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Methods in Behavioral Research
Methods in Behavioral Research
FOURTEENTH EDITION
PAUL C. COZBY
California State University, Fullerton
SCOTT C. BATES
Utah State University
METHODS IN BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH, FOURTEENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2020 by McGraw-Hill Educa-
tion. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions ©2018, 2015, and 2012. No part
of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or
other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United
States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20 19
ISBN 978-1-260-20558-9 (bound edition)
MHID 1-260-20558-4 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-38005-7 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-38005-X (loose-leaf edition)
Product Development Manager: Dawn Groundwater
Senior Marketing Manager: Augustine Laferrera
Marketing Manager: Olivia Kaiser
Content Project Managers: Sandy Wille, Jodi Banowetz
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Designer: Egzon Shaqiri
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Cover Image: rzeszutek/Getty Images
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All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
2. WHERE TO START 19
Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Predictions 20
Sources of Ideas 21
Types of Journal Articles 25
Exploring Past Research 32
Review Questions 43
Study Terms 43
Check Your Learning: Answers 44
5. MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS 96
Reliability of Measures 97
Construct Validity of Measures 101
Reactivity of Measures 105
Variables and Measurement Scales 105
Review Questions 111
Study Terms 112
Check Your Learning: Answers 112
Illustrative Articles
Chapter 1: Introduction
CONTENTS xi
Glossary 369
References 380
Index 397
ORGANIZATION
Methods in Behavioral Research moves carefully through the major concepts in behavioral research from the
foundations of scientific study through practical issues in research design and implementation.
“Scientific Understanding of Behavior” grounds students in the scientific approach, emphasizing the distinc-
tion between basic and applied research. “Where to Start” discusses sources of ideas for research and the
importance of library research. “Ethics in Behavioral Research” focuses on research ethics; ethical issues
are covered in depth here and emphasized throughout the book. “Fundamental Research Issues” intro-
duces validity and examines psychological variables and the distinction between experimental and nonex-
perimental approaches to studying relationships among variables. “Measurement Concepts” focuses on mea-
surement issues, including reliability and validity. Nonexperimental research approaches—including natural-
istic observation, cases studies, and content analysis—are described in “Observational Methods.” “Asking
People About Themselves: Survey Research” covers sampling as well as the design of questionnaires and
interviews. “Experimental Design” and “Conducting Experiments” present the basics of designing and con-
ducting experiments. Factorial designs are emphasized in “Complex Experimental Designs.” “Single-Case,
Quasi-Experimental, and Developmental Research” discusses the designs for special applications: single-
case experimental designs, developmental research designs, and quasi-experimental designs. “Understanding
Research Results: Description and Correlation” and “Understanding Research Results: Statistical Inference”
focus on the use of statistics to help students understand research results. These chapters include material on
effect size and confidence intervals. Finally, “Generalization” discusses generalization issues, meta-analyses,
and the importance of replications.
FEATURES
Methods in Behavioral Research includes the following features to enhance learning:
NEW! Critical Thinking: Consumer of Research. These exercises are designed to get students out of the text-
book and out of their classrooms and into the broader world in which we all move. These exercises ask stu-
dents to look at examples of research—such as studies on the predictors of happiness and the causes and
PREFACE xiii
effects of sitting in the front of the classroom—to compare what they’ve learned in class or the text with what
they see. Applying the concepts they have learned will help them expand their understanding of the content.
NEW! Fully updated according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.):
This edition includes and supports new guidelines on ethical and bias-free writing, adopted the new standard
for in-text citations, updated rules for manuscript formatting, and adopted APA’s final resolution to the eter-
nal question: One space or two after a period? (Answer: One!)
NEW! Updated to align with 2019 federal guidelines that govern IRBs, including new categories of exempt
review.
UPDATED! Check Your Learning: Practice Exercises. In previous editions, these Check Your Learning boxes
were placed within the body of the chapter. We found that students often found this placement distracting
and preferred to be able to control when to complete the exercises. We now include an in-text callout to place
the content; the actual exercises and answers are at the end of the chapter.
Illustrative articles. These boxes include published journal articles with questions and exercises designed to
focus on chapter-related material. In addition, the articles help students become familiar with the structure
and language of journal articles in psychology. We have several new articles in this edition. Most important,
we have provided links to online copies of the articles whenever possible.
Solid pedagogy. Each chapter opens with a set of learning objectives that serve as reading guides and ends
with a review of major concepts and key terms.
Practical examples. Thought-provoking examples help students interpret challenging concepts and complex
research designs. The concept of diversity of ideas is examined through the lens of biases regarding rap music.
Theory article formats are introduced though a recent study on suicide.
Decision-making emphasis. Distinguishing among a variety of research designs helps students understand
when to use one type of design over another.
FLEXIBLE
Chapters are designed to work independently, so that they can be adapted to any curriculum or syllabus. Sec-
tions are clearly defined and relevant practice exercises called out within each, making it easy to reorder or
skip topics.
In addition, three appendices related to communicating research findings, ethical standards, and conducting
statistical analyses can be used any time throughout the course. Appendix A includes an annotated version
of a published paper and provides firm instructions for organizing research. Students can easily refer to the
APA Ethics Code in Appendix B, and Appendix C includes a bank of statistical tests that can be applied to a
variety of research designs.
Methods in Behavioral Research is available to instructors and students in traditional print format as well as
online within McGraw Hill Connect, a digital assignment and assessment platform. Connect includes assign-
able and assessable videos, quizzes, exercises, and interactive activities, all associated with learning objectives
xiv PREFACE
for Methods in Behavioral Research. These online tools make managing assignments easier for instructors, and
learning and studying more motivating and efficient for students.
Power of Process, available in Connect for Research Methods, guides students through the process of critical
reading, analysis, and writing. Faculty can select or upload their own content, such as journal articles, and
assign analysis strategies to gain insight into students’ application of the scientific method. For students,
Power of Process offers a guided visual approach to exercising critical thinking strategies to apply before, dur-
ing, and after reading published research.
POWERFUL REPORTING
Whether a class is face-to-face, hybrid, or entirely online, McGraw-Hill Connect provides the tools needed
to reduce the amount of time and energy instructors spend administering their courses. Easy-to-use course
management tools allow instructors to spend less time administering and more time teaching, while reports
allow students to monitor their progress and optimize their study time.
PREFACE xv
▪ The At-Risk Student Report provides instructors with one-click access to a dashboard that identifies
students who are at risk of dropping out of the course due to low engagement levels.
▪ The Category Analysis Report details student performance relative to specific learning objectives and
goals, including APA learning goals and outcomes and levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
▪ Connect Insight is a one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for both instructors and
students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance.
▪ The SmartBook Reports allow instructors and students to easily monitor progress and pinpoint areas of
weakness, giving each student a personalized study plan to achieve success.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Achieve simplicity in assigning and engaging your students with course materials. Craft your teaching
resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-Hill Create, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine
material from other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written, such as your course syl-
labus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching through thousands of leading
McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize
your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order
a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via email in about an hour.
Experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way: http://create.mheduca-
tion.com
McGraw-Hill Campus provides faculty with true single sign-on access to all of McGraw-Hill’s course content,
digital tools, and other high-quality learning resources from any LMS. This innovative offering allows for
secure and deep integration, enabling seamless access for faculty and students to any of McGraw-Hill’s
course solutions, such as McGraw-Hill Connect (all-digital teaching and learning platform) and McGraw-Hill
Create (state-of-the-art custom-publishing platform McGraw-Hill Campus includes access to McGraw-Hill’s
entire content library, including eBooks, assessment tools, presentation slides, multimedia content, and other
resources. McGraw-Hill Campus provides instructors with open, unlimited access to prepare for class, create
tests/quizzes, develop lecture material, integrate interactive content, and more: http://www.mhcampus.com
Chapter 1
• Added discussion on the importance of becoming a savvy consumer of research.
• Added discussion of risky outcomes that result from researcher overreach.
• Critical Thinking: Read editorials from large national newspapers and evaluate for intuition, appeals to
authority, and supporting evidence. Consider both sides of two arguments about major assertions about
behavioral research studies as a discipline. Sift through data presented in an online article about eating
disorders to identify cause and effect and explanation.
Chapter 2
• New discussion added to “Source of Ideas” offers clues to where one might find inspiration for a new
research study.
• Added example of how practical problems in everyday life can stimulate research studies.
• New analysis of biases toward rap music within the framework of diversity of ideas.
• Refined discussion of literature reviews, where to find them and how to use them.
• New example of a recent theory article about suicide.
• New example of an article search using Web of Science.
• New Critical Thinking box: Review four different articles related to behavioral science that have recently
appeared in the popular press including stress in teens and happy memories as health boosters.
Chapter 3
• Added emphasis on the exempt review of minimal risk research.
• Deeper discussion of the functions of an IRB.
• New Critical Thinking box: Consider the ethics behind three controversial research studies including
Milgram. Read your college’s student code of conduct and consider ways to improve upon the
plagiarism section.
Chapter 4
• A fourth validity added: statistical validity.
• New Critical Thinking box: Review operational definitions and why they are important. Work through
the components of research including hypothesis (both experimental and nonexperimental method)
variable, cause and effect.
Chapter 5
• New study added to illustrative article on measurement concepts that aimed to reduce bias in STET
ratings by adjusting language on the form.
• New Critical Thinking box: Review two personality assessments to determine their reliability and
consider ways to assess construct validity.
PREFACE xvii
Chapter 6
• New Critical Thinking box: Develop a research question that can best be used addressed through
qualitative techniques. Locate and summarize two reviews of a recent book about Henry Molaison by
his grandson.
Chapter 7
• Updated Figure 1 includes new data on annual prevalence of teenage marijuana use.
• Section of nonverbal scales has been expanded to include adult populations.
• Explanation of recently developed Prime Panels, a recruiting tool for unique samples.
• New Critical Thinking box: Work through a survey from evaluating the questions to analyzing the
results. Briefly plan an online survey with an adult population regarding family, professional, and life
satisfaction.
Chapter 8
• New Critical Thinking box: Review two different experimental designs and share ideas for how they
could be improved or how specific problems could be addressed.
Chapter 9
• Refined discussion on quantifying observed behaviors.
• New illustrative article: “Conducting Experiments.”
• New Critical Thinking box: Consider sample scenario in a pilot study and work through questions about
the manipulations, variables, controls, and outcomes.
Chapter 10
• Revised illustrative article: “Complex Experimental Designs.”
• New Critical Thinking box: Work through a 2 × 2 with independent groups and consider the effects as
variables are adjusted. In a second experiment, identify the design, variables, conditions and possible
interactions.
Chapter 11
• New illustrative article: “A Longitudinal Study.”
• New Critical Thinking box: Look for problems and explain outcomes in five different sample research
scenarios.
Chapter 12
• New Critical Thinking box: Create your own sample by asking students on campus to ask a question
about the courses they are taking. Think of three variables that use a nominal scale
xviii PREFACE
Chapter 13
• Added discussion on choosing a sample size.
• New Critical Thinking box: Plan parts of a research design. Analyze research on attitudes toward
individuals in wheelchairs.
Chapter 14
• Added an in-depth note on the Open Science initiative and the replication crisis in psychology.
• New Critical Thinking box: Think through a sample of college students and consider what makes it a
unique population.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Lecture Presentation: Accessibility compliant, PowerPoint slides are provided that present key points of the
chapter, along with supporting visuals. All of the slides can be modified to meet individual needs.
Image Gallery: The complete set of figures and tables from the text are available for download and can be
easily embedded into PowerPoint slides.
PREFACE xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many individuals helped to produce this and previous editions of this book. The portfolio manager at
McGraw-Hill was Nancy Welcher; we are also indebted to the editors of previous editions, Franklin Graham,
Ken King, Mike Sugarman, and Krista Bettino, for their guidance. We are extremely grateful for the input
from numerous students and instructors, including the following individuals, who provided detailed reviews
for this edition:
Marina Bornovalova Suzanne Helfer
University of South Florida Adrian College
Kristy Boyce Charles M. Huffman
The Ohio State University Georgia Southwestern State University
Blaine Browne Christopher Howard
Valdosta State University Husson University
Robert Christman Ashley Jordan
Mohawk Valley Community College University of Arizona
Emily Cohen-Shikora Jeff Kibler
Washington University at St. Louis Nova Southeastern University
Paul Curran Cecile Lardon
Grand Valley State University University of Alaska Fairbanks
Robert O. Deaner Mindy Ma
Grand Valley State University Nova Southeastern University
Christopher Dickinson Hajime Otani
Appalachian State University Central Michigan University
Dana S. Dunn Mary K. Radeke
Moravian College Central Washington University
Mario Fific Theodore M. Singelis
Grand Valley State University California State University, Chico
Stephen Gabbard Lynda Villaneuva
Wright State University, Dayton University of Houston
Leslie A. Gill
Eastern New Mexico University
About the Authors
Paul C. Cozby is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at California State University, Fullerton. Dr. Cozby was
an undergraduate at the University of California, Riverside, and received his Ph.D. in psychology from the
University of Minnesota. He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association and a member of the
Association for Psychological Science, and he served as an officer of the Society for Computers in Psychol-
ogy and as Executive Officer of the Western Psychological Association. He is the author of Using Computers
in the Behavioral Sciences and co-editor with Daniel Perlman of Social Psychology.
Scott C. Bates is a Professor and Department Head of the Psychology Department at Utah State University
in Logan, Utah. He earned a B.S. in Psychology from Whitman College, an M.S. in Psychology from Western
Washington University, and a Ph.D. in social psychology from Colorado State University. His research inter-
ests and experiences are varied. He has conducted research in areas as wide-ranging as adolescent problem
behavior and problem-behavior prevention, teaching and learning in higher education, and the psychological
consequences of growing and tending plants in outer space.
We are always interested in receiving comments and suggestions from students and instructors. Please email
us at [email protected] or [email protected].
1 Scientific Understanding of Behavior
Meiwphotographer/Shutterstock
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
▪ Describe why it is important to understand research methods.
▪ Describe the scientific approach to understanding behavior, and contrast it with a pseudoscientific
approach.
▪ Define and give examples of the four goals of scientific research: description, prediction, determination
of cause, and explanation of behavior.
▪ Discuss the three elements for inferring causation: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and
elimination of alternative explanations.
▪ Define, describe, compare, and contrast basic and applied research.
2 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
Do social media sites like Facebook and Instagram impact our relationships? What causes alcoholism? How
do our early childhood experiences affect our later lives? How do we remember things, what causes us to for-
get, and how can memory be improved? Why do we procrastinate? Why do some people experience anxiety
so extreme that it disrupts their lives, while others—facing the same situation—seem to be unaffected? How
can we help people who suffer from depression? Why do we like certain people and dislike others? How can
employers nurture employee well-being in a high-stress workplace?
Curiosity about questions like these is probably the most important reason many students decide to take
courses in the behavioral sciences. Science is the best way to explore and answer these sorts of questions. In
this book, we will examine the methods of scientific research in the behavioral sciences. In this introductory
chapter, we will focus on ways in which knowledge of research methods can be useful in understanding the
world around us. Further, we will review the characteristics of a scientific approach to the study of behavior
and the general types of research questions that concern behavioral scientists.
CONSUMING RESEARCH
We are continuously bombarded with research results: The New York Times runs many articles with titles
like “Parents Should Avoid Comments on a Child’s Weight,” “Abortion Is Found to Have Little Effect on
Women’s Mental Health,” and “Insomniacs Are Helped by Online Therapy.” The Washington Post declared,
“Large study supports ‘weekend warrior’ approach to lifetime fitness.” Meanwhile, over on cable news, CNN
reports that “Facebook can actually make us more narrow-minded,” while Fox News notes that “Alcohol ads
should be banned from sporting events, says study.” MSNBC told us to buy a pet—“Kids with pets have less
anxiety”—but People Magazine tells us, hold on, “Your Beloved Cat Could Be Making Your PMS Worse!”
Even Buzzfeed gets into the act, letting the bookstore owners among us know that a “New Study Finds That
Filling Bookstores with the Scent of Chocolate Makes You Shop Longer,” and Buzzfeed also wondered, “Is
America Having a ‘Friendship Slump’?”
Articles, books, websites, and social media posts make claims about the beneficial or harmful effects of par-
ticular diets or vitamins on one’s sex life, personality, or health. There are frequent reports of survey results
that draw conclusions about our views on a variety of topics—who we will vote for, what we think about a
product, where we stand on political hot topics of the day.
The key question is: How do you evaluate such reports? Do you simply accept the findings because they are
supposed to be scientific? A background in research methods will help you read these reports critically, eval-
uate the methods employed, and decide whether the conclusions are reasonable. Learning about research
methods will help you think critically; learning about research methods will help you be a skilled consumer
of research.
marketing strategies, ways of improving employee productivity and morale, and methods of selecting and
training new employees. Educators must keep up with research on topics such as the effectiveness of various
teaching strategies or programs to deal with special student problems. It is useful to have a knowledge of
research methods and the ability to evaluate research reports in many fields.
It is also important to recognize that scientific research has become increasingly prominent in public policy
decisions. Legislators and political leaders at all levels of government frequently take political positions and
propose legislation based on research findings. Research may also influence judicial decisions: A classic exam-
ple of this is the Social Science Brief that was prepared by psychologists and accepted as evidence in the land-
mark 1954 case Brown v. Board of Education, in which the U.S. Supreme Court banned school segregation in
the United States. One of the studies cited in the brief was conducted by Clark and Clark (1947), who found
that when allowed to choose between light-skinned and dark-skinned dolls, both Black and White children
preferred to play with the light-skinned dolls (see Stephan, 1983, for a further discussion of the implications
of this study).
Behavioral research on human development has influenced U.S. Supreme Court decisions related to juvenile
crime. In 2005, for instance, the Supreme Court decided that juveniles could not face the death penalty
(Roper v. Simmons), and the decision was informed by neurological and behavioral research showing that
in juveniles, the level of development of their brains, social relationships, and character make juveniles less
culpable than adults for the same crimes. Similarly, in 2010, in Graham v. Florida, the U.S. Supreme Court
decided that juvenile offenders could not be sentenced to life in prison without parole for nonhomicide
offenses. This decision was influenced by research in developmental psychology and neuroscience. The Court
majority pointed to this research in their conclusion that assessment of blame and standards for sentencing
should be different for juveniles and adults because juveniles lack adults’ maturity, ability to resist pressures
from peers and others, and personal sense of responsibility (Clay, 2010).
Research is also important when developing and assessing the effectiveness of programs designed to achieve
certain goals—for example, to increase retention of students in school, influence people to engage in behaviors
that reduce their risk of contracting HIV, or teach employees how to reduce the effects of stress. We need to
be able to determine whether these programs are successfully meeting their goals.
Finally, research methods are important because they can provide us with the best answers to questions like
those we posed at the outset of this chapter. Research methods can be the way to satisfy our native curiosity
about ourselves, our world, and those around us.
WAYS OF KNOWING
We opened this chapter with several questions about human behavior and suggested that scientific research
is a valuable means of answering them. How does the scientific approach differ from other ways of learning
about behavior? People have always observed the world around them and sought explanations for what they
see and experience. However, instead of using a scientific approach, many people rely on intuition and author-
ity as primary ways of knowing.
People usually go one step further and offer an explanation for this effect—such as, that the adoption reduces
a major source of marital stress, and the stress reduction in turn increases the chances of conception (see
Gilovich, 1991).
This example illustrates the use of intuition and anecdotal evidence to draw general conclusions about the
world around us. When you rely on intuition, you accept unquestioningly what your own personal judgment
or a single story (anecdote) about one person’s experience tells you. The intuitive approach takes many forms.
Often it involves finding an explanation for our own behaviors or the behaviors of others. For example, you
might develop an explanation for why you keep having conflicts with your roommate, such as “He hates me”
or “Having to share a bathroom creates conflict.” Other times, intuition is used to explain events that you
observe, as in the case of concluding that adoption increases the chances of conception among couples hav-
ing difficulty conceiving a child.
A problem with intuition is that numerous cognitive and motivational biases affect our perceptions, and so
we may draw erroneous conclusions about cause and effect (cf. Fiske & Taylor, 1984; Gilovich, 1991; Nis-
bett & Ross, 1980; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Gilovich points out that there is in fact no relationship between
adoption and subsequent pregnancy, according to scientific research investigations. So why do we hold this
belief? Most likely it is because of a cognitive bias called illusory correlation that occurs when we focus on two
events that stand out and occur together. When an adoption is closely followed by a pregnancy, our attention
is drawn to the situation, and we are biased to conclude that there must be a causal connection. Such illu-
sory correlations are also likely to occur when we are highly motivated to believe in the causal relationship.
Although this is a natural thing for us to do, it is not scientific. A scientific approach requires much more
evidence before conclusions can be drawn.
Authority
The philosopher Aristotle said: “Persuasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when the speech
is so spoken as to make us think him credible. We believe good men more fully and readily than others.” Aris-
totle would argue that we are more likely to be persuaded by a speaker who seems prestigious, trustworthy,
and respectable than by one who appears to lack such qualities.
Many of us might accept Aristotle’s arguments simply because he is considered a prestigious authority—a con-
vincing and influential source—and his writings remain important. Similarly, many people are all too ready to
accept anything they learn from the internet, news media, books, government officials, celebrities, religious
figures, or even a professor! They believe that the statements of such authorities must be true. The problem,
of course, is that the statements may not be true. The scientific approach rejects the notion that one can
accept on faith the statements of any authority; again, more evidence is needed before we can draw scientific
conclusions.
Empiricism
The scientific approach to acquiring knowledge recognizes that intuition, anecdote, and authority can
be sources of ideas about behavior. However, scientists do not unquestioningly accept anyone’s intu-
itions—including their own. Scientists recognize that their ideas are just as likely to be wrong as anyone
else’s. Also, scientists do not accept on faith anyone’s pronouncements, regardless of that person’s prestige
or authority. Thus, scientists are very skeptical about what they see and hear. Scientific skepticism means that
ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations.
CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior 5
If scientists reject intuition and blind acceptance of authority as ways of knowing about the world, how do
they go about gaining knowledge? The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is empiricism—the
idea that knowledge comes from observations. Data are collected that form the basis of conclusions about
the nature of the world. The scientific method embodies a number of rules for collecting and evaluating data;
these rules will be explored throughout this book.
thus are beyond the realm of science. In science, however, ideas must be evaluated on the basis of available
evidence that can be used to support or refute the ideas.
There is also nothing wrong with having opinions or beliefs as long as they are presented simply as opinions
or beliefs. However, we should always ask whether the opinion can be tested scientifically or whether scien-
tific evidence exists that relates to the opinion. For example, opinions on whether exposure to violent movies,
TV, and video games increases aggression are only opinions until scientific evidence on the issue is gathered.
As you learn more about scientific methods, you will become increasingly skeptical of the research results
reported in the media and the assertions of scientists as well. You should be aware that scientists often
become authorities when they express their ideas. When someone claims to be a scientist, should we be more
willing to accept what he or she has to say? First, ask about the individual’s credentials. It is usually wise to
pay more attention to someone with an established reputation in the field and attend to the reputation of
the institution represented by the person. It is also worthwhile to examine the researcher’s funding source;
you might be a bit suspicious when research funded by a drug company supports the effectiveness of a drug
manufactured by that company, for example. Similarly, when an organization with a particular social-politi-
cal agenda funds the research that supports that agenda, you should be skeptical of the findings and closely
examine the methods of the study.
You should also be skeptical of pseudoscientific research. Pseudoscience is the use of seemingly scientific
terms and demonstrations to substantiate claims that have no basis in scientific research. The claim may be
that a product or procedure will enhance your memory, relieve depression, or treat autism or post-traumatic
stress disorder. The fact that these are all worthy outcomes makes us very susceptible to believing pseudosci-
entific claims and forgetting to ask whether there is a valid scientific basis for the claims.
A good example comes from a procedure called facilitated communication that has been used by therapists
working with children with autism. These children lack verbal skills for communication; to help them commu-
nicate, a facilitator holds the child’s hand while the child presses keys to type messages on a keyboard. This
technique produces impressive results, indicating that the children are now able to express themselves. Of
course, well-designed studies revealed that the facilitators, not the children, controlled the typing. The prob-
lem with all pseudoscience is that hopes are raised and promises will not be realized. Often the techniques
can be dangerous as well. In the case of facilitated communication, a number of facilitators typed messages
accusing a parent of physically or sexually abusing the child. Some parents were actually convicted of child
abuse. In these legal cases, the scientific research on facilitated communication was used to help the defen-
dant parent. Cases such as this have led to a movement to promote the exclusive use of evidence-based ther-
apies—therapeutic interventions grounded in scientific research findings that demonstrate their effectiveness
(Brown, 2016; cf. Lilienfeld et al., 2004).
So how can you tell if a claim is pseudoscientific? It is not easy. In fact, a philosopher of science noted that
“the boundaries separating science, nonscience, and pseudoscience are much fuzzier and more permeable
than … most scientists … would have us believe” (Pigliucci, 2010). Here are a few things to look for when
evaluating claims:
▪ Claims that are untestable and therefore cannot be refuted
▪ Claims that rely on imprecise, biased, or vague language
▪ Evidence that is based on anecdotes and testimonials rather than scientific data
▪ Evidence that is from “experts” who have only vague qualifications and do not support their claims with
sound scientific evidence
▪ Claims based only on confirmatory evidence, ignoring conflicting evidence
▪ Reliance on “scientific” evidence that cannot be independently verified because the methods used to
establish that evidence have not been described
CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior 7
Finally, we are all increasingly susceptible to false reports of scientific findings circulated via the internet.
Many of these reports claim to be associated with a reputable scientist or scientific organization, and then
they take on a life of their own. A recent widely covered report, supposedly from the World Health Organiza-
tion, claimed that the gene for blond hair was being selected out of the human gene pool. Blond hair would be
a disappearing trait! General rules to follow when reading internet sites: (1) Be highly skeptical of scientific
assertions that are supported by only vague or improbable evidence, and (2) Take the time to do an internet
search for supportive evidence. At internet sites like snopes.com, truthorfiction.com, and factcheck.org/asksc
icheck/ you can check many of the claims that are on the internet.
Description of Behavior
The scientist begins with careful observation, because the first goal of science is to describe behavior—which
can be something directly observable (such as running speed, eye gaze, or loudness of laughter) or something
less observable (such as self-reports of perceptions of attractiveness). Using a written questionnaire,
researchers at the Kaiser Family Foundation (Rideout et al., 2010) collected data on the use of media (e.g.,
television, cell phones, movies) by more than 2,000 8- to 18-year-olds. One section of the questionnaire asked
about computer use. Figure 1 shows the percentage of time spent on various recreational computer activities
in a typical day. As you can see, social networking and game playing are the most common activities. This
is the sort of study that benefits from replication every few years to reveal changes that occur with new tech-
nologies and attitudes.
8 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
16%
Video 25%
sites Social
12% networking
Other
websites
19%
5% Other Playing
games
5% Graphics/ 13%
photos Instant
messaging
6% Email
FIGURE 1 Time spent on recreational computer activities by 8-18 year olds
Researchers are often interested in describing the ways in which events are systematically related to one
another. If parents place limits on their children’s recreational computer use, do their children perform better
in school? Do jurors judge attractive defendants more leniently than unattractive defendants? Are people
more likely to be persuaded by a speaker who has high credibility? In what ways do cognitive abilities change
as people grow older? Do students who study with a television set on score lower on exams than students
who study in a quiet environment? Do taller people make more money than shorter people?
Prediction of Behavior
A second goal of behavioral science is to predict behavior. Once it has been observed with some regularity
that two events are related to one another (e.g., that greater attractiveness is associated with more lenient sen-
tencing), it becomes possible to make predictions. We can anticipate events. If you read about an upcoming
trial of a very attractive defendant, you can predict that the person will likely receive a lenient sentence. Fur-
ther, the ability to make accurate predictions can help us make better decisions. For example, if you study the
behavioral science research literature on attraction and relationships, you will learn about factors that predict
long-term relationship satisfaction. You may be able to then use that information when predicting the likely
success of your own relationships. You can even complete a questionnaire designed to measure a number of
predictors of relationship success. Measures such as RELATE, FOCCUS Pre-Marriage Inventory, and PRE-
PARE can be completed by yourself, with a partner, or with the help of a professional counselor (Larson et
al., 2002).
we know that exposure to television violence is a cause of behavior, we cannot assert that aggressive behavior
can be reduced by limiting scenes of violence on television. A child who is highly aggressive may prefer to
watch violence when choosing television programs. We are now confronting questions of cause and effect: To
know how to change behavior, we need to know the causes of behavior.
Cook and Campbell (1979) describe three types of evidence (drawn from the work of philosopher John Stu-
art Mill) used to identify the cause of a behavior. It is not enough to know that two events occur together,
as in the case of knowing that watching television violence is a predictor of actual aggression. To conclude
causation, three things must hold true (see Figure 2):
1. There is a temporal order of events in which the cause precedes the effect. This is called temporal
precedence. Thus, we need to know that television viewing occurred first and aggression followed.
2. When the cause is present, the effect occurs; when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur.
This is called covariation of cause and effect. We need to know that children who watch television
violence behave aggressively and that children who do not watch television violence do not behave
aggressively.
3. Nothing other than a causal variable could be responsible for the observed effect. This is called
elimination of alternative explanations. There should be no other plausible alternative explanation for
the relationship. This third point about alternative explanations is very important: Suppose that the
children who watch a lot of television violence are left alone more than are children who do not view
television violence. In this case, the increased aggression could have an alternative explanation: lack of
parental supervision. Causation will be discussed again in the chapter “Fundamental Research Issues.”
Explanation of Behavior
A final goal of science is to explain the events that have been described. The scientist seeks to understand
why the behavior occurs. Consider the relationship between playing violent video games and aggression (APA
Task Force on Violent Media, 2015). Even if we know that playing violent video games is a cause of aggres-
siveness, we still need to explain this relationship. Is it due to imitation or “modeling” of the game violence?
Is it the result of psychological desensitization to violence and its effects? Does playing violent video games
lead to a belief that aggression is a normal response to frustration and conflict? Further research is necessary
to shed light on possible explanations of what has been observed. Usually additional research like this is car-
ried out by testing theories that are developed to explain particular behaviors.
Description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation are all closely intertwined. Determining
cause and explaining behavior are particularly closely related because it is difficult ever to know the true
cause or all the causes of any behavior. An explanation that appears satisfactory may turn out to be inade-
quate when other causes are identified in subsequent research. For example, when early research showed that
speaker credibility is related to attitude change, the researchers explained the finding by stating that people
are more willing to believe what is said by a person with high credibility than by one with low credibility.
However, this explanation has given way to a more complex theory of attitude change that takes into account
many other factors that are related to persuasion (Cooper et al., 2016; Petty et al., 2003). In short, there is a
certain amount of ambiguity in the enterprise of scientific inquiry. New research findings almost always pose
new questions that must be addressed by further research; explanations of behavior often must be discarded
or revised as new evidence is gathered. Such ambiguity is part of the excitement and fun of science.
10 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
Temporal Precedence
Playing Violent
Aggression
Video Games
Time
Covariation of Cause and Effect
Playing Violent
Aggression
Video Games
No Violent
No Aggression
Video Games
Alternative Explanations
Playing Violent
Aggression
Video Games
Lack of Parental
Supervision
Check Your Learning: Practice Exercise #1 gives you a chance to test your understanding of the
distinctions among these four goals of science.
Basic Research
Basic research tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Studies are often designed
to address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, motivation, learning, per-
sonality, development, and social behavior. Here are descriptions of a few journal articles that pertain to
some basic research questions:
Brothers, T., & Traxler, M. J. (2016). Anticipating syntax during reading: Evidence from the boundary
change paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42(12),
1894–1906. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000257
When reading, you focus on text in the center of your visual field. However, you may also “pre-
process” words that are just beyond the central focus; this is called the parafovea. This effect occurs
even though the text lacks the clarity of the text in the center of the field of vision. The Brothers and
Traxler (2016) study demonstrated that participants process not just the words in the parafovea but
also their meaning. For example, sentences with valid syntax in the parafovea, such as “The admiral
would not confess,” were read more quickly than sentences with invalid syntax, such as “The admiral
would not surgeon.”
Butler, L. P., Schmidt, M. F. H., Tavassolie, N. S., & Gibbs, H. M. (2018). Children’s evaluation of
verified and unverified claims. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 176(1), 73–83.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.07.007
Do children as young as 3 to 5 years old distinguish between claims based on verified evidence and
claims that have no supporting evidence? In their research, Butler et al. (2018) presented male and
female children with a story involving two animal characters. In one of three test conditions, the
characters discover a container outside their homes. One character looks inside the container and
announces what’s in the container; the other character declares the contents without looking in the
container. The children then rated the claims on an acceptability scale ranging from “okay” to “not
okay.” For all the 3- to 5-year-old children, the evidence-based claim was rated more acceptable. This
effect was greater for 4-year-olds than for 3-year-olds and greater still for the 5-year-olds.
Mace, J. H., McQueen, M. L., Hayslett, K. E., Staley, B. J. A., & Welch, T. J. (2019). Semantic
memories prime autobiographical memories: General implications and implications for everyday
autobiographical remembering. Memory & Cognition, 47(2), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.3758/
s13421-018-0866-9
12 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
The researchers studied whether activation of a semantic memory (general knowledge) will activate
related autobiographic memories (memories of personal experiences). In the first part of the experi-
ment, participants were presented with a word familiarity task in which they might see a word such
as summer. Later, they completed an autobiographical memory task with no limits on the topic of
the memories. Compared to a control group that did not take part in the word familiarity task, the
semantic priming word (e.g., summer) did influence the participants’ autobiographical memories
(summer-related personal memories).
Applied Research
The research articles listed above were concerned with basic processes of behavior and cognition rather than
any immediate practical implications. In contrast, applied research is conducted to address issues in which
there are practical problems and potential solutions. To illustrate, here are a few summaries of journal articles
about applied research:
Rosen, C. C., Simon, L. S., Gajendran, R. S., Johnson, R. E., Lee, H. W., & Lin, S.-H. (Joanna). (2019).
Boxed in by your inbox: Implications of daily e-mail demands for managers’ leadership behaviors.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(1), 19–33. https://doi.org /10.1037/apl0000343
A common source of work stress is the overwhelming demands of incoming email messages. This
study measured email demands among 48 managers enrolled in a university Executive Master of
Business Administration program. Using the Experience Sampling Method (EMS), the researchers
asked participants to complete two surveys each day for 10 consecutive workdays. The first survey
arrived at the end of the morning and asked about the morning email demands and the manager's
progress in meeting work goals up to that point in the day. Another survey at the end of the day mea-
sured the extent to which managers had engaged in behaviors reflecting outstanding leadership. As
predicted, higher morning email demands were related to perceptions of lower goal progress. And
the end-of-day surveys revealed that the morning demands were associated with fewer leadership
behaviors.
Tauber, S. K., Witherby, A. E., Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Putnam, A. L., & Roediger, H. L., III.
(2018). Does covert retrieval benefit learning of key-term definitions? Journal of Applied Research in
Memory and Cognition, 7(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.10.004
Past research demonstrated that practicing recall of material results in superior recall in contrast
with simply re-reading the same material. This study used the key-term definitions that are often
found at the end of textbook chapters. The researchers were interested in whether the type of recall
practice had an effect on actual recall later (as in a class exam). One group of participants studied
the definitions and then used overt practice (typing the definitions). A second group used covert
practice (mentally rehearsing the definitions). Another group did not practice recall; instead they
simply restudied the definitions. On the final recall test taken later, participants using overt practice
had higher scores than those in either of the other conditions. Typing the definitions proved superior
to mental practice or restudy.
Guzzo, K. B., & Hayford, S. R. (2018). Adolescent reproductive and contraceptive knowledge and
attitudes and adult contraceptive behavior. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(1), 32–40.
https://doi.org /10.1007/s10995-017-2351-7
CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior 13
A major area of applied research is called program evaluation, which assesses the social reforms and
innovations that occur in government, education, the criminal justice system, industry, health care,
and mental health institutions. In an influential paper on “reforms as experiments,” Campbell
(1969) noted that social programs are really experiments designed to achieve certain outcomes. He
argued persuasively that social scientists should evaluate each program to determine whether it is
having its intended effect. If it is not, alternative programs should be tried. This is an important
point that people in all organizations too often fail to remember when new ideas are implemented;
the scientific approach dictates that new programs should be evaluated. Here are two sample journal
articles about program evaluation:
Peterson, K., Sharps, P., Banyard, V., Powers, R. A., Kaukinen, C., Gross, D., … & Campbell, J. (2018).
An evaluation of two dating violence prevention programs on a college campus. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 33(23), 3630–3655. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516636069
Alarm over dating violence on college campuses has led to the development of programs designed to
raise awareness and provide skills that might reduce the incidence of violence. This study compared
two dating violence prevention programs presented to first-year college students. One was a
90-minute bystander education program designed to provide bystanders of violence with motivation
and skills to intervene. The other program was a traditional education program focused on aware-
ness of the problem. In addition, there was a no education control group. All students completed
measures of rape myth acceptance, beliefs about the effectiveness of bystanders, and intentions to
help in a dating violence situation. Both programs were superior to no education in changing atti-
tudes and intentions; the bystander education program was superior to the traditional education pro-
gram.
Schwinn, T. M., Schinke, S. P., Hopkins, J., Keller, B., & Liu, X. (2018). An online drug abuse
prevention program for adolescent girls: Posttest and 1-year outcomes. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 47(3), 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0714-4
Because drug abuse among early adolescent girls is increasing, an online program was designed to
reduce drug use in this population. The program was presented online to a national sample of 788
13- and 14-year-old girls. The girls were assigned to participate in the program or a control condition
with no intervention. The program consisted of nine sessions with particular attention paid to gen-
der-specific aspects of drug use. A variety of measures were completed prior to the program, immedi-
ately after completion, and at a 1-year follow-up. These included drug/alcohol use, self-esteem, stress
coping skills, and ability to refuse drug offers. The program had positive effects as measured immedi-
ately and one year later.
Much applied research is conducted in settings such as large business firms, marketing research com-
panies, government agencies, and public polling organizations and is not published but instead is
used within the company or by clients of the company. Whether or not such results are published,
14 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
however, they are used to help people make better decisions concerning problems that require imme-
diate action.
Check Your Learning: In Practice Exercise #2, test your understanding of the distinction between basic
and applied research.
Behavioral research is important in many fields and has significant applications to public policy. This chapter
has introduced you to the major goals and general types of research. All researchers use scientific methods,
whether they are interested in basic research, applied research, or program evaluation. The themes and con-
cepts in this chapter will be expanded in the remainder of the book. They will be the basis on which you
evaluate the research of others and plan your own research projects.
CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior 15
Most chapters in this book include a chapter-closing feature called Illustrative Article, which is
designed to relate some of the key points in the chapter to a published journal article. In each case,
you will be asked to obtain a copy of the article using some of the skills that will be presented in our
discussion in the chapter “Where to Start.” Then, you will be asked to read the article and answer
some questions that are closely aligned with the material in the chapter.
For our first illustrative article, acquire and read this article. Tip: You will find a pre-publication copy
of the article using this link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/20979/1/FictionalMemories 19-04-18.pdf
Akhtar, S., Justice, L. V., Morrison, C. M., & Conway, M. A. (2018). Fictional first memories.
Psychological Science, 29(10), 1612–1619. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618778831
After reading the article, answer the following questions (which will be familiar to you from earlier in
this chapter!):
1. “What was measured?” All studies in the behavioral sciences start with measurement:
identifying the important concepts to be studied, and figuring out how to measure them. This is
related to the concept of construct validity, which will be covered in depth in later chapters.
2. “How do they know that one thing caused another?” Many times—particularly in popular
media—there will be the claim that one thing causes another. It’s always important to ask: How
do they know? This is related to the concept of internal validity, which will be covered in later
chapters.
3. “To what or whom can we generalize the results?” This is related to the concept of external
validity, which will be covered in later chapters.
4. “Have other researchers found similar results?” A single study can be interesting, but scientific
progress involves the accumulation of studies. We can be more confident in a study if other
studies have found the same thing.
5. Finally, answer the following questions:
a. Would you describe this study being applied research or basic research? Why?
b. Which goal of science (description, prediction, causation, explanation) do you think is
primarily targeted by this article? Why?
1. Read several editorials in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, USA Today, Washington
Post, or another major metropolitan news publication and identify the sources used to support
the assertions and conclusions. Did the writer use intuition, appeals to authority, scientific
evidence, or a combination of these? Give specific examples.
2. Imagine a debate on the following statement: “Behavioral scientists should only conduct
research that has immediate practical applications.” Develop “pro” and “con”
arguments—arguments that support or oppose the assertion.
3. Imagine a debate on the following statement: “Knowledge of research methods is unnecessary
for students who intend to pursue careers in clinical and counseling psychology.” Develop “pro”
16 CHAPTER 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
Practice Exercise #1
For the five studies briefly described below, identify the primary goal of science that seems
designed to achieve: (a) description, (b) prediction, (c) determination of cause, or (d) understand/
explain.
Practice Exercise #2
CHAPTER REVIEW
Review Questions
1. Why is it important for anyone in our society to have knowledge of research methods?
2. Why is scientific skepticism useful in furthering our understanding of behavior?
3. How does the scientific approach differ from other ways of gaining knowledge about behavior?
4. Provide (a) definitions and (b) examples of description, prediction, determination of cause, and
explanation as goals of scientific research.
5. Describe the three elements for inferring causation. Describe the characteristics of scientific inquiry,
according to Goodstein (2000).
6. How does basic research differ from applied research?
Study Terms
Alternative explanations Goals of behavioral science
Applied research Intuition
Authority Peer review
Basic research Program evaluation
Covariation of cause and effect Pseudoscience
Empiricism Skepticism
Falsifiability Temporal precedence
Practice Exercise #1
1. b; 2. c; 3. d; 4. a; 5. c
Practice Exercise #2
basic = 1, 3, 4; applied = 2, 5, 6
2 Where to Start
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
▪ Discuss how research questions, hypotheses, and predictions are related.
▪ Describe the different sources of ideas for research, including common sense, observation, theories, past
research, and practical problems.
▪ Identify the two functions of a theory.
▪ Describe the three kinds of research reports.
▪ Summarize the information included in the abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion
sections of research articles.
▪ Summarize the fundamentals of exploring past research in psychology, including the use of PsycINFO.
20 CHAPTER 2: Where to Start
The motivation to conduct scientific research comes from a natural curiosity about the world. Most people
have their first experience with research when their curiosity leads them to ask, “I wonder what would happen
if …” or “I wonder why …,” followed by an attempt to answer the question. What are the sources of inspiration
for such questions? How do you find out about other people’s ideas and past research? In this chapter, we
will explore some sources of scientific ideas. We will also consider the nature of research reports published
in professional journals.
procedure for observing student driving on campus and made predictions about the outcome. For example,
“Drivers with a passenger in the car will be less likely to be using a cell phone than those driving alone.”
Specific
Females are more likely
A deliberate guess at the
Prediction to use a cell phone while
answer to the hypothesis
driving
Check Your Learning: Practice Exercise #1 will help you tease apart question, hypothesis, and
prediction.
SOURCES OF IDEAS
Each day seems to bring us some type of information about a phenomenon related to human behavior. This
information may arrive on an internet news site, a tweet or Facebook post, a television program, or even a
printed magazine. The topic might be a description of an individual’s experience of trauma with a discussion
of possible effects, the potential benefits of delaying age of first marriage, or an assertion that a vegetarian diet
improves cognitive functioning. It is not easy to say where good ideas come from. Many people are capable of
coming up with worthwhile ideas but find it difficult to verbalize the process by which they are generated. Car-
toonists know this—they show a brilliant idea as a lightbulb flashing over the person’s head. But where does
the electricity come from? Let’s consider five sources of ideas: common sense, practical problems, observa-
tion of the world around us, theories, and past research.
Common Sense
One source of ideas that can be tested is the body of knowledge called common sense—the things we all
believe to be true. Do “opposites attract”? Do “birds of a feather flock together”? If you “spare the rod,” do
you “spoil the child”? Is “a picture worth a thousand words”? Asking questions such as these can lead to
22 CHAPTER 2: Where to Start
research programs studying attraction, the effects of punishment, and the role of visual images in learning
and memory.
Testing a commonsense idea can be valuable because such notions do not always turn out to be correct, or
research may show that the real world is much more complicated than our commonsense ideas would have
it. For example, pictures can aid memory under certain circumstances, but sometimes pictures detract from
learning (see Levin, 1983). Conducting research to test commonsense ideas often forces us to go beyond a
commonsense theory of behavior.
Practical Problems
Research is also stimulated by practical problems that can have immediate applications. On a larger scale,
researchers have guided public policy by conducting research on obesity and eating disorders, as well as other
social and health issues. Such problems may be local and highly specific; for example, groups of city planners
and citizens might survey bike riders to determine the most desirable route for a bike path. Other problems
may be applicable to much larger problems and populations such as early childhood education, substance
abuse, domestic violence, and suicide prevention.
and took a scientific approach to testing his ideas. His research illustrates that taking a scientific approach to
a problem can lead to new discoveries and important applications.
Finally, we should mention the role of serendipity—sometimes the most interesting discoveries are the result
of accident or sheer luck. Ivan Pavlov is best known for discovering what is called classical conditioning,
wherein a neutral stimulus (such as a tone), if paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (such as
food) that produces a reflex response (such as salivation), will eventually produce the response when pre-
sented alone. Pavlov did not set out to discover classical conditioning. Instead, he was studying the digestive
system in dogs by measuring their salivation when given food. He accidentally discovered that the dogs were
salivating prior to the actual feeding and then studied the ways in which the stimuli preceding the feeding
could produce a salivation response. Of course, such accidental discoveries are made only when viewing the
world with an inquisitive eye.
Theories
Much research in the behavioral sciences tests theories of behavior. A theory consists of a systematic body of
ideas about a particular topic or phenomenon. Psychologists have theories relating to human behavior, learn-
ing, memory, and personality, for example. These ideas form a coherent and logically consistent structure
that serves two important functions.
First, theories organize and explain a variety of specific facts or descriptions of behavior. Such facts and
descriptions are not very meaningful by themselves, and so theories are needed to impose a framework on
them. This framework makes the world more comprehensible by providing a few abstract concepts around
which we can organize and explain a variety of behaviors. As an example, consider how Charles Darwin’s the-
ory of evolution organized and explained a variety of facts concerning the characteristics of animal species.
Similarly, in psychology one classic theory of memory asserts that there are separate systems of short-term
memory and long-term memory. This theory accounts for a number of specific observations about learning
and memory, including such phenomena as the different types of memory deficits that result from a blow to
the head versus damage to the hippocampus area of the brain and the rate at which a person forgets material
he or she has just read.
Second, theories generate new knowledge by focusing our thinking so that we notice new aspects of behav-
ior—theories guide our observations of the world. The theory generates hypotheses about behavior, and the
researcher conducts studies to test the hypotheses. If the studies confirm the hypotheses, the theory is sup-
ported. As more and more evidence accumulates that is consistent with the theory, we become more confi-
dent that the theory is correct.
Sometimes people describe a theory as “just an idea” that may or may not be true. We need to separate
this use of the term—which implies that a theory is essentially the same as a hypothesis—from the scientific
meaning of theory. A scientific theory consists of much more than a simple “idea.” A scientific theory is
grounded in actual data from prior research as well as numerous hypotheses that are consistent with the the-
ory. These hypotheses can be tested through further research. Such testable hypotheses are falsifiable—the
data can either support or refute the hypotheses. As a theory develops with more and more evidence that
supports the theory, it is wrong to say that it is “just an idea.” Instead, the theory becomes well established
as it enables us to explain a great many observable facts. It is true that research may reveal a weakness in a
theory when a hypothesis generated by the theory is not supported. When this happens, the theory can be
modified to account for the new data. Sometimes a new theory will emerge that accounts for both new data
and the existing body of knowledge. This process defines the way in which science continually develops with
new data that expand our knowledge of the world around us.
24 CHAPTER 2: Where to Start
Evolutionary theory has influenced our understanding of sexual attraction and mating patterns (Buss, 2011).
For example, Buss describes a well-established finding that males experience more intense feelings of jeal-
ousy when a partner has a sexual relationship with someone else (sexual infidelity) than when the partner
has developed an emotional bond only (emotional infidelity); females, in contrast, are more jealous when
the partner has engaged in emotional infidelity rather than sexual infidelity. This finding is consistent with
evolutionary theory, which asserts that males and females have evolved different strategies for mate selec-
tion. All individuals have an evolutionary interest in passing their genes on to future generations. However,
females have relatively few opportunities to reproduce, have a limited age range during which to reproduce,
and traditionally have had to assume major child-care responsibilities. Males, in contrast, can reproduce at
any time and have a reproductive advantage in that they can produce more offspring than a given female can.
Because of these differences, the theory predicts that females and males will have different perspectives on
infidelity. Females will be more threatened if the partner might no longer provide support and resources for
childrearing by developing an emotional bond with another partner. Males are more distressed if it is possible
that they will be caring for a child who does not share their genes. Although research supports evolutionary
theory, alternative theories can be developed that may better explain the same findings.
Levy and Kelly (2010) suggest that attachment theory may provide a better explanation. They point out that
males and females differ in their level of attachment in relationships. Also, females in general show greater
attachment than males do. From the perspective of attachment theory, the amount of attachment will be
related to the distress experienced by an instance of emotional infidelity. Research by Levy and Kelly found
that high-attachment individuals were most upset by emotional infidelity; individuals with low attachment to
the relationship were more distressed by sexual infidelity. These findings will lead to more research to test the
two theoretical perspectives.
Theories are usually modified as new research defines the scope of the theory. The necessity of modifying
theories is illustrated by the theory of short-term versus long-term memory. In the original conception, the
long-term memory system was described as a storehouse of permanent, fixed memories. However, now-clas-
sic research by cognitive psychologists, including Loftus (1979), has shown that memories are easily recon-
structed and reinterpreted. In one study, participants watched a film of an automobile accident and later were
asked to tell what they saw in the film. Loftus found that participants’ memories were influenced by the way
they were questioned. For example, participants who were asked whether they saw “the” broken headlight
were more likely to answer yes than were participants who were asked whether they saw “a” broken headlight.
Results such as these have required a more complex theory of how long-term memory operates.
Past Research
Another source of ideas is past research. Becoming familiar with a body of research on a topic is perhaps
the best way to generate ideas for new research. Because the results of research are published, researchers
can use the body of past literature on a topic to continually refine and expand our knowledge. Virtually every
study raises questions that can be addressed in subsequent research. The research may lead to an attempt
to apply the findings in a different setting, to study the topic with a different age group, or to use a differ-
ent methodology to replicate the results. In the Cramer et al. (2007) study on cell phone use while driving,
trained observers noted cell phone use of 3,650 students leaving campus parking structures during a 3-hour
period on two different days. They reported that 11% of all drivers were using cell phones. Females were more
likely than males to be using a cell phone, and drivers with passengers were less likely than solitary drivers to
be talking on a phone. Knowledge of this study might lead to research on ways to reduce students’ cell phone
use while driving.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
after was rayned at the kynge’s benche, and caste, and afterwarde
hanged.”
And what does the reader think the moral is? Some reflection,
perhaps, upon the impunity of those attached to the great, with a hint
at God’s judgment against unjust judges? No such thing:—“By this
ye may see that every wyse man ought to take hede that he sende
nat a folyssche seruante vpon a hasty message that is a matter of
nede.” Not a bad specimen of the morality of the good old times.
Those who would amuse themselves with more monkeyana of
ancient date, will find some choice passages in Erasmus, Porta, and
others; and may learn how a monkey may occasionally supersede
the use of a comb—what a horror monkeys have of tortoises and
snails—how violent is the antipathy between the cock and the ape—
and how both of these were added to the serpent and introduced into
the deadly sack wherein the matricide was inclosed to suffer the
frightful punishment awarded to his unnatural act. But we beg to offer
the following trifle, showing how a monkey can behave at a dinner-
table:—
In a country town, no matter where, there lived the worthiest and
most philosophical of old bachelors, with a warm heart and a sound
head, from whose well-powdered exterior dangled that most
respectable ornament a queue. Long did this august appendage,
now no longer seen, linger among the Benchers of the inns of court.
Two worthies we have yet in our eye—Ultimi Caudatorum! with what
veneration do we look up to ye! with what fear and trembling did we
regard the progress of the influenza!—the destroying angel has
passed by, and the tails still depend from your “frosty pows,”
blessings on ’em!
Pardon the digression; and return we to our bachelor, who
entertained a monkey of such good breeding and so much
discretion, that Jacko was permitted to make one at the dinner-table,
where he was seated in a high child’s chair next to his master, and
took off his glass of perry and water in the same time and measure
with his patron, and in as good a style as Dominie Sampson himself
could have performed the feat. Now, his master’s housekeeper made
the best preserved apricots in the county, and when the said apricots
were enshrined in a tart, the golden fruit set off by the
superincumbent trellis, a more tempting piece of pâtisserie could
hardly be laid before man or monkey. One of these tarts enriched the
board at a small dinner-party, and was placed nearly opposite to
Jacko, who occupied his usual station. The host helped one and
another to some of this exquisite tart, but he forgot poor Jacko, who
had been devouring it with his eyes, and was too well-bred to make
any indecorous snatch at the attraction, as most monkeys would
have done. At last Jacko could stand it no longer, so looking to the
right and left, and finally fixing his eyes on the guests opposite, he
quietly lifted up his hand behind his master’s back, and gave his tail
such a tug as made the powder fly, withdrew his hand in an instant,
and sat with a vacant expression of the greatest innocence. People
don’t like to have their tails pulled. His master gave him a look, and
Jacko gave him another, but even the eloquent expression of
Hogarth’s monkey on the offending bear’s back fell short of it. It said
as plainly as look could speak—“Don’t be angry—don’t thrash me—
they did not see it—I beg your pardon, but I must have a bit of that
apricot tart:”—he was forgiven and helped.
Authors generally seem to think that the monkey race are not
capable of retaining lasting impressions; but their memory is
remarkably tenacious when striking events call it into action.
One that in his zeal for imitation had swallowed the entire contents
of a pill-box—the cathartics, fortunately, were not Morisonian—
suffered so much, that ever afterwards the production of such a box
sent him to his hiding-place in a twinkling.
Another that was permitted to run free had frequently seen the
men-servants in the great country kitchen, with its huge fireplace,
take down a powder-horn that stood on the chimney-piece, and
throw a few grains into the fire, to make Jemima and the rest of the
maids jump and scream, which they always did on such occasions
very prettily. Pug watched his opportunity, and when all was still, and
he had the kitchen entirely to himself, he clambered up, got
possession of the well-filled powder-horn, perched himself very
gingerly on one of the horizontal wheels placed for the support of
saucepans, right over the waning ashes of an almost extinct wood-
fire, screwed off the top of the horn, and reversed it over the grate.
The explosion sent him half-way up the chimney. Before he was
blown up he was a smug, trim, well-conditioned monkey as you
would wish to see on a summer’s day: he came down a
carbonadoed nigger in miniature, in an avalanche of burning soot.
The à plomb with which he pitched upon the hot ashes in the midst
of the general flare-up aroused him to a sense of his condition. He
was missing for days. Hunger at last drove him forth, and he
sneaked into the house close-singed, begrimed, and looking scared
and devilish. He recovered with care, but, like some other great
personages, he never got over his sudden elevation and fall, but
became a sadder if not a wiser monkey. If ever pug forgot himself
and was troublesome, you had only to take down a powder-horn in
his presence, and he was off to his hole like a shot, screaming and
clattering his jaws like a pair of castanets.
Le Vaillant, in his African travels, was accompanied by an ape,
which lived on very good terms with the cocks and hens, showing, in
defiance of the legend, no antipathy to the former, and a strong
penchant for the latter, for whose cacklings he listened, and whose
eggs he stole. But this and other peccadillos were amply atoned for
by the bonhommie and other good qualities of Kees, for that was the
name of the traveller’s ape, which seems to have almost realised the
virtues of Philip Quarl’s monkey.
“An animal,” says Le Vaillant in his first voyage, just after speaking
of the benefits that he derived from his gallant chanticleer, “that
rendered me more essential services; which, by its useful presence,
suspended and even dissipated certain bitter and disagreeable
reflections that occurred to my mind, which by its simple and striking
instinct seemed to anticipate my efforts, and which comforted me in
my languor—was an ape, of that kind so common at the Cape, under
the name of Bawians. As it was extremely familiar, and attached
itself to me in a particular manner, I made it my taster. When we
found any fruit or roots unknown to my Hottentots, we never touched
them until my dear Kees had first tasted them: if it refused them we
judged them to be either disagreeable or dangerous, and threw them
away.
“An ape has one peculiarity which distinguishes it from all other
animals, and brings it very near to man. It has received from nature
an equal share of greediness and curiosity: though destitute of
appetite, it tastes without necessity every kind of food that is offered
to it; and always lays its paw upon everything it finds within its reach.
“There was another quality in Kees which I valued still more. He
was my best guardian; and whether by night or by day he instantly
awoke on the least sign of danger. By his cries, and other
expressions of fear, we were always informed of the approach of an
enemy before my dogs could discover it: they were so accustomed
to his voice that they slept in perfect security, and never went the
rounds; on which account I was extremely angry, fearing that I
should no longer find that indispensable assistance which I had a
right to expect, if any disorder or fatal accident should deprive me of
my faithful guardian. However, when he had once given the alarm,
they all stopped to watch the signal; and on the least motion of his
eyes, or shaking of his head, I have seen them all rush forward, and
scamper away in the quarter to which they observed his looks
directed.
“I often carried him along with me in my hunting excursions, during
which he would amuse himself in climbing up trees, in order to
search for gum, of which he was remarkably fond. Sometimes he
discovered honey in the crevices of rocks, or in hollow trees; but
when he found nothing, when fatigue and exercise had whetted his
appetite, and when he began to be seriously oppressed by hunger, a
scene took place which to me appeared extremely comic. When he
could not find gum and honey he searched for roots, and ate them
with much relish; especially one of a particular species, which,
unfortunately for me, I found excellent and very refreshing, and
which I greatly wished to partake of. But Kees was very cunning:
when he found any of this root, if I was not near him to claim my part,
he made great haste to devour it, having his eyes all the while
directed towards me. By the distance I had to go before I could
approach him, be judged of the time he had to eat it alone; and I,
indeed, arrived too late. Sometimes, however, when he was
deceived in his calculation, and when I came upon him sooner than
he expected, he instantly endeavoured to conceal the morsels from
me; but by means of a blow well applied I compelled him to restore
the theft; and in my turn becoming master of the envied prey, he was
obliged to receive laws from the stronger party. Kees entertained no
hatred or rancour; and I easily made him comprehend how
detestable that base selfishness was of which he had set me an
example.”
This is all very fine, but we confess that we think poor Kees hardly
used in this matter; nor are we aware of any law, written or unwritten,
human or Simian, by which the conversion of the root, which he had
sagaciously found, to his own use could be made a theft, or by which
the prize could be ravished from him, except, indeed, by the “good
old law” that “sufficeth” people in such cases—
We have already stated that the South American monkeys are all
blessed with tails, but they are deprived of those brilliant blue and
red callosities which give so much splendour to the integuments of
many of the Old World family, and recall sometimes a part of the
costume of a certain unearthly pedestrian; for his femoral
habiliments
“were blue,
And there was a hole where the tail came through.”
Neither do they rejoice in cheek pouches: they are, consequently,
unable to keep anything in the corner of their jaws, or to furnish forth
any rebuke to the Rosencrantzes and Guildensterns of the several
courts in this best of all possible worlds.
When Humboldt and Bonpland landed at Cumana they saw the
first troops of Araguatos, Mycetes Ursinus (it is nearly three feet in
length, without including the tail), as they journeyed to the mountains
of Cocallor and the celebrated cavern of Guacharo. The forests that
surrounded the convent of Caripe, which is highly elevated, and
where the centigrade thermometer fell to 70° during the night,
abounded with them, and their mournful howling was heard,
particularly in open weather or before rain or storms, at the distance
of half a league. Upwards of forty of this gregarious species were
counted upon one tree on the banks of the Apure; and Humboldt
declares his conviction that, in a square league of these
wildernesses, more than two thousand may be found. Melancholy is
the expression of the creature’s eye, listless is its gait, and dismal is
its voice. The young ones never play in captivity like the Sagoins; no,
“The Araguato de los Cumanenses,” as the worthy Lopez de
Gomara voucheth, “hath the face of a man, the beard of a goat, and
a staid behaviour,” such, in short, as may well beseem the possessor
of such a “powerful organ,” as the newspaper critics have it.
We will endeavour, with Humboldt’s assistance, to convey to the
reader some idea of the structure of this sonorous instrument. That
most observing traveller states that the bony case of the os hyoïdes,
or bone of the tongue, in the Mona Colorado is, in size, equal to four
cubic inches (water measurement). The larynx, or windpipe,
consisting of six pouches, ten lines in length and from three to five in
depth, is slightly attached by muscular fibres. The pouches are like
those of the little whistling monkeys, squirrels, and some birds.
Above these pouches are two others, the lips or borders of which are
of a yellowish cast; these are the pyramidal sacs which are formed
by membranous partitions and enter into the bony case. Into these
sacs, which are from three to four inches in length and terminate in a
point, the air is driven; the fifth pouch is in the aperture of the
arytenoïd cartilage, and is situated between the pyramidal sacs, of
the same form but shorter; and the sixth pouch is formed by the bony
drum itself: within this drum the voice acquires the doleful tone
above alluded to.
The Quata, or, as the French write the word, Coaita (Ateles
paniscus), is said to unite activity with intelligence, gentleness,
prudence, and penetration. To be sure the Quatas will, when they
meet with a learned traveller, or any other strange animal, descend
to the lower branches of their trees, to examine the phenomenon,
and, when they have satisfied their curiosity, pelt the phenomenon
aforesaid to get rid of him or it; but that they be sensible and
trustworthy is proved by Acosta, who has immortalised the Quata
belonging to the Governor of Carthagena. This domestic was
regularly sent to the tavern for wine. They who sent him put an
empty pot into one hand, and the money into the other; whereupon
he went spidering along to the tavern, where they could by no means
get his money from him till they had filled his pot with wine. As this
Ganymede of the Governor came back with his charge, certain idle
children would occasionally meet him in the street and cast stones at
him; whereupon he would set down his pot and cast stones at them,
“till he had assured his way, then would he return to carry home his
pot. And what is more, although he was a good bibber of wine, yet
would he never touch it till leave was given him.” We are sorry to add
that this amiable genus is considered very good eating. Humboldt
frequently saw the broiled limbs of the Marimonda in the huts of the
natives on the Orinoco; and, at Emeralda, he found in an Indian hut
a collation of their roasted and dried bodies, prepared as the pièces
de résistance for a “harvest home.”
Of the Cebi, the Horned Sapajou (Cebus Albifrons), with the hair
of its forehead standing up so as to give the animal the appearance
of having a London waterman’s cap on, is one of the largest, while
the Ouavapavi des cataractes, which is very mild and intelligent, is of
small size. We remember once to have heard of a sort of compact
which was said to have been entered into between a monkey and a
pig, the latter of which carried the monkey a certain number of times
round an orchard, in consideration of the monkey’s climbing the
apple-trees, and giving them a shake for the benefit of the porker.
Though not very old at the time, we gave the narrator credit for being
blessed with a very lively imagination, albeit the story was told
gravely and vouched as a fact. But Humboldt actually saw, at
Maypures, one of these domesticated Ouavapavis obtaining his
rides apparently without any such understanding; for this clever
monkey used to bide his time, and every morning caught a luckless
pig, which he compelled to perform the part of his horse. Seated on
pigback did he majestically ride about, the whole day, clinging to his
bristly steed as firmly as ever the Old Man of the Sea clung to
Sinbad, not even giving poor piggy a respite at meal times, but
continually bestriding him all the time he was feeding in the savanna
that surrounded the Indian huts. A missionary had another of these
riders; but the missionary’s monkey had laid the strong hand of
possession on a comfortable cat which had been brought up with
him, carried him well, and bore all his felestrian exploits with
patience and good-humour.
The tail, which has become less and less prehensile in the genera
last noticed, becomes in Callithrix no longer capable of use as a
support. The pretty playful little Siamiri, whose length hardly exceeds
ten inches exclusive of the tail, which reaches thirteen or fourteen,
winds that appendage like a boa round its body and limbs, reminding
the zoologist in some degree of the mode in which the white-fronted
Lemur disposes of his; and we now begin to observe, moreover,
traces of insectivorous and carnivorous appetite. The Macavacahow,
at the sight of a bird, is roused at once from its apparent apathy;
darting on its victim like a cat, it secures the prize, and swallows it in
an instant, with all the actions that mark the beast of prey.
In the Dourocouli, the Cara rayada of the missionaries, we
observe traces of the cat in appearance, voice, and manners. This
curious animal is nine inches in length; and its tail, which is hairy, but
not prehensile, is about fourteen; the head is large and round; the
muzzle short; the eyes very large; but there is no apparent external
ear. Three dark stripes are drawn on the head, and come down in
front, the centre stripe on the forehead and the two lateral ones
reaching to the rounded corners of the eyebrows.
The animal is, during the day, “a huge sleeper,” whence its name
“Mono Dormillon.” Humboldt, notwithstanding the warning of the
natives, that the Dourocoulis will tear out the eyes of slumbering
men, kept one in his bedroom. It slept regularly from nine in the
morning till seven at night; and sometimes it went to sleep at
daybreak. It hated the light, and, when disturbed, the lethargic
animal could scarcely raise its heavy white eyelids; and its large
eyes, which, at nightfall, were lighted up like those of an owl, were
lustreless. It must have been but a restless companion for the night:
then it was all exertion and activity, made wild noises, and was
constantly jumping up against the walls. It lived for five months, but
all attempts to tame it were fruitless.
The Dourocoulis are captured during the day by the natives, when
they are fast asleep in some hollow tree. The male and female are
often taken in the same hole, for they live in pairs. In a state of
nature they pursue small birds and insects, not neglecting
vegetables, almost every kind of which they will eat. Humboldt’s
specimen was very fond of flies, which it caught dexterously, and
would even sometimes rouse itself for this chase on a gloomy day.
Its night-cry resembled that of the Jaguar, and it is thence called Titi-
tigre. The mewing notes which it occasionally sends forth remind the
hearer of a cat, and this resemblance is heightened when the head
of a Douroucouli in a state of irritation swells, and the animal hisses
or spits, throws itself into the position of a cat when attacked by a
dog, and strikes quick and cat-like with its paw. Its voice is very
powerful for its size. In the Leoncito, whose body does not exceed
seven or eight inches in length, we have much of the appearance of
a tiny lion.
But it is in the genus Pithecia that we have the nearest approach
to human likeness. There are some strong resemblances in the
Couxio; but, as Humboldt well observes, of all the monkeys of
America, the Capuchin of the Orinoco bears the greatest similitude in
its features to man. There are the eyes with their mingled expression
of melancholy and fierceness; there is the long thick beard; and, as
this last conceals the chin, the facial angle appears much less than it
really is. Strong, active, fierce, the Capuchin is tamed with the
greatest difficulty, and, when angered, he raises himself on his
hinder extremities, grinds his teeth in his wrath, and leaps around his
antagonist with threatening gestures. If any malicious person wishes
to see this Homunculus in a most devouring rage, let him wet the
Capuchin’s beard, and he will find that such an act is the
unforgivable sin. There is one point, indeed, wherein our monkey
differs from civilised man—he very seldom drinks; but, when he
does, the similarity returns. Unlike the other American monkeys,
which bring their lips to the liquid, the Capuchin lifts the water in the
hollow of his hand, inclines his head upon his shoulder, and, carrying
the draught to his mouth in the cup of Diogenes, drains it with great
deliberation. This appears to be his mode of drinking in a state of
nature; and Humboldt thinks that it is adopted to prevent the wetting
of the beard which renders the animal furious, and which could not
be avoided if the lips were applied in the usual Simian mode. Our
friend the Capuchin is about two feet nine, bushy tail and all, of a
brownish red colour, the hair of the body being long, and that on the
forehead having a direction forwards. The beard, which arises below
the ears, is brown, inclining to black, and covers the upper part of the
breast. His large sunken eyes are overarched with well-marked
brows, and his nails are bent, with the exception of those on his
thumbs. He is not gregarious, and is seldom found in company with
his female.
We must not omit to notice another of these Pitheciæ with black
face and hands and a shorter tail, having a good deal of the general
aspect in miniature of one of those respectable, ancient, withered
negroes, who, after a long life of slavery, find themselves, in their old
age, transmuted, by legislative magic, into apprentices. This species,
which is termed the Cacajao, is hardly more than a foot long. It is
voracious, weak, very lazy, mild, easily frightened, and lives in troops
in the forests.
In Callathrix and Aotes the carnivorous propensity and character
are, as we have seen, joined to the general habits of the monkey;
and we proceed to finish this imperfect sketch of the American
Simiadæ by calling the reader’s attention to forms distinguished by a
union of that character and propensity with squirrel-like manners.
Such are the genera Hapales and Midas. To the latter belong the
pretty diminutive Marikina or Silky Monkey and the Leoncito before
alluded to. These, though their way of life is but little ascertained, are
supposed hardly ever to quit the trees.
Of the debonnaire Ouistiti or Sanglain much more is known. This
small, delicate creature, with its rich pale grey coat, and pale
greyish-white ear-tufts, like the ailes de pigeon of the old beau of
other days, feeds in its native woods not only on fruits, roots, and
seeds, but also indulges occasionally in insects and little birds. In
captivity the Sanglains are great pets, and Edwards relates a curious
instance of the craving for something that possessed life breaking
out in one that was the favourite of a lady. Once, when he was let
loose, he snatched a gold fish from its “watery glass,” and instantly
killed and devoured it. The lady, upon this, made him a present of
some live eels, and, as the little fellow was not more than eight
inches long without his tail, these lively gifts frightened him at first a
good deal by twisting round his neck when he seized them. His
carnivorous nature, however, prevailed, and, without a well-sanded
hand, he soon mastered and ate them.
The great French naturalist Cuvier had an opportunity of observing
their domestic arrangements in a conjugal state. He had a pair who
were blessed with three young ones; but it seems to have been the
Lady Sanglain’s first accouchement, and she had no experienced
female friend to direct her; so after regarding her interesting progeny,
she proceeded to bite off the head of one of them; the other two, in
the meantime, took to the breast, and the moment the mother felt
them she was all affection. The papa was even more affectionate
than the mamma, and assiduously assisted in the nursery. The
favourite position of the young ones was upon the back or bosom of
the mother; and, when she was tired of nursing she would come up
to her mate with a shrill cry, which said as plainly as cry could speak,
“Here! do take the children.” He, like a good-natured father,
immediately stretched forth his hands and placed his offspring upon
his back or under his body, where they held on while he carried them
about, till they became restless for want of that which he could not
give them; and then he handed them back to his partner, who, after
satisfying their hunger, again turned them over to their papa.
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