CHAPTER 7

ALTERNATING CURRENT
8 Hours 8 Marks
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Direct current: The current which does not change its direction with time is called direct current.
Alternating current: The current which changes direction periodically with time is called alternating current.
Instantaneous current (I): The value of A.C at given instant of time is called instantaneous value of
alternating current.
The expression for instantaneous value of A.C is given by I = I0𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
Where I = Instantaneous value of A.C
I0 = maximum or peak value of A.C
Peak value of A.C (I0):
The maximum value of A.C either in half cycle of A.C is called peak value of A.C.
Mean value of A.C or Average value of A,C (Im):
The mean of all instantaneous value of A,C taken ever either half cycle of A.C is called mean value of A.C.
The mean value of A.C is given by
𝟐
Im = 𝝅 I0

= 0.6369I0
Root mean square value of A.C (Irms):
The square root of mean of square of all instantaneous value of A.C taken over one complete cycle of A.C is
called r.m.s value of A.C
The r.m.s. value of A.C is given by
𝑰𝟎
Irms =
√𝟐

Instantaneous voltage (V): The value of alternating voltage at given instant of time is called instantaneous
value of alternating voltage.
The expression instantaneous value of A.C voltage is given by V = V0sin 𝜔𝑡
Where V = Instantaneous value of alternating voltage.
V0 = maximum or peak value of alternating voltage.
Peak value of A.C voltage (V0):
The maximum value of A.C voltage either in half cycle of A.C is called peak value of A.C. voltage.
Mean value of A.C or Average value of A.C voltage(Vm):
The mean of all instantaneous value of A.C voltages taken ever either half cycle of A.C is
Called mean value of A.C voltages.
The mean value of A.C is given by

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 𝟐
Vm = 𝝅 V0

= 0.6369V0
Root mean square value of A.C voltage (Vrms):
The square root of mean of squares of all instantaneous value of A.C voltages taken over one complete cycle
of A.C is called r.m.s value of A.C voltage.
The r.m.s. value of A.C is given by
𝑽𝟎
Vrms =
√𝟐

Phasor:
It is a vector rotating about origin in anticlockwise direction with angular velocity ω.
Phasor diagram:
The diagram representing the phase relationship between alternating voltage and alternating current.
Derive the expression for instantaneous current in an A.C circuit with pure resistor.
or
Show that voltage and current are in same phase when A.C voltage is applied to pure resistor

Consider a resistor of resistance R is connected an A.C source is as shown in the figure.

The alternating voltage across the resistor is given by
V = V0sin 𝜔𝑡 → (1)
The alternating current in circuit is given by
𝑉
I=𝑅
𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑅

I = I0sin 𝜔𝑡 → (2)
𝑉
Where I0 = 0 and is called peak or maximum value of A.C.
𝑅
This is the expression for instantaneous current when A.C voltage is applied to pure resistor.

From eq (1) and eq (2) it is observed the phase difference between V and I is zero.
i.e. they are in same phase.

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Show that pure resistor dissipates power of I2rmsR in an A.C circuit.
The instantaneous power is given by
P = VI
= V0sin 𝜔𝑡 X Iosin 𝜔𝑡
= VoIo𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
The average power over one complete cycle of A.C is given by
𝑇
∫0 𝑉0 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃̅ = 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡

T 2 ωt dt
Vo Io ∫0 sin
𝑃̅ = T
∫0 dt

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
since ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 2 and ∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇
𝑇
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ×
𝑃̅ = 2
𝑇
𝑉 𝐼
𝑃̅ = 𝑜2 𝑜
𝑉
𝑃̅ = 𝑜 × √𝐼𝑜
√2 2

𝑃̅ = VrmsIrms
̅ = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑹
𝑷 sinceVrms = IrmsR
Expression for instantaneous current in an A.C circuit with pure inductor
OR
𝝅
S.T voltage leads current or current lags voltage by 𝟐
when A.C voltage applied to pure inductor.

Consider a inductor of self induction L is connected to a.c. source is as shown in figure.

The alternating voltage across inductor is given by
V = V0sin 𝜔𝑡 →(1)
The emf induced in the inductor is given by
𝑑𝐼
𝛜 = − L𝑑𝑡 →(2)

Since there is no resistor in the circuit, and applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule
V+𝛜=0 → (3)
Substituting eq (1) and (2) in eq (3) we get

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 𝑑𝐼
V0sin 𝜔𝑡 − L𝑑𝑡=0
𝑑𝐼
L = V0sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑉0
dI = sin 𝜔𝑡 dt →(4)
𝐿

Integrating eq (4) on both sides we get

𝑉𝑜
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝐿
sin 𝜔𝑡 dt
𝑉𝑜 −cos 𝜔𝑡
I= [ ]
𝐿 𝜔
𝑉 𝜋
= 𝜔𝐿𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝝅
I = Io𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐 ) → (5)
𝑉
Where Io= 𝜔𝐿𝑜 and is called peak or max value of a.c

eq (5) is the expression for instantaneous current when a.c voltage applied to pure inductor.
𝜋 𝜋
From eq (1) and (5) it is observed that voltage leads current by or current lags voltage by 2
2

Phasor Diagram Graphical Representation

Prove that pure inductor or ideal inductor connected to a.c source does not dissipate any power.
The instantaneous power dissipated in inductor is given by
P = VI
𝜋
= V0sin 𝜔𝑡 × Iosin( 𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

= VoIosin 𝜔𝑡 × −cos 𝜔𝑡
VoIo
=- × 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
2
VoIo
=- sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

The average power over one complete cycle of A.C is given by

𝑇 𝑉 𝐼
∫0 − 𝑜2 𝑜 sin 2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑃̅ = 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡

VoIo 𝑇
𝑃̅ = - 2𝑇 ∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
VoIo 𝑇
𝑃̅ = - 2𝑇 × 0 ∵∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0

̅ =0
𝑷

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Expression for instantaneous current in an A.C circuit with pure capacitor
OR
𝝅
S.T current leads voltage or voltage lags current by when A.C voltage applied to pure capacitor.
𝟐

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C is connected to a.c. source is as shown in figure.

The alternating voltage is given by
V = V0sin 𝜔𝑡 → (1)
Let q be the charge of the capacitor at any instant of time t is given by

𝑞
V= 𝑐 → (2) ∵q = cV

On comparing eq (1) & (2) we get

𝑞
= V0sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑐

q = V0𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑡 → (3)

Differentiating eq (3) on both sides with respect to t
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 sin 𝜔𝑡
= cVo
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

I = cV0cos 𝜔𝑡 × ω
𝑉
I = 1⁄ 0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝑐
𝝅
I = Io𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 ) →(4)
𝑉
Where Io = 1⁄ 𝑜 and is called peak or max value of a.c
𝜔𝑐

Eq (4) is the expression for instantaneous current when a.c voltage is applied to pure capacitor.
𝜋
From eq (1) and (4) it is observed that current leads voltage or voltage lags current by .
2

Phasor Diagram Graphical Representation

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Prove that pure capacitor connected to a.c source does not dissipate any power.
The instantaneous power dissipated in capacitor is given by
P = VI
𝜋
= V0sin 𝜔𝑡 × Iosin( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 )

= VoIosin 𝜔𝑡 × cos 𝜔𝑡
VoIo
= × 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
2
VoIo
= sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

The average power over one complete cycle of A.C is given by

𝑇 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑃̅ = 2
𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡

VoIo 𝑇
𝑃̅ = 2𝑇 ∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
VoIo 𝑇
𝑃̅ = 2𝑇 × 0 ∵∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0

̅=0
𝑷
Inductive reactance (XL):
The opposition offered by inductor to flow of A.C is called inductive reactance.
The S.I unit of inductive reactance is ohm(Ω)
The inductive reactance is given by XL = ωL
Where ω = Angular frequency of applied A.C voltage.
L= Self induction of the inductor
Inductive reactance depends on
1. Directly proportional to the frequency of the A.C
2. Directly proportional to the self induction of the inductor.
Capacitive reactance (Xc):
The opposition offered by capacitor to flow of A.C is called capacitive reactance.
The S.I unit of capacitive reactance is ohm(Ω)
𝟏
The capacitive reactance is given by Xc = 𝝎𝒄

Where ω = Angular frequency of applied A.C voltage.

C = Capacitance of the capacitor
Capacitive reactance depends on
1. Inversely proportional to the frequency of the A.C.
2. Inversely proportional to the capacitance of the capacitor.

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Distinguish between inductive reactance and capacitive reactance in an a.c circuit.
Inductive reactance Capacitive reactance
1.It is opposition offered by the inductor to the flow a.c. 1. It is opposition offered by the capacitor to the
through it. flow a.c. through it.
2.It is given by XL = 2πfL. 1
2.It is given by X c= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
3.It increases with increase of inductance of the
inductor. 3.It decreases with increase of capacitance of the
4.It increases with increase of frequency of A.C. capacitor.
4.It decreases with increase of frequency of A.C.

Expression for impedance, current and phase angle in series LCR circuit using phasor diagram.

Consider series LCR circuit connected to AC source is as shown in figure.

In the above figure
L = Inductance of inductor.
C = Capacitance of capacitor.
R = Resistance of resistor.

Phasor Diagram Graphical Representation

In the phasor diagram
VL = Voltage across inductor
Vc = Voltage across capacitor.
VR = Voltage across resistor.
VL-Vc = Resultant of VL and Vc.
V = Resultant of (VL-Vc) and VR
ɸ = Angle between V & I.
I = Current in the series LCR circuit.
From right angle triangle OBA
(OA)2 = (OB)2+(AB)2

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 V2 = VR2+(VL-Vc)2

V = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2→(1)

W.K.T VR = IR; VL = IXL;
Substituting VR, VL, & Vc in equa(1) we get

V = √𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2

V=√𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼 2 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

V = 𝐼√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑉
= √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝐼

Z = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
𝑉
Where Z = & Z is called impedance of the series LCR circuit.
𝐼

This is the expression for the impedance of the LCR circuit.

Current in series LCR circuit is
𝑉
𝐼=𝑍
𝑽
𝑰 =
√𝑹𝟐 +(𝑿𝑳 −𝑿𝑪 )𝟐

This is the expression for current.

From right angled triangle OBA
𝐴𝐵
tan ɸ =
𝑂𝐶
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝑐
= 𝑉𝑅

𝐼𝑋𝐿 −𝐼𝑋𝑐
= 𝐼𝑅
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝑐
tan ∅ = 𝑅
𝑿𝑳 −𝑿𝒄
ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑹

This is the expression for phase angle.

Impedance (Z):
The effective opposition by series LCR circuit to flow of AC is called impedance.
S.I. unit of impedance is ohm(Ω).
Impedance depends on
1.Inductance of inductor.
2.Capacitance of capacitor.
3.Resistance of resistor.
4.Frequency of A.C.

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Admittance:
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance. The S.I unit of admittance is Ω-1 or simon.
Power applied to series LCR circuit.
The instantaneous power dissipated in series LCR circuit is given by
P = VI
= Vosin 𝜔𝑡 X Iosin(𝜔𝑡 + ɸ)
= VoI0sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ɸ)
= VoI0sin 𝜔𝑡 [sin 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ]
= VoI0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ]
= VoI0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ]
2sin 𝜔𝑡cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ
= VoI0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ + ]
2

sin2 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ
= VoI0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ + ]
2

The average power dissipated over on complete cycle is given by

𝑇 sin2 𝜔𝑡 sin ɸ
∫0 VoI0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ+ ]𝑑𝑡
𝑃̅ = 𝑇
2
∫0 𝑑𝑡

VoI0 𝑇 𝑇 sin 2𝜔𝑡

= [∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ɸ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 sin ɸ𝑑𝑡]
𝑇 2

VoI0 𝑇 sin ɸ 𝑇
= [cos ɸ ∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇 2

VoI0 𝑇 sin ɸ
= [cos ɸ 2 + 𝑋 0]
𝑇 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
∵∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
2
VoI0 𝑇
= X cos ɸ 𝑋
𝑇 2
Vo 𝐼0
= X cos ɸ 𝑋
√2 √2
Vo 𝐼0
𝑃̅ = X 𝑋 cos ɸ
√2 √2

𝑃̅ = IrmsVrmscos ɸ
This is the expression for average power over one cycle of A.C in series LCR circuit.This average power is
also known as true power. It is expressed in kW.
The term IrmsVrms is called apparent power and it is expressed in kVA
The term cos ɸ is called power factor of the A.C circuit. Its value varies from 0 to 1.
Case1) If the circuit contains pure resistance then ɸ=00
𝑃̅ = IrmsVrmscos ɸ
𝑃̅ = IrmsVrmscos 0
𝑃̅ = IrmsVrms ∵cos 0 = 0

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 𝜋
Case2) If the circuit contains pure inductor then ɸ=2
𝜋
𝑃̅=IrmsVrmscos 2
𝜋
𝑃̅=0 ∵cos 2 =0
𝜋
Case3) If the circuit contains pure capacitor then ɸ = 2
𝜋
𝑃̅ = IrmsVrmscos 2
𝜋
𝑃̅ = 0 ∵cos 2 =0

Impedance diagram:
Impedance diagram is a right angle triangle with Z as its hypotenuse and the other two sides being R and (XL-
XC).
Power factor (cos ɸ):
Power factor is defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power.
From the above right angle triangle ABC.
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
cos ɸ = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 𝑍 = =
√𝑅 2 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )2 √𝑅 2 +(𝜔𝐿−
1 2
)
𝜔𝐶

Wattless current: The alternating current in the circuit for which power dissipation is zero is called wattless
current.
Electrical resonance:
The phenomenon in which impedance of series LCR circuit becomes minimum and current in circuit becomes
maximum at particular frequency of applied AC voltage is called electrical resonance.
Resonant frequency(fr)
The frequency of AC at which impedance of the series LCR circuit becomes minimum and the current in the
circuit becomes maximum is called resonant frequency.
Expression for resonant frequency:
At resonance Xc = XL
1
= 𝜔0 𝐿
𝜔0 𝑐

1
𝜔02 = 𝐿𝐶
1
𝜔0 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
2πfr =
√𝐿𝐶
𝟏
fr = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

This is the expression for resonant frequency.

Acceptor circuit:
Series LCR circuit at resonance admit maximum current at particular frequency. Hence it is called acceptor
circuit. This circuit is used in radio and TV receivers to tune the desired frequency or filter unwanted

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frequency. The antenna of radio and TV receiver signals of different frequencies from many broad casting
station. To receive a particular frequency of particular station, the frequency of tunning circuit of areceiver is
changed by changing the capacitance or inductance of tunning circuit till the resonant frequency is equal to
the desired frequency of broadcasting station. Then in the tunning circuit the amplitude of current with the
frequency of particular radio station becomes maximum.
Note: Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are present in the circuit and it is
not obtained by RL or RC circuit.
Transformers: It is a device used to change alternating voltages to any desired value.
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction:

It consists of a closed laminated iron core. Two coils are wound over the limbs of the core. One of the coil is
called primary and the other secondary. The primary coil is connected to the source of alternating voltage and
the output voltage appears across the terminals of the secondary coil due to induction.
Working:
When an A.C is passed through the primary coil, a varying magnetic flux is produced around the primary coil.
This varying magnetic flux links the secondary coil and hence emf is induced in the secondary coil.
Expression for turns ratio of the transformer:
𝑑ɸ
Voltage induced across the secondary coil is 𝛜s = VS = − NS 𝑑𝑡 → (1)

Where Ns→ number of turns in the secondary coil

𝑑ɸ
Voltage induced across the primaary coil is 𝛜P = VP = −NP 𝑑𝑡 → (2)

Where NP→ number of turns in the primary coil.

Divide eq (1) and (2) we get
𝑉𝑆 𝑁
= 𝑁𝑆 →(3)
𝑉𝑃 𝑃

If the given transformer is ideal, the ղ is 100% then

Input power = output power
VPIP = VSIS
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= → (4)
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆

On comparing equa(3) and (4) we get

𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
T= = =
𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆

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This is the formula for turns ratio.
i) If NS>NP, VS>VP this type of transformer is called step up transformer. In this case current in secondary is
less than current in primary (IS<IP).
ii) If NS<NP, VS<VP this type of transformer is called step down transformer. In this case current in secondary
is more than current in primary (IS>IP).
Sources of energy losses in a transformer
i) Loss due to heating.
ii) Loss due to flux leakage.
iii) Loss due to eddy current.
iv) Loss due to hysteresis.

***********************************

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