CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Science is a systematic body of knowledge concerning the natural phenomena around us.

The totality of knowledge obtained from such studies constitutes scientific knowledge. Its

impact is being felt in every sphere of life. It is the foundation upon which other aspects of

human endeavor rely. It is the fundamental basis for the technological development and

advancement of every nation. Every living creature (particularly man) depends on it for his

survival and existence. Technology is the application of the scientific knowledge and skills for

practical purposes, often involving the creation and use of tools, systems and processes to solve

problems or achieve specific objectives in various fields such as industries, communication,

medicine and more. Scientific knowledge is applied in aspects like education, transportation,

communication, health, administration, industries, marketing and entertainment for man's

benefit.

In the national policy on education, Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2020)

recommended that Basic Science and Technology to be taught as the Basic Science subjects be

offered in the Junior Secondary School (JSS). They are few among the basic and core subjects

being studied in Junior Secondary Schools with the aim of providing students with basic

opportunities to learn and acquire scientific knowledge, critical thinking skills and experiences

for their daily lives in order to become useful and practical future scientists and to be able to

blend with technologies that can proffer solutions to mans’ problems and make life much easier.

Basic Science and Technology formerly known as Integrated Science and Introductory

Technology is the first form of science a child comes across at the primary and secondary school

levels. Basic Science and Technology is a core subject in the national curriculum at the upper

basic 1-3 classes. Basic Science and Technology is considered the bedrock of all science subjects
at the Senior Secondary School level. The subject prepares students at the upper basic level for

the study of core science subjects (Biology, Chemistry, Physics) at the senior secondary school

level (Oludipe, 2012). That is why Oludipe (2012) further emphasized that for a student to be

able to study single science subjects at the senior secondary school level successfully; such a

student has to be well grounded in Basic Science and Technology at the upper basic level. Based

on this, it is generally taught as a single science subject, until in the SSS level, and then split into

specialized science subjects (Biology, Chemistry and Physics). It is expected that those students

who achieved well in Basic Science should be given the opportunity to study the separate

science subjects at the SSS level. According to Trustees of Princeton University (2013) Basic

Science is a revolutionary new introductory science curriculum developed at Princeton intended

for students considering a career in science. Basic Science emphasizes scientific literacy and

research oriented learning (Eyles, 2015). The subject encourages exploration of students’

immediate environment. As a result, Basic Science teachers continue to learn along with their

students.

The teaching of Basic Science and Technology is therefore, based on the philosophy of

active learner-participation in the process whereby, students are encouraged to learn by

constructing their own knowledge based on what they already understand as they make

connections between new information and old information, guided or facilitated by the teacher

(Piaget, 1956). Under this philosophy, students are encouraged and led to discover concepts and

generalizations based on their experiments. Akinmade (2011) in a research rightly pointed out

that, when children learn science using the process and activity approaches, they improve their

ability to apply intellectual skills to solve problems, improve their language development,

become more creative, master science content better and develop positive attitude towards

science and its processes. For the subject to be taught and imparted effectively to students,
many methods or techniques are adopted by teachers in schools.

The Nigeria philosophy of education, national policy on education (FRN, 2019), spelt out

that education is an instrument for national development. To this end formulation of ideas,

integration for national development and the interaction of persons and ideas are all respected in

education. Secondary education is the education meant for children between 11 to 17 years and

above (FGN, 2019). Nigeria policy on education provides all secondary school learners with the

opportunity for education of higher level irrespective of gender, social, religion or ethnic

background.

The Universal Basic Education (UBE) plays a crucial role in equipping students with the

necessary knowledge and skills to understand the fundamental principles of the physical world.

However, achieving academic success in Basic Science and Technology can be challenging for

many students, particularly at the JSS III level. Various factors, such as ineffective teaching

methods, limited student engagement, and difficulties in conceptual understanding, can

contribute to low academic performance in Basic Science and Technology.

In order to address these challenges, educators and researchers have been exploring

innovative teaching methods such as that which can enhance students' academic performance in

Basic Science and Technology. One of such method that has gained attention is reflective

discussion. Reflective discussion involves structured conversations and critical thinking

exercises that encourage students to actively engage with the subject matter, analyze their own

learning processes, and make connections between theoretical concepts and real-world

applications. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of reflective discussion as a

teaching method in enhancing academic performance in Basic Science and Technology.

Anderson and Samson, (2019) conducted a study exploring different teaching methods in Basic
Science and Technology education and found that reflective discussion significantly improved

students' conceptual understanding and problem-solving abilities. Similarly, Johnson and

Edwards, (2020) investigated the impact of reflective discussion on students’ engagement,

critical thinking, and knowledge retention in Basic Science and Technology and reported

positive outcomes.

The use of reflective discussion strategy in Basic Science and Technology education has

been a topic of interest in Nigeria in recent years. Several studies have been conducted to

investigate the effect of this teaching method on students' academic performance in Basic

Science and Technology. Agwagah and Egbochuku (2020) examined the effect of reflective

discussion strategy on secondary school students' performance and interest in Basic Science and

Technology in Nigeria. Adeyemo and Akinsola (2019) focused on the effect of reflective

discussion strategy on students' academic performance in Basic Science and Technology in Osun

State, Nigeria. Akinbobola and Afolabi (2018) explored the implications of reflective discussion

strategy on students' performance in Basic Science and Technology, highlighting its importance

for science education in Nigeria.

Reflective discussion method encourages the students to learn on their own without

constant help from the teacher. It also encourages students to think and talk about what they have

observed, heard or read (Callutheran, 2017). He opines that a teacher or student initiates the

discussion by asking a question that requires the students to reflect on an internet, film,

experiences, read or recorded stories or illustrations. The author explained that as students

question and recreate information and events in affirm or story, they clarify their thoughts and

feelings. Students need to possess more than just knowledge and skills; they need to know how

to learn, to be self-aware and self- critique, to construct their own meanings and perspectives, as
well as to consider contexts and experiences in light of learning (Masella, 2011; Dall’Alba, 2019;

Tsang, 2015 & Tsang, 2017) upheld reflective discussion method of teaching and added that

teaching for imparting knowledge and skills is no longer adequate; rather it is teaching to enable

learning that must be employed. (Callutheran, 2017), added that reflective discussion helps

students to achieve better result in Basic Science and Technology as it deals with the process of

teaching and learning whereby students are made to work together in small groups to maximize

their own and each other's learning towards achieving shared leaning goals.

Therefore, carrying out this study on Basic Science and Technology would help

According to Eze (2019) poor teaching methods like rote memorization, expository teaching,

drilling of students, and lecture methods, which prevail in teaching Basic Science and

Technology should be avoided or minimized by teachers to improve academic performance of

students in Basic Science and Technology. Eze further said expository or lecture method, is

teacher-centered. This problem can be curbed if students are given the opportunity to learn Basic

Science and Technology using reflective discussion method which is child-centered or learner-

friendly (Bot & Nwamaka, 2014).

For an excellent academic achievement, any teaching method that employs reflective

discussion, according to Wustl (2018) is more rewarding. The author stressed that using

reflective discussion method allows the student to think critically. Wustl further says that

teachers establish rapport with their students, they can demonstrate that they appreciate their

contributions at the same time challenge them to think more deeply and to articulate their ideas

more clearly. Wustl held that frequent questions whether asked by the teacher or by the students,

provide a means of measuring learning and exploring in-depth the key concepts of the course.

Beer and Probst (2012) stated that when students are taught using reflective discussion method
they are engaged, when they are active constructors of their knowledge, then they are likely to

take ownership, to discover relevance, and to ask why not; they are more likely to feel inspired

when they count more of their answers.

Studies on academic performance have shown that students performance is not only a

function of their cognitive ability but can also be influenced by factors like gender, school type,

school facilities, class size among others. However, this study intends to examine the effect of

reflective discussion method on students’ academic performance in Basic Science and

Technology in relation to gender. This is because studies have shown that gender is one of the

variable which affects students’ academic performance in different areas of human learning.

Studies by Mkpanang (2016), Bates and Donnelly (2011) found that boys performed better than

girls in Basic Science and Technology. This is at variance with the findings of Ogunleye and

Babjide (2011) who obtained a non-significant difference in the academic performance of male

and female students in Basic Science and Technology.

In view of the conflicting findings, it becomes imperative for more research to find out

exactly the effect of gender on students’ academic performance in Basic Science and Technology

as a result of reflective discussion method. However, the researcher is not aware of any research

on effects of reflective discussion method on Junior Secondary three students’ academic

performance in Basic Science and Technology in Jos North, Plateau State, hence the need for

this study.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The aim of teaching and learning Basic Science and Technology in secondary

schools in Nigeria is to foster scientific literacy, practical skills, critical thinking and

technological literacy, preparing students for further education, promoting responsible

citizenship and enhancing global competitiveness.

Despite all the significance of Basic Science and Technology, students'

performance in both internal and external examinations (JSSCE, WAEC and promotions

exams) continued to show massive decline over the years (WAEC Report, 2020; Obong,

2018). For the past years (2012-2021), the percentage of students who obtained a credit

pass in Basic Science was low in Plateau state. For example, JSSCE results that were

released in 2021 (for the three geo-political zones) showed that 32.6%, 35.8% and 23.9%

representing 868, 972 and 664 of students obtained a credit pass in Basic Science

respectively. It was observed that, the percentage of credit pass for Basic Science was
particularly low compared with other subjects. Reasons among others such as language

problems, poor method of teaching and learning of Basic Science and Technology by both

the teachers and the students (Sambo, 2012).

Against this background, there is need to search for a new teaching method that

would enhance students’ performance in Basic Science and Technology. The new

teaching method that was hoped to enhance students’ learning in Basic Science and

Technology is reflective teaching discussion method. Since there are no studies conducted

involving the use of reflective discussion method in Basic Science and Technology in Jos

North, this study investigated the effect of reflective discussion method on Junior

Secondary three student’s academic performance in Basic Science and Technology in Jos

North.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of this study was to examine the effects of reflective discussion method on

Junior Secondary Three Students’ academic Performance in Basic Science and Technology Jos

North, Plateau State. Specifically, the objectives were to:

1. Determine the performance mean scores of Junior Secondary Three students taught Basic

Science and Technology with reflective discussion method and those taught using lecture

method.

2. Determine the performance mean scores of male and female Junior Secondary Three

students taught Basic Science and Technology with reflective discussion method.

3. Find out the interactive effect of gender and reflective discussion method on Junior
 Secondary Three students.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions were raised to guide the study:

1. What is the performance mean scores of Junior Secondary Three students taught with

reflective discussion method and those taught using lecture method?

2. What is the performance mean scores of male and female Junior Secondary Three

students taught with reflective discussion method?

3. What is the interactive effect of gender and reflective discussion method on Junior

Secondary Three students?

1.5 HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance:

1. There is no significant difference between the performance mean scores of Junior

Secondary Three students taught with reflective discussion method and those taught

using lecture method.

2. There is no significant difference between the performance mean scores of male and

female Junior Secondary Three students taught with reflective discussion method.

3. There is no significant difference between interactive effect of gender and reflective

discussion method on Junior Secondary Three students.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study when completed will be beneficial to the students, teachers, parents and

guardians. It will also be of benefit to schools, government, and curriculum planners.

Student who are taught using reflective discussion method may develop more interest in

the learning of Basic Science and Technology, and hence perform better as they create their own
understanding having high cognitive comprehension level than those who are been taught using

other discussion methods yielding to poor performance and loss of interest in Basic Science and

Technology.

The result from the study will expose teachers to new method to better adopt in teaching

Basic Science and Technology concepts. This indicates that changes are needed in the existing

teacher training programmes to incorporate reflective discussion methods. Such evidence may

guide Basic Science and Technology teachers and educators in pointing out what changes they

need to initiate in their existing training programmes so as to cater for individual differences

among trainees.

Parents and Guardians may join hands with the school authority and support them by

using reflective teaching method even when trying to teach a concept at home and they will see

the value of what they are paying for through their children/wards performance.

The study is also important to the school administration as the school authority is

supposed to closely monitor the teachers in the classroom to know the extent to which reflective

discussion method is being implemented in the classroom.

Government may know the importance of reflective discussion methods and its effects on

students’ performance. This will enable them organize more seminars and workshops to train

teachers on this method of teaching.

The findings of the studies may also help Basic Science and Technology curriculum

planners in terms of the facilities they need to have in the classroom that would promote teacher

interest in the teaching of Basic Science and Technology. Incorporation of reflective discussion

as the desired methods of teaching and identification of teachers and school factors necessary for
development of interest in Basic Science and Technology and consideration of such factors when

planning both teacher education programmes and the secondary school Basic Science and

Technology curriculum.

1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The study is anchored on Jean Piaget theory of cognitive development (1980 ) Piaget's

theory outlines four key stages of cognitive development, each characterized by distinct

cognitive abilities and milestones. In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), children primarily

explore the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. While the reflective discussion

method may not directly apply during this stage due to limited language and cognitive capacities,

early sensorimotor experiences play a crucial role in laying the groundwork for future cognitive

growth, including the comprehension of basic scientific concepts.

In the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), children begin to develop language skills and

symbolic thinking. Reflective discussions tailored to their egocentric tendencies can aid in

fostering communication, expression of ideas, and understanding of others' perspectives.

As students progress into the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), they exhibit

improved logical thinking and operational abilities. Reflective discussions can become more

structured during this phase, focusing on problem-solving skills and the application of scientific

concepts in real-world scenarios. Engaging students in discussions about experiments,

observations, and practical applications of basic science and technology enhances their

comprehension and critical thinking skills.

Finally, in the formal operational stage (11 years and older), students develop abstract

thinking and hypothetical reasoning capabilities. Reflective discussions can delve deeper into

complex scientific topics, encouraging students to analyze information critically, synthesize

knowledge, and engage in debates or discussions about advanced scientific concepts. This

approach not only broadens their understanding of science and technology but also cultivates

creativity, innovation, and a deeper appreciation for the subject matter.

1.8 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research work is delimited to Junior Secondary three students; two secondary

schools in Jos North. The number of students in the selected schools were thirty (30) and thirty

three (33) respectively, thirteen (13) male and seventeen (17) female from the first school and

fifteen (15) male and eighteen (18) female from the second school.

The concept that was taught during the study period was Classifications of Living things

and Simple Machines; this is because the concepts were the ones meant to be taught that time.

1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Academic Performance: refers to a measure of achievement as indicated by the scores on the

test instruments of this study or institution accomplishes goal as reflective discussion is being

used.

Gender: refers to male or female students who offer the subject Physics.

JSSCE: Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination

Lecture Method: this is a teaching method characterized by a teacher-centered classroom

environment where the educator typically plays a central role in delivering content, imparting

knowledge and directing the learning process.

Reflective Discussion: It is referred to as an activity based method of teaching that encourages

student to think, talk, ask questions, analyze, and recreate what they have learnt, read or observed

in Basic Science and Technology.

 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter seeks to review related literature under the following headings: Concept of

Science, Concept of Basic Science and Technology Curriculum in Nigeria, Gender Differences
in Academic Performance, Factors Affecting Academic Performance in Basic Science and

Technology, Teaching Methods and Summary of Literature Review.

2.1 CONCEPTS OF SCIENCE

According to Liu and Moseley (2022) the concept of science refer to the fundamental

principles and characteristics of the scientific process and the knowledge that it produces. At its

core, science is a systematic and evidence-based approach to understanding the natural world

(Martin and Bagdasarov, 2021). As philosopher of science Karl Popper famously noted, "Science

is not a system of certain, or well- established, statements; nor is it a system which steadily

advances towards a state of finality, rather, science is a dynamic and on-going process of inquiry,

characterized by the generation of testable hypotheses, the collection and analysis of empirical

evidence, and the refinement and revision of scientific ideas and theories based on new data and

observations. As such, scientific knowledge is always tentative and subject to change in light of

new evidence, and scientific progress is driven by ongoing scientific inquiry and critical

evaluation of scientific claims.

Science is based on empirical observation, which means that it relies on data and

evidence that can be directly observed or measured. This approach emphasizes the importance of

objectivity and the need for evidence-based knowledge (National Research Council, 2018).

Scientific theories and hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable, meaning that they can be

verified or disproven through empirical testing.

This approach encourages researchers to be rigorous and systematic in their methods and

to seek out evidence that might disprove their theories (Dolan and Weber, 2022). Scientific

research is typically subject to peer review, in which other scientists review and evaluate

research for its quality and validity. This process helps to ensure that scientific research meets
rigorous standards and is based on sound methodology (National Research Council, 2018).

Scientific knowledge is continually revised and updated as new evidence and data emerge. This

process of continuous refinement and improvement is what sets science apart from other forms

of knowledge and inquiry (National Research Council, 2018). Collaboration: Science often

involves collaboration among researchers, including sharing data, ideas, and findings. This

collaborative approach can lead to more robust and accurate scientific knowledge (National

Research Council, 2018).

Overall, the nature and concept of science reflect the systematic and evidence- based

approach to understanding the natural world, characterized by empirical observation, testability,

falsifiability, peer review, continual revision, and collaboration.

2.2 CONCEPT OF BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CURRICULUM IN

NIGERIA

Basic Science and Technology Education is the way in which learners in schools tries to

learn and understand their environment, observed and explore the world around them. Basic

Science and Technology is one of the approved subjects for Universal Basic Education (UBE)

programme introduced in 1999 in order to meet up with global educational standard (Olajide,

Adebisi & Tewoghade, 2017). This is in response to the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) and the Education for All (EFA) new reform programme of 9-year basic education. By

implication, the offerings of Science Technology Mathematics should be systematically

developed in such a manner that there should not be any disjoint between what is taught at the

primary and junior secondary levels (Elechi 2015). According to Helen, Peter, Annette, Elizabeth

and Cheryl (2016), the Basic Science & Technology Curriculum that was revised in 2012 is the

result of the restructuring and integration of four Primary and Junior Secondary science
curricula. The following science subjects were integrated into one: Basic Science, Basic

technology, Physical and Health Education, Information Technology.

Ram (2016) stated that this became necessary in order to reduce the number of subjects

offered in Primary and Junior Secondary schools, to prevent repetition and duplication of

concepts that resulted in curriculum overload, to encourage innovative teaching and learning

approaches and techniques that promote creativity and critical thinking in students, to promote

the holistic view of science at this level for better understanding of a contemporary and changing

world, and to infuse emergent issues that are of national and global concern, such as gender

sensitivity, globalization and entrepreneurship, into the curricula.

The Basic Science and Technology curriculum which is in use in Nigeria for science

teaching and learning in Junior Secondary School had built in strategies where learners are

required to be involved in inquiry and related activities that can develop critical thinking skills.

This is seen in the objectives of Basic Science curriculum of Nigerian Educational Research and

Development Centre (NERDC, 2007) which includes enabling students to; Develop interest in

science and technology, acquire basic knowledge and skills in science and technology, apply

their scientific and technological knowledge and skills to meet societal needs , take advantage of

the numerous carrier opportunities offered by science and technology, and to become prepared

for further studies in science and technology.

Education is generally considered one of the basic needs of human beings. Science has

been characterized as a body of knowledge evolved by scientists while science education builds

on the knowledge and skills acquired by the learners so that students can understand scientific

principles, laws, and theories (Ram, 2016). Ram also maintained that the emphasis on teaching
and learning of science is on ensuring that teachers not only teach the processes of science but

also enable sensory learners to learn scientific concepts.

2.2.1 Objectives

The Basic Science and technology curriculum in Nigeria encompasses a diverse range of

concepts and skills. Students begin by mastering the foundational principles of scientific inquiry,

learning the systematic approach of the scientific method, which includes formulating

hypotheses, designing experiments, and honing observational and analytical skills; moving into

the realm of biology, students explore the intricacies of living organisms, from the microscopic

world of cells to the broader ecosystems. This exploration extends to understanding relationships

between different species, biodiversity, and fundamental genetic principles like heredity; in the

realm of chemistry, students delve into the building blocks of matter, gaining understanding of

elements, compounds, and mixtures. Chemical reactions and equations become familiar, as does

the organization of elements through the periodic table.

Physics concepts form a crucial part of the curriculum, covering the study of motion,

forces, and energy forms. Students comprehend principles governing velocity, acceleration,

potential and kinetic energy, and gain practical knowledge of simple machines; environmental

science takes center stage, with students examining issues like pollution, deforestation, and

climate change. The curriculum emphasizes strategies for conservation and sustainable practices

to address pressing environmental challenges.

Technology education becomes a focal point as students develop essential skills,

including computer literacy, familiarity with hardware components, and proficiency in basic

software applications. Concepts related to information and communication technology (ICT) are

also introduced.
 In agricultural science, students explore topics ranging from crop cultivation and soil

management to animal husbandry. Insights into sustainable farming practices and modern

agricultural techniques are integral to this part of the curriculum; basic engineering concepts are

introduced, focusing on problem-solving and design thinking. Students learn about simple

machines, basic tools, and gain an understanding of construction methods.

Home economics contributes practical life skills, covering home management, budgeting,

nutrition, and basic cooking techniques. Additionally, students learn about textiles and clothing

care within the context of home economics.

Mathematics is applied throughout the curriculum to solve scientific and technological

problems. Students develop problem-solving skills through mathematical reasoning, data

analysis, and interpretation, providing a quantitative foundation within the broader context of

science and technology education.

These subjects aim to provide students with a well-rounded foundation in science and

technology, fostering critical thinking, problem-solving, and practical skills.

2.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Gender is a moderator variable whose influence is investigated in the study. The choice

of these variables is due to the fact that the issue of gender in science and Technology in

particular in Africa is still debatable, some authors identified Basic Sciences as a male subject

while arts and humanities are ascribed to female (Okigbe & Okeke, 2011; Babajide, 2010).

In the realm of gender differences in academic performance, the comprehensive study

conducted by Adeyemi Tunde, (2018) intricately dissects the multifaceted influences at play.

Their research sheds light on the intricate interplay of socio-economic factors, motivation, and
self-esteem, acknowledging the imperative to recognize diversity within gender groups.

Understanding variations in learning styles and preferences becomes paramount in deciphering

the nuanced landscape of academic outcomes.

Expanding on this foundation, Okafor and Adekunle's (2019) work investigates the

transformative potential of reflective discussion methods in education. Their research traverses

the landscape of cognitive and socio-emotional development, highlighting the affirmative impact

of group discussions, peer interactions, and reflective journaling on academic performance. This

underscores the pivotal role of such pedagogical approaches in fostering critical communication

skills, contributing not only to academic success but also to holistic student development.

Transitioning to the critical stage of junior secondary three, Mohammed and Okeke

(2020) emphasize the need for tailored teaching methodologies. Their study delves into the

intricate dynamics of this pivotal educational phase, suggesting that strategies such as reflective

discussions positively influence academic outcomes. The research accentuates the importance of

addressing the unique cognitive and emotional needs of students during this transitional juncture,

paving the way for holistic and effective educational practices.

However, within the existing body of literature, a notable gap emerges concerning the

intersection of gender differences and the application of reflective discussion methods. Adebayo

and Okonkwo (2022) propose a groundbreaking study to bridge this gap. Their hypothetical

research aims to uncover how boys and girls respond differentially to reflective discussions,

exploring dimensions of academic engagement, participation, and learning outcomes. This

initiative seeks to unravel the nuanced interactions between gender and pedagogical strategies,
offering a deeper understanding of how educational interventions may resonate differently across

diverse student groups.

To methodologically address this research gap, Onyeka and Nwosu (2023) advocate for a

comprehensive mixed-method approach. This multifaceted strategy involves intertwining

quantitative measures of academic performance with qualitative methods like focus group

discussions and interviews. The envisioned outcome is a layered understanding that not only

captures quantitative outcomes but also unravels the nuanced experiences of students engaged in

reflective discussions. This innovative methodology seeks to bridge quantitative and qualitative

realms, providing a more holistic perspective on the potential impact of such interventions,

particularly in the context of gender differences.

As the hypothetical study unfolds, the anticipated implications for educational practice,

as envisioned by Adeleke and Okoro (2017), reverberate across the educational landscape. The

tailoring of reflective discussion methods to suit the diverse needs of both male and female

students emerges as a transformative practice. The insights garnered from this study hold the

potential to contribute to a more equitable and effective learning environment. Educators,

curriculum developers, and policymakers could leverage these findings to inform strategic

decisions, shaping educational policies aimed at optimizing the academic experience for junior

secondary three students. This cyclical connection between research and practice underscores the

potential for transformative educational initiatives grounded in empirical understanding.

Some scholars blame the colonizers of Africa for applying direct transfer of Western

Science curricula, examinations and teaching methods, which fail to address the continental

challenges of Africa. As a consequence, the situation in Nigeria is that, academic performance in

science education is still deplorably low, both in certificate and no certificate examinations.

Many researchers identify inherent unfairness in school-based assessment (Grifith, 2015; Njabili,

2015; Asim, 2017) which may result from teachers’ incompetency in assessment (Asim, 2017).

This poor performance of students is further worsened by gender imbalance leading to the

problem which now constitutes a major research focus across the globe (UNESCO, 2013). In a

study by Okurut (2015) it was found that for all the attitudinal variables (anxiety, confidence and

motivation), males had higher mean scores than females. That is, differences in student attitude

toward science based on gender were confirmed. Attitudes are known to have positive

relationship with student achievement. This may be an indication that males perform better than

females scientifically as a result of their higher attitude scores.

According to a comprehensive literature review Osborne (2013) conducted, the reason

why the number of studies focusing on the gender variable increased is because of the low

number of females in the field of sciences and technique and the need for qualified personnel.

Studies indicate that there is a male-dominant characteristic in Physics, especially an important

field in sciences. According to Jones (2010), while male students are interested in subjects such

as the atomic bomb, electronic devices and technology, female students are interested in subjects

such as healthy diet, animal associations, weather and aids. In a study Walper (2013) conducted,

they suggested that male students have a higher personal interest in Physics than female students.

In this respect it could be said that the low level of interest towards Physics may lead to females

being unsuccessful in Physics, having prejudice for Physics and making fewer professional

choices regarding the field of Physics.

There are many findings in the literature stating that, with regards to the field of

Chemistry, Physics, mathematics, females are highly underrepresented in science fields more
than male students (Sainz, 2011; Beede, 2011). This is an outstanding figure in the modern world

in which women’s social roles have become more active. Also, research reports show that more

boys are found in Physics and mathematics than girls but more girls are found in Biology than

boys.

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN BASIC SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

In this era of globalization and technological revolution, education is considered as a first

step for every human activity. It plays a vital role in the development of human capital and is

linked with an individual’s well-being and opportunities for better living. Educational services

are often not tangible and are difficult to measure because they result in the form of

transformation of knowledge, life skills and behaviour modifications of learners. So there is no

commonly agreed upon definition of quality that is applied to education field. The definition of

quality of education varies from culture to culture. The environment and the personal

characteristics of learners play an important role in their academic success. The school

personnel, members of the families and communities provide help and support to students for the

quality of their academic performance. It ensures the acquisition of knowledge and skills that

enable individuals to increase their productivity and improve their quality of life. This increase in

productivity also leads towards new sources of earning which enhances the economic growth of

a country Durualp, (2016). The quality of students’ performance remains at top priority for

educators. It is meant for making a difference locally, regionally, nationally and globally.

Educators, trainers, and researchers have long been interested in exploring variables contributing

effectively for quality of performance of learners. These variables are inside and outside school

that affect students’ quality of academic achievement.

 There is a range of factors that affects the quality of performance of students. A series of

variables are to be considered when to identify the affecting factors towards quality of academic

success. These factors may be termed as student factors, family factors, school factors and peer

factors (Cardak, Dikmenli, and Saritas, 2018). Theory of Educational Productivity determined

three groups of nine factors based on affective, cognitive and behavioural skills for optimization

of learning that affect the quality of academic performance: Aptitude (ability, development and

motivation); instruction (amount and quality); environment (home, classroom, peers and

television). The home environment also affects the academic performance of students. Educated

parents can provide such an environment that suits best for academic success of their children.

The school authorities can provide counseling and guidance to parents for creating positive home

environment for improvement in students’ quality of work. The academic performance of

students heavily depends upon the parental involvement in their academic activities to attain the

higher level of quality in academic success. There are various factors inside and outside school

that contribute for the quality of academic performance of students. The key aspect for the

educators is to educate their students effectively so that they may be able to show quality

performance in their academics. To achieve this objective it is necessary for the educators to

understand better about the factors that may contribute in the academic success of students.

Concepts are the basic parts of knowledge, and they help human beings to organize and

categorize the learning outcomes. In order to learn a concept, students should adapt their

knowledge, attitude and skills previously acquired with new learning (Birisei and Metin 2014).

In this instance, students’ pre-existing knowledge may be characterized as misconceptions when

they will be conflicted with the scientific realities (Urey and Calik, 2016). Determination of

students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions about a subject is a very important issue in
acknowledging students. Additionally, scientific realities in books and the formation of their

negative results can be so complex for students.

For this reason, it is an important issue to consider which appropriating methods for

teachers to use in their lessons. There are many kinds of approaches, one being the constructivist

approach. The constructivist approach points a shifting paradigm towards learner-centered or

learner-focused instruction. In this approach, the teaching and learning paradigm has shifted

from traditional classrooms where a teacher is at the center of the classroom. Constructivist

epistemology assumes that students learn from their interactions with their environment.

According to constructivist theory, learning is an active process that individuals construct

meaning and interpret situations from their previous knowledge and experiences (Birisei and

Metin 2013). Constructivism is defined as a reference to four principles which are: leaning

depends on what we already know; new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas;

learning involves inventing ideas, rather than mechanically accumulating facts; and meaningful

learning occurs through rethinking old ideas and coming to new conclusions about new ideas that

are in conflict with our old ideas.

In the constructivist class environment, the teacher’s role is to provide students activities

actively involving and facilitating this process (Gray, 2017). In a constructivist learning

environment, the teachers play the role of a guide and helps students to connect their prior

knowledge with new information. Students play an active role by actively involving themselves

in the learning process and constructing their knowledge by taking a part in activities

(Kroasbergen and Van Luit, 2015). Reflective discussion is developed for learning and teaching

a lesson, it also plays an important role in creating a constructivist classroom environment. Thus,
it is important for students to be actively involved in the learning process. Proper teaching

method must be used for meaningful learning outcomes.

2.5 TEACHING METHODS

2.5.1 Reflective Discussion Method

Reflective discussion is the ability to reflect on one’s action so as to engage in a process

of continuous learning. (Schon, 2016). Schon continued that reflective discussion involves

paying critical attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday values and

theories, which form everyday actions by examining practice reflectively and reflexively. This

leads to developmental insight according to Balton and Gillie (2015). A key rationale for

reflective discussion according to Balton et al. is that experience alone does not necessarily lead

to learning but deliberate reflection on experience is essential, Schon (2016) in a book, “The

reflective practitioners” introduced concepts such as reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action

which explain how professionals meet the challenges of their work with a kind of improvisation

that is improved through practice. Reid (2014) also defined reflective discussion as the active

process of receiving, analyzing and evaluating experiences, drawing upon theoretical concepts of

previous learning, in order to inform future action.

A competent reflective practitioner added Schon repeatedly reflects on experience and is

capable of reflecting-in-action, continually learning from experience to the benefit of future

action. Feedback regarding performance can assist the development of reflection skills (Duffy,

2017). Without a feedback and open dialogue approach there is a risk that reflection may be

introspective (Mccabe& Timmins, 2016). Mccabe et al. said many reflective skills report on the

benefit of acquiring a mentor, or critical companion who can question the student and assist them

in deconstructing practice related to issues.

 The origin of reflective practice traced back to John Dewey (2013) “How we Think”

Dewey was the first to write about reflective discussion with his exploration of experience,

interaction and reflection. Dewey (2013) proposed that reflective teachers should be able to make

informed and intelligent decision about the subject matter they teach. More recently Feszio

(2019), stated that teachers (and students inclusive) must reflect in order to adopt to the differing

situations faced each day. An ability to reflect allows the gap between everyday experience and

education theory, (to be filled). Feszio further contended that candidates should not be only

knowledgeable, but they should be informed decision makers who will reflect on their own

practice.

Reflective discussion is considered as teaching and learning method that prepares young

people for engaging in a complex and dynamic world deeply influenced by globalization and the

revolution in digital technology (Beetham& Sharpe, Loveless & Williamson, as cited in Barade,

2015). Schools and various places of learning are challenged to develop appropriate skill sets in

their students, such as key competencies, which have shifted educational discourse form

education to learning with a focus on developing lifelong learning and employability,

(Bolstad&Gilbert, EUCIS-LLL,as cited in Benade, 2015) The world wide web (www) and

internet have brought accessibility resources to users, encouraging shared learning. Which helps

students with internet facilities to interact through net to share ideas clearly then, teachers and

school leaders will increasingly find them challenged to become reflective about their core

pedagogical values and beliefs (Benade, 2015).

Being a reflective practitioner is a highly desirable attribute for professionals because it

signifies quality assurance through a sustainable cyclical process of directed learning and

transformation (Tsang, 2014). To be relevant and applicable to the dynamic community and
global economy we live in Tsang continued, graduates need to possess more than just knowledge

and skills. They need to know how to learn, how to enable learning, to be self-aware and self-

critique, to construct their own meanings and perspectives, (Masella, 2014; Dall’ Alba.

2015;&Tsang 2013). Teaching to impart knowledge and skills is no longer adequate, rather it is

“teaching to enable learning” that must be emphasized concluded Tsang.

Wustl (2016) testified that one of the most challenging teaching methods leading to

reflective discussion can also be one of the most primary teaching method that allows one to

stimulate critical thinking. The author noted that as one establishes a rapport with students, one

can demonstrate that he appreciates their contributions at the same time. This will challenge

them to think more deeply and articulate their ideas more clearly. Wustl concluded that frequent

question whether asked by the teacher or by students, provides a means of reasoning, learning

and exploring in-depth the key concepts of course. Beer & Probst (2012) added when kids are

engaged, when they are active co-constructors of their knowledge, then they are more likely to

take ownership, to discover relevance, and to ask why not; they are more likely to feel inspired

when they realized their voices matter and their questions.

Benefits of Reflective Discussion Method:

The reflective discussion method is a teaching approach that encourages students to

actively engage in thoughtful conversations about their learning experiences, ideas, and

understanding of subject matter. This method has been found to offer several benefits for

students' academic performance, particularly in subjects like Basic Science and Technology.

Reflective discussions enable students to articulate their thoughts, question assumptions,

and clarify their understanding of Physics concepts. This process of explaining and discussing
ideas with peers and instructors can enhance comprehension and retention.(Smith, 2012).

Engaging in reflective discussions promotes critical thinking by requiring students to analyze,

evaluate, and synthesize information. By exchanging different perspectives, students learn to

approach Physics problems from various angles, leading to improved problem-solving skills.

(Tsui & Wong, 2010).

Promotion of Active Engagement and Participation: Reflective discussions encourage

active participation rather than passive learning. Students are motivated to contribute to the

discussion, share their insights, and build upon each other's ideas. This engagement fosters a

deeper connection to the subject matter and a sense of ownership over their learning. Bransford,

Brown, & Cocking, 2014). Effective reflective discussions require students to communicate their

thoughts clearly and persuasively. Through these interactions, students refine their verbal

communication skills, an essential competency in both academic and professional contexts. (Chi,

2009).

Reflective discussions often involve relating academic concepts to real-world scenarios

or personal experiences. This connection helps students see the relevance of Physics in their

lives, making the subject matter more engaging and relatable. (Kolb, 2014). Reflective

discussions encourage peer-to-peer interaction, allowing students to learn from each other's

insights, experiences, and approaches to problem-solving. This collaborative learning

environment can lead to a deeper understanding of Physics concepts. (Hertz-Lazarowitz &

Shachar, 2016). Engaging in reflective discussions prompts students to reflect on their own

learning processes. They become more aware of their strengths and areas for improvement,

fostering self-regulated learning habits that can benefit their overall academic performance.

(Schraw, 2010).
 Reflective discussions promote meaningful learning by encouraging students to connect

new information to their existing knowledge. This depth of learning can lead to better long-term

retention of Physics concepts and the ability to apply knowledge in novel contexts. (Bransford et

al., 2014).

Incorporating reflective discussions into Basic Science and Technology education is not

without its challenges, including the need for skilled facilitators, time constraints, and ensuring

equitable participation. However, the potential benefits for students' academic performance and

overall learning experience make it a promising pedagogical approach.

Challenges and Limitations of Reflective Discussion Method:

While the reflective discussion method offers various benefits, its successful

implementation can be hindered by several challenges and limitations. Recognizing and

addressing these factors is crucial for effectively integrating this approach into Basic Science and

Technology Education.

Effective facilitation of reflective discussions requires educators who are skilled in

guiding conversations, asking probing questions, and maintaining a balanced and inclusive

discussion. Not all instructors may possess the necessary training to foster productive reflective

discussions. (van Rijswijk & van Hout-Wolters, 2017). Engaging in reflective discussions often

takes more time than traditional lecture-based teaching. In a constrained curriculum, finding

sufficient time for in-depth discussions might be challenging without compromising other

essential learning activities. (Harrington, 2013).

Not all students may be comfortable sharing their thoughts in a group setting. Some

students might be hesitant to participate due to shyness or lack of confidence. Fostering an

environment where all students feel valued and encouraged to contribute can be difficult. (Tobin

& McRobbie, 2017). Reflective discussions might not cater to the diverse learning styles and

preferences of all students. Some learners may excel in written assessments rather than oral

discussions, posing challenges in assessing their understanding using this method. (Davidson &

Major, 2014).

Cultural norms and background can influence the willingness of students to engage in

open discussions. Some students might come from cultures that value teacher authority and

discourage questioning, making them uncomfortable with reflective discussions. (Fonow &

Cook, 2010). Assessing students' contributions and learning outcomes from reflective

discussions can be subjective and challenging. Developing fair and consistent assessment criteria

that align with the goals of reflective learning poses a significant hurdle. (Miyake & Kirschner,

2014). Implementing reflective discussions may require technological tools and resources for

recording, archiving, and sharing discussions. Lack of access to appropriate technology might

hinder the adoption of this method, particularly in resource-constrained settings. (Means, 2010).

Reflective discussions may lead to in-depth explorations of specific topics, potentially

reducing the coverage of a broader curriculum. Finding a balance between deep conceptual

understanding and covering required content can be challenging. (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, &

Chinn, 2007). Both students and instructors may experience a learning curve in adapting to the

reflective discussion method. It might take time for students to become comfortable with sharing

their thoughts, and for educators to refine their facilitation skills. (Gokhale, 1995). Integrating

reflective discussions requires careful alignment with educational goals and objectives. Ensuring

that discussions contribute meaningfully to the learning outcomes of the Physics curriculum is

essential for their effectiveness. (Biggs & Tang, 2011).

 Addressing these challenges involves a combination of pedagogical strategies,

professional development, and understanding the specific context in which the reflective

discussion method is being implemented.

Strategies For Enhancing The Teaching Of Basic Science and Technology Through
Reflective Discussion
Brookfield & Preskil (2015) showed that one of the most challenging teaching methods,

leading discussion, can be one of the most rewarding. The authors stressed that using discussions

as a primary teaching method allows students to stimulate critical thinking. The author

concluded that as teachers establish a rapport with students, they demonstrate that teachers

appreciate their contribution and this challenges them to think deeply and articulate their ideas

more clearly. Mckeachei (2015) pointed out that frequent questions, whether asked by teachers

or by students, provide a means of measuring learning and exploring the in-depth key concept of

the course. Kagoda (2017) pointed out that the discussion method can be seen as a departure

from tradition assign-study-recite approach to teaching where students are only required to

produce what they have studied previously. The author added that group discussion is a

deductive kind of method of teaching and learning as it based on personal views and experience.

These sampled strategies provide ideas for helping teachers and students prepare for

discussions and for collaborating with others to develop those ideas.

1. Instructor: designed Questions Help instructor to guide pre-discussion reading and

preparation. Adopted from Brook field and Preskill (2015)

i. Distribute questions on the course schedule or on black board or other learning

management system.
 ii. Include a mix of “closed” compression questions which have a limited number of correct

answers, and open-ended questions which can generate multiple strong responses.

iii. Begin class by asking for responses to at least one of the questions (or by asking students

to discuss their responses in pairs to groups of three).Record resulting ideas on the

chalkboard; integrate these ideas throughout rest of the class.

2. Student Designed Questions: Help students to help determine direction of a discussion.

Adapted from Brookfield and Preskill (2015).

i. Ask students to bring to class (or post online or blackboard) 2 discussion questions

ii. Give student instructions and examples to clarity what types of questions are most

effective for generating discussion and how they can use the questions to deepen their

own learning (e.g. by making connection among topics or readings or by identifying

assumptions or counter arguments).

iii. Grade the questions and give students feedback to help them improve their question

writing skills overtime.

iv. To reduce the number of submitted questions to a manageable amount (i.e. a number that

is realistic for you to grade and to use during class discussion). Divide the class into two

to four groups and assign the responsibility for writing question to only one group per

class session.

3. Think Aloud pair (triad) problem solving (TAPPS): Adapted from Felder and Brent

(2014).

i. Divide students into groups of 3.

 ii. Give each pair a problem to solve, a text (or image) to interpret, or a case history to

discuss.

iii. Ask students to designate an explainer, a questioner, and a recorder.

iv. The explainer explains how to solve the problem, interpret the text (or image) or analyze

the case.

v. The questioner asks questions when the explanation is not clear or is incomplete. The

questioner can also ask questions to give hints that might generate new or different

explanations.

vi. The recorder records the explanation via writing notes and or drawing diagram.

vii. After 10 minutes, ask each explainer to present the explanation, using the recorders notes.

As a follow up, you might discuss what type of question were most helpful in refining the

explanation, and why.

viii. Group Dialogues (appropriate for class up to approximately 25 students) Adapted from

Brookfield and Preskill (2015).

4. Informal collaborative: learning groups: Adapted from Felder and Brent (2014)

i. Ask each group to analyze and annotate a figure, image, or short passage of text, or solve

a problem, then explain it to the class.

ii. Assign roles (e.g. scribe, task master and spokesperson), so that each student has a clear

and essential responsibility within the group. Explain each work so that the

responsibilities of each are clear and understood as essential to the group success.

iii. Each time you assign such roles in groups, ask students to take on a different role than
 that which they fulfilled each role roughly the same number of times. So that each student

learn new skills and does not always take on the role the student or most comfortable in.

2.5.2 Student Centered Method

Student-centered learning also known as learner-centered education broadly encompasses

methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the students. In original

usage (Jones, 2017) stated that student-centered learning aims at developing learner autonomy

and independence and by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students.

Jones added that student-centered instruction focuses on skills that enable lifelong learning and

independent problem-solving.

Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist learning

theory that emphasizes the learner’s critical role in constructing meaning from new information

and prior experience. Hannafin, M. and Hannafin (2013) pointed out that student centered

learning puts students interest first, acknowledging students voice, as central to the learning

experience. They authors added that in Student centered learning space, students choose what

they will learn, how they will learn, and how they will assess their learning. Jones J.L. and Jones

(2013)contrasted that to traditional education, also dubbed “teacher-centered learning”, situates

the teacher as the primary “active” role with the students taking a more “passive”, receptive role.

Jones et al. added that in a teacher centered classroom, teachers choose what the students will

learn, and how the students will be assessed on their learning. The authors concluded that student

centered learning requires students to be active, responsible participants in their own learning

and with their own pace of learning. This makes use of the following strategies:

1. Discussion method: are a variety of forums for open ended, collaborative exchange of ideas
 among a teacher and students or among students for the purpose of futhering students

thinking, learning, problem solving, understanding or literally appreciation

2. Demonstration method; is used to communicate ideas with the aid of visuals such as flip,

charts, posters, power points, etc. as a process of teaching someone how to make something.

It is a teaching method that allows student to see the teacher as an active leaner and a model

rather than merely telling them what to do.

3. Questioning method: is an important part of classroom instruction. Proper question can be

used to develop critical thinking skills in students as well as assess whether the student

understand what you’re teaching.

2.5.3 Teacher Centered Method

Teaching methods could be regarded as a process and procedure adopted by the teacher

in order to guide and prepare students through an organized and planned learning activities for

the purpose of accomplishing educational goals (Daramola& Mom, 2015). Proper solution of

teaching enables the teachers to accomplish specific goals in their subject area (Kennedy, 2011).

Teaching method involves the accomplishment of teaching tasks. Therefore, teachers according

to Kennedy should focus on selections of teaching methods in their subject matter and also

consider the characteristics of the students, geography, and environmental goal of teaching. It is

also important to note that teaching for to be effective towards knowledge dissemination, the

process should be flexible so as to develop and broaden the horizon of the student to develop

critical thinking among learners as well as creating vision for both teachers and students in order

to promote student and business (Shiyam, 2014). The preparation of skilled graduates using

appropriate teaching methods that will ensure tolerance, cooperation, self-expression as well as
self-reliance is highly recommended by teachers towards the teaching of skilled subjects in

schools (Ajibola, 2018).

Falana, Oririjigin and Osakinle (2018) observed that teachers stand on the chalk board

and delivers lesson through verbal instruction, while the students serve as passive listeners and

take down notes from the board. The method is being practiced for all subjects that even the one

that requires practical, due to unavailability of teaching and learning materials, in the schools is

being affected. In the same vein (Ale, Seddiq&Mishara 2016), postulated that, the teaching and

learning processes in education is still conducted using traditional way without injecting new

methods by the teachers which is actually depriving the students from learning the right skills

needed for self-employment. Darchin, Shoo-Tseand Ming-Han (2016) believed that, the world is

global village full of technological and economy based knowledge that offers the opportunity for

people to prosper. This has resulted in changes witnessed by the society and industrial sector, the

social values diversification, the teaching and learning methods.

Ravitch and Kopp (2016) affirmed the importance of good teachers, good teachers do

much more than present information and drills. The authors continued that the fundamentals in

knowledge, high quality teachers guides their students through activities and projects that stretch

them to analyze, synthesis and apply what they have learned across academic subject and into the

real world. This shows that the teachers create classroom cultures that intrinsically motivate

students by honoring their hard work and by making academic achievement socially relevant.

Teachers actually are leaders, guides, facilitators, and mentors (Ravitch et.al.,2013). The authors

concluded that teachers are role models, leading by example and giving direction when

necessary, than a computer which can only give information. A teacher can lend a hand, or ear

and discern what is necessary for a student to succeed, and want to succeed. (Ravitch et al.).
2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

The review of related literature for this study is aimed at providing findings on the effects

of Reflective Discussion Method on Junior Secondary three students’ academic performance in

Basic Science and Technology in Jos North L.G.A. of Plateau State. The review is organized

around the major items in encompassing the research questions and objectives and hypotheses

under investigation. Generally, the review of literature has provided a lot of insights on issues

relating to the study. With regards to the enhancement of quality teaching and learning, the

literature generally agrees that, each teaching methods has its impact on the academic

performance of students.

Basic Science and Technology is a core subject in secondary school sciences and involve

both theory and practical which learners are expected to acquire basic knowledge. As a result of

the importance of this field of study to advancement in science and technology and generally to

nation building, the teaching and learning of the subject in secondary schools have received

attention by policy makers and implementers over the years.

Literature review also revealed that there is an effect of Gender on the performance of

students. It is worth noting that, male students perform better than their female counterparts.
 CHAPTER THREE
METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This chapter describes the method and procedure employed in data collection and

analysis. Presentation was done under the following sub-heading: research design, population

and sample of the study, sampling techniques and instrument for data collection. It also included

validity and reliability of the instrument, procedure for data collection and method of data

analysis.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

This study employed the quasi-experimental research design. The design was considered

appropriate for the study because in involves getting data from two groups of students, that is the

experimental group and the control group. A pretest was given to both groups before any

treatment was administered so as to determine students' entry behavior. After treatment had been

administered, a post-test was then given to both groups. The aim of this design is to compare the

scores of the two selected school in Jos North Local Government Area. The study design is

illustrated below

Experimental group O1 X O2
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Control group O3 O4
O1= Pre-test for experimental group

O2= Post-test for experimental group

O3= Pre-test for control group

O4 = Post-test for control group

X= Treatment
The dotted line between the experimental and control group indicates the non – randomization.

3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

3.2.1 Population

The population of the study consisted of all students of public Junior Secondary three in

Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State. Jos North has a total number of ninety four

(94) Junior secondary schools, 68 are private owned and 26 are public schools.

Table 1: Population Distribution of Public Junior Secondary Schools in Jos North, LGA,
Plateau State
S/N School No. of Students Total
Male Female
1 A 13 17 30
2 B 7 5 12
3 C 30 33 63
4 D 15 13 28
5 E 23 17 40
6 F 44 28 72
7 G 39 45 84
8 H 45 46 89
9 I 20 20 40
10 J 15 18 33
11 K 68 80 148
12 L 16 18 34
13 M 11 20 31
14 N 25 15 40
15 O 26 42 68
16 P 45 79 124
17 Q 31 31 62
18 R 35 42 77
19 S 83 94 177
20 T 18 18 36
21 U 2 5 7
22 V 77 78 155
23 W 16 19 35
24 X 18 13 21
25 Y 11 46 57
26 Z 25 20 45
TOTAL 1,608
3.2.2 Sample

The sample for the study constitute 2 junior secondary schools randomly selected out of

the 26 public junior secondary schools in the study area.

S/N School No. of Students Total

Male Female
1. A 13 17 30
2. J 15 18 33
Total 66

3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Simple random sampling technique was used for the sample selection. Using simple

random sampling techniques, every member of the group has an equal chance been selected as a

member of a sample of the group. Some criteria used in selecting schools are based on: School

infrastructure, well equipped laboratory equipment for practical and experimental analysis.

School had present student for external examinations like the JSSCE. School has population of at

least 25 students in sciences.

From the above criteria, eight schools met the criteria. The researcher purposively

selected two schools out of the eight. The two schools were chosen using a simple random

technique. The sample size consist of thirty three (30) and thirty-three (33) students respectively

from the two (2) mixed schools in Jos-North education zone representing thirteen (13) male and

seventeen (17) female from the first school and fifteen (15) male and eighteen (18) female from

the second school were be sampled.

3.4 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The instrument for data collection used in this study is Basic Science and Technology

Performance Test (BTPT).

3.4.1 Description of instrument
The Basic Science and Technology Performance Test (BTPT) was divided into two (2)

sections namely; A and B. Section A is called students bio data which consist of the name of

school, class and gender of the students. Section B consists of twenty (20) objective test items.

Each item has four (4) options A, B, C and D. 100 marks was allocated (that is, 5marks for each

objective question). Sixty three (63) copies of the test items were produced.

3.4.2 Procedure for development of instrument

Basic Science and Technology Performance Test (BTPT) was developed from the topic

“Classifications of Living things” for the study base on JSSCE curriculum and past WAEC

examination. BTPT was used to measure the performance of students in both pre-test and post-

test.

3.4.3 Instrument administration

In the course of this research work, Experimental Group (EG) and the Control Group

(CG) were pre-tested using Basic Science and Technology Performance Test (BTPT) to ascertain

their group equivalence on the level of understanding of the research topic at the start of the

study. Students from experimental group were taught for the period of two weeks using the

reflective discussion method of teaching. To the control group same concepts were taught using

the normal conventional method of teaching for a period of two weeks. After the treatment both

groups were post-tested using same instrument, which was reshuffled to make it look different.

The mean scores of the two groups collected were subjected to independent t-test statistics to

determine their achievement level for all research hypotheses.

3.5 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

3.5.1 Validity
Validity is the exactness and precision of deductions based on the findings from the

research Mugenda and Mugenda (2016). The validation of the instruments was carried out to

check correctness of the data collection instruments, pre-testing of study instruments, before the

actual study support criterion and construction validation of the tools. Comments were made on

language, clarity, relevance of the items, format structure and content of the research instrument

in order to deem it acceptable. Suggestions were made on rewarding questions, adding questions,

established by expert from the research measurement and evaluation as well as Education

Technology from University of Jos.

3.5.2 Reliability

The reliability co-efficient of the Basic Science and Technology Performance Test

(BTPT) was determined using Kuder-Richardson formula 21 (KR-21) method and it was found

to be 0.81 which implies that the instrument was reliable for the study.

3.6 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION

The researcher sought for approval of study from the department by obtaining a letter of

introduction from the Head of Departments, Science and Technology Education to the principals

of the two (2) sampled schools. Then prepare lesson note after the lesson plan to teach the two

classes (that is experimental and control classes) using the same method of teaching to test their

entry behavior level in a pre-test. The researcher then rearrange the questions for post-test for

onward comparison of student’s performance in both group whether to accept or reject the

hypotheses. The raw scores of the students were collected and presented in tables for analysis.
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The researcher employed specific method of data analysis for each research question and

hypothesis. The researcher employed descriptive and inferential statistical methods of analysis.

The mean, standard deviation was used in answering the research questions one and two while T-

test analysis at 0.05 level of scientific test the statistical significance of differences in mean of

two selected research groups on pre-test- and post-test results. T-test was used because it

nullifies distortion arising from regression of score of subject between pre-test- scores as well as

the effect of reactive engagement of subjects to the new treatment condition rather than on the

actual treatment.