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
52) In contrast to the axons of the descending dorsolateral motor pathways, individual axons of the
ventromedial pathways often terminate
A) directly on motor neurons.
B) in two or more segments.
C) on both sides of the spinal cord.
D) both A and B
E) both B and C
Answer: E
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
53) In contrast to the descending dorsolateral motor pathways, the ventromedial pathways
A) control the trunk.
B) are more diffuse.
C) are more strictly contralateral.
D) all of the above
E) both A and B
Answer: E
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
54) In general, the ventromedial descending motor tracts control the muscles of the
A) thumbs.
B) fingers.
C) trunk.
D) toes.
E) face.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
55) In one classic experiment, monkeys had difficulty letting go of food after their
A) dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tracts were transected.
B) dorsolateral corticospinal tracts were transected.
C) ventromedial corticospinal tracts were transected.
D) cerebellum was lesioned.
E) basal ganglia were lesioned.
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 201
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
56) In one classic experiment, monkeys could not move their fingers independently after transections of
the
A) dorsolateral corticospinal tracts.
B) dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tracts.
C) ventromedial corticospinal tracts.
D) ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal tracts.
E) nigrostriatal tract.
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 201
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
57) In the classic transection experiments of Lawrence and Kuypers, monkeys with all their dorsolateral
motor pathways transected sat with their arms hanging limply by their sides. However, these same
monkeys had no difficulty
A) picking up pieces of food and then releasing them.
B) using their arms for standing, walking, and climbing.
C) reaching for moving objects.
D) moving their fingers independently.
E) all of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 201
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
58) In the classic experiments of Lawrence and Kuypers, the descending motor tracts of monkeys were
transected. The results of these experiments suggest that the function of the ventromedial pathways is the
control of
A) posture.
B) movements of the body core and associated arm movements.
C) reaching for objects.
D) all of the above
E) both A and B
Answer: E
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
59) When a motor neuron fires, all of the muscle fibers of its motor
A) unit contract together.
B) pool contract together.
C) segment contract together.
D) equivalence contract together.
E) feedback contract together.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
60) In which of the following structures would the motor units likely be the smallest?
A) finger
B) leg
C) arm
D) foot
E) back
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
61) The motor units of the thumb, fingers, and face contain the
A) fewest muscle fibers.
B) most muscle fibers.
C) fewest motor neurons.
D) most motor neurons.
E) most extensors.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
62) About how many motor neurons are there in the typical motor unit?
A) 4
B) 1
C) 100
D) 1,000
E) 150
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
Rationale: By definition, a motor unit is a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls.
63) All of the motor neurons that innervate the fibers of a single muscle are called its
A) motor unit.
B) discharge unit.
C) motor pool.
D) antagonists.
E) agonists.
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
66) Bob tried to open a jar of pickles, but the lid did not budge. The muscles of his hands and arms were
A) in isometric contraction.
B) in dynamic contraction.
C) locked in a stretch reflex.
D) in motor pools.
E) in extension.
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 203
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
67) Increases in muscle tension in the absence of any shortening of the muscle are said to be
A) contractions.
B) dynamic.
C) extensions.
D) isometric.
E) synergistic.
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 203
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
71) Muscle spindles provide the CNS with information about muscle
A) fatigue.
B) length.
C) tension.
D) color.
E) location.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 204
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
77) During a stretch reflex, the extrafusal motor neuron is excited directly by the
A) intrafusal motor neuron.
B) muscle spindle receptor.
C) spindle afferent neuron.
D) intrafusal muscle.
E) muscle.
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 204
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
80) Which of the following helps distribute the work between different motor neurons of a muscle's
motor pool?
A) cocontraction
B) recurrent collateral inhibition
C) reciprocal inhibition
D) muscle-spindle feedback
E) withdrawal reflex
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 205
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
82) If given the correct sensory feedback, the cat spinal cord is capable of controlling
A) walking movements.
B) volition.
C) problem solving.
D) the grasp reflex.
E) astereognosia.
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 207
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
83) The results of the treadmill experiment by Grillner (1985) suggest that part of the central
sensorimotor program for walking is in the
A) cerebellum.
B) spinal cord.
C) primary motor cortex.
D) primary sensory cortex.
E) red nucleus.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 207
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
85) The fact that the same basic movement can be carried out in different ways involving different
muscles is called
A) cocontraction.
B) a central sensorimotor program.
C) motor equivalence.
D) recurrent collateral inhibition.
E) sensorimotor equipotentiality.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 208
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
86) One fMRI study indicated that the central sensorimotor programs for signing one's name are stored in
A) primary motor cortex.
B) secondary motor cortex.
C) association cortex.
D) spinal interneuronal pools.
E) descending motor pathways.
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 208
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
87) An important point made by Fentress's study of grooming movements in forelimbless mice was that
A) the complex species-common grooming movements of mice are not learned.
B) feedback is an important component of the central sensorimotor program for mouse grooming.
C) feedback is necessary to shape paw movements but not to shape those of the proximal limbs.
D) species-common grooming movements must be learned.
E) both A and B
Answer: E
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 209
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
88) A highly skilled typist can type 120 words per minute only because
A) the neural circuits responsible for activating each key press become active before the preceding key
press has been completed.
B) different neural circuits at the lower levels of the sensorimotor hierarchy can be simultaneously active
without interfering with one another.
C) the key presses have been chunked.
D) all of the above
E) he receives flowers from his boss at least once a month.
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 209
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
89) Response chunking and changing the level of control are thought to be important processes in
A) the stretch reflex.
B) walking.
C) sensorimotor learning.
D) the withdrawal reflex.
E) recurrent collateral inhibition.
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 209
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
90) Theories of sensorimotor learning emphasize two kinds of learning-related changes in sensorimotor
programs:
A) chunking and increasing conscious control of the learned sensorimotor response.
B) transferring the neural control of the learned sensorimotor response to lower levels of the CNS and
increasing conscious control of it.
C) chunking and increasing the degree of neural control.
D) transferring the neural control of the learned sensorimotor response to higher levels of the CNS and
increasing the conscious control of it.
E) chunking and transferring much of the control of the response to lower levels of the nervous system.
Answer: E
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 215
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
91) Which of the following is a major finding of the Jenkins and colleagues PET study of motor
learning?
A) Posterior parietal cortex was more activated during the performance of both newly learned sequences
than during the performance of well-practiced sequences.
B) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was activated during the performance of newly learned but not well-
practiced sequences.
C) The cerebellum was activated during both newly learned and well-practiced sequences but more
during newly learned sequences.
D) Contralateral primary motor and somatosensory cortices were equally activated during the
performance of newly learned and well-practiced sequences.
E) all of the above
Answer: E
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 210
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
92) Which of the following is a major finding of the Jenkins and colleagues PET study of motor
learning?
A) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was activated during well-practiced but not newly learned sequences.
B) The cerebellum was more active during well-practiced than during newly learned sequences.
C) Contralateral primary motor and somatosensory cortexes were activated during both well-practiced
and newly learned sequences.
D) all of the above
E) both A and B
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 215
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS
1) The only movements that are not greatly influenced by sensory feedback are __________ movements.
Answer: ballistic
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 190
Topic: 8.1 Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function
Type: Factual
2) The area of association cortex that is thought to integrate the spatial information that is required to
initiate an accurate movement is the __________ cortex.
Answer: posterior parietal
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 191
Topic: 8.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex
Type: Factual
3) Patients with __________ have particular difficulty making accurate movements when asked to do so,
particularly when they are asked to make them out of context.
Answer: apraxia
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 192
Topic: 8.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex
Type: Applied
4) Contralateral neglect typically results from damage to the __________ posterior parietal lobe.
Answer: right
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 192
Topic: 8.2 Sensorimotor Association Cortex
Type: Applied
5) The somatotopic map of the primary motor cortex is called the motor __________.
Answer: homunculus
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 196
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: Factual
6) The only part of the primary motor cortex to receive sensory feedback from the skin is that part that
controls the contralateral __________.
Answer: hand
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 196
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: Factual
8) The __________ constitutes about 10% of the brains total mass but includes over half its neurons.
Answer: cerebellum
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 198
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: Factual
9) The basal ganglia receive signals from various parts of the cortex and transmit them back to the cortex
via the __________.
Answer: thalamus
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 198
Topic: 8.5 Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Type: Factual
10) The particularly large pyramidal neurons of primary motor cortex are known as __________ cells.
Answer: Betz
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 199
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: Factual
11) Neurons descending from the primary motor cortex in the corticorubrospinal tract synapse in the
__________ before the tract reaches the spinal cord.
Answer: red nucleus
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 199
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: Factual
12) The two descending __________ motor pathways control movements of the trunk.
Answer: ventromedial
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 200
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: Factual
15) Two muscles whose contraction produces the same movement of a joint are said to be __________
muscles.
Answer: synergistic
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 202
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: Factual
16) Muscle spindles are receptors that respond to changes in muscle __________.
Answer: length
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 203
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: Factual
18) __________ inhibition is mediated by Renshaw cells and helps distribute the work among the motor
neurons of a muscle's motor pool.
Answer: Recurrent collateral
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 206
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: Factual
19) The same basic movement (such as signing one’s name) can be made in a variety of ways involving
different limbs and muscles: This important principle is called motor __________.
Answer: equivalence
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 208
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: Factual
20) Theories of sensorimotor learning emphasize two kinds of changes to sensorimotor programs:
transfer of control to lower levels of the neural hierarchy and response __________.
Answer: chunking
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 209
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: Factual
ESSAY QUESTIONS
3) Discuss the organization and functions of primary motor cortex. Compare the traditional view with the
modern view, emphasizing the relevant evidence.
Answer:
20% for describing traditional view
30% for describing the modern view
50% for describing relevant research
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 196-198
Topic: 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex
Type: (Factual)
4) Describe the four descending motor pathways and their function. Include a description of the classic
study of Lawrence and Kuypers, who lesioned these pathways in monkeys and assessed the effects.
Answer:
40% for describing the anatomy of the four pathways
40% for describing the study of Lawrence and Kuypers
20% for describing the functions of the four pathways
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 199-202
Topic: 8.6 Descending Motor Pathways
Type: (Factual)
5) Discuss the anatomy, circuitry, and function of muscle spindles. Use diagrams of the muscle spindle
feedback circuit in your answer.
Answer:
20% for describing the anatomy of muscle spindles
30% for describing the feedback circuit
30% for describing the function
20% for effective use of drawings
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 203-205
Topic: 8.7 Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits
Type: (Factual)
6) Discuss the concept of central sensorimotor programs. Describe and discuss three of their important
features.
Answer:
25% for explaining the concept
75% for describing and discussing three important features
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 206-209
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Conceptual)
7) Many aspects of the sensory motor system are demonstrated by the chapter-ending PET study of
Jenkins and colleagues. Describe their methods, four major results, and the conclusions based on them.
Illustrate the results with a drawing of the study.
Answer:
20% for describing the methods
60% for describing four major results and the related conclusions
20% for illustrating the results
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 209-210
Topic: 8.8 Central Sensorimotor Programs
Type: (Factual)
The petrol motor, which to-day is busily engaged all over the world in
driving thousands upon thousands of self-propelled vehicles or
automobiles, belongs to the important class of internal-combustion
engines. Combustion means the operation of burning, and an
internal-combustion engine is one in which the motive power is
produced by the combustion of a highly explosive mixture of gases.
In the ordinary petrol motor this mixture consists of petrol and air,
and it is made by means of a device called a “carburetter.” By
suction, a quantity of petrol is forced through a jet with a very fine
nozzle, so that it is reduced to an extremely fine spray. A certain
proportion of air is allowed to enter, and the mixture passes into the
cylinder. Here it is compressed by the rising piston so that it
becomes more and more heated, and at the right point it is ignited.
Combustion takes place with such rapidity that it takes the form of an
explosion, and the energy produced in this way drives forward the
piston, which turns the crank-shaft and so communicates motion to
the driving-wheels.
The part played by electricity in this process is confined to the
ignition of the compressed charge of petrol and air. This may be
done in two ways; by means of an accumulator and a small induction
coil, or by means of a dynamo driven by the engine. At one time the
first method was employed exclusively, but to-day it is used as a rule
only for starting the car engine, the second or magneto method
being used when the engine has started up.
In accumulator ignition the low-tension current from the
accumulator passes through an induction coil, and is thus
transformed to high-tension current. This current goes through a
sparking plug, which is fixed in the head of the cylinder. The sparking
plug contains two metal points separated by a tiny air gap of from
about 1/30 to 1/50 inch. This gap provides the only possible path for
the high-tension current, so that the latter leaps across it in the form
of a spark. The spark is arranged to take place when the piston is at
the top of its stroke, that is, when the explosive mixture is at its
maximum compression, and the heat of the spark ignites the
mixture, the resulting explosion forcing down the piston with great
power. In practice it is found better as a rule to cause the spark to
pass very slightly before the piston reaches the extreme limit of its
stroke. The reason of this is that the process of igniting and
exploding the charge occupies an appreciable, though of course
exceedingly small amount of time. Immediately on reaching the top
of its stroke the piston begins to descend again, and if the spark and
the top of the stroke coincide in time the explosion does not take
place until the piston has moved some little distance down the
cylinder, and so a certain amount of power is lost. By having the
spark a little in advance of the piston, the explosion occurs at the
instant when the piston begins to return, and so the full force of the
explosion is utilized.
In magneto ignition the current is supplied by a small dynamo.
This generates alternating current, and it is driven by the car engine.
The current is at first at low pressure, and it has to be transformed to
high-tension current in order to produce the spark. There are two
methods of effecting this transformation. One is by turning the
armature of the dynamo into a sort of induction coil, by giving it two
separate windings, primary and secondary; so that the dynamo
delivers high-tension current directly. The other method is to send
the low-tension current through one or more transformer coils, just
as in accumulator ignition. Accumulators can give current only for a
certain limited period, and they are liable consequently to run down
at inconvenient times and places. They also have the defect of
undergoing a slight leakage of current even when they are not in
use. Magneto ignition has neither of these drawbacks, and on
account of its superior reliability it has come into universal use.
In the working of quarries and mines of various kinds, and also in
large engineering undertakings, blasting plays a prominent part.
Under all conditions blasting is a more or less dangerous business,
and it has been the cause of very many serious accidents to the men
engaged in carrying it out. Many of these accidents are due to the
carelessness resulting from long familiarity with the work, but apart
from this the danger lies principally in uncertainty in exploding the
charge. Sometimes the explosion occurs sooner than expected, so
that the men have not time to get away to a safe distance. Still more
deadly is the delayed explosion. After making the necessary
arrangements the men retire out of danger, and await the explosion.
This does not take place at the expected time, and after waiting a
little longer the men conclude that the ignition has failed, and return
to put matters right. Then the explosion takes place, and the men are
killed instantly or at least seriously injured. Although it is impossible
to avoid altogether dangers of this nature, the risk can be reduced to
the minimum by igniting the explosives by electricity.
Electrical shot firing may be carried out in different ways,
according to circumstances. The current is supplied either by a
dynamo or by a battery, and the firing is controlled from a
switchboard placed at a safe distance from the point at which the
charge is to be exploded, the connexions being made by long
insulated wires. The actual ignition is effected by a hot spark, as in
automobile ignition, or by an electric detonator or fuse. Explosives
such as dynamite cannot be fired by simple ignition, but require to be
detonated. This is effected by a detonator consisting of a small cup-
shaped tube, made of ebonite or other similar material. The wires
conveying the current project into this tube, and are connected by a
short piece of very fine wire having a high resistance. Round this
wire is packed a small quantity of gun-cotton, and beyond, in a sort
of continuation of the tube, is placed an extremely explosive
substance called “fulminate of mercury,” the whole arrangement
being surrounded by the dynamite to be fired. When all is ready the
man at the switchboard manipulates a switch, and the current
passes to the detonator and forces its way through the resistance of
the thin connecting wire. This wire becomes sufficiently hot to ignite
the gun-cotton, and so explode the fulminate of mercury. The
explosion is so violent that the dynamite charge is detonated, and
the required blasting carried out. Gunpowder and similar explosives
do not need to be detonated, and so a simple fuse is used. Electric
fuses are much the same as detonators, except that the tube
contains gunpowder instead of fulminate of mercury, this powder
being ignited through an electrically heated wire in the same way.
These electrical methods do away with the uncertainty of the slow-
burning fuses formerly employed, which never could be relied upon
with confidence.
Enormous quantities of explosives are now used in blasting on a
large scale, where many tons of hard rock have to be removed. One
of the most striking blasting feats was the blowing up of Flood Island,
better known as Hell Gate. This was a rocky islet, about 9 acres in
extent, situated in the East River, New York. It was a continual
menace to shipping, and after many fine vessels had been wrecked
upon it the authorities decided that it should be removed. The rock
was bored and drilled in all directions, the work taking more than a
year to complete; and over 126 tons of explosives were filled into the
borings. The exploding was carried out by electricity, and the mighty
force generated shattered nearly 300,000 cubic yards of solid rock.
CHAPTER XXVIII
ELECTRO-CULTURE