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History 1
1. Write a Note on:
a) Giuseppe Mazzini:
 He was an Italian revolutionary, born in the year 1807 in Genoa.
 He was a member of the secret society of Carbonari.
 He was sent to exile in 1831 because he attempted a revolution in Liguria.
 ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne were the names of the
societies he founded.
 The members were from Poland, Italy, France and the German states, who were quite
young and likeminded.
 He believed that God had intended to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could
not be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.It had to be forged into a single
nation.
 This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.His opposition to Monarchy
and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives.
 Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order

b) Count Camilo de Cavour:

 He was a chief minister in Sardinia-Piedmont state.
 He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
 He led the movement to unify Italy .
 He spoke French quite better as compared to Italian.
 He developed a diplomatic alliance with France.
 It helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat Austria in 1859, which made the northern part of
Italyfree.

2. c) The Greek War of Independence:

Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth
of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence
amongst the Greeks, which began in 1821.

Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised
public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.

Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from
many West Europeans, who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent

nation.
d) The Frankfurt Parliament:
 All-German National Assembly which was formed by the middle-class professionals,
businessmen and artisans belonging to different regions.
 Convened on 18 May in St. Paul church, in Frankfurt city.
 831 elected representatives who gathered at St.Paul church drafted a constitution .
 This assembly helped the German nation to be a monarchy headed country subjected
to a parliament.
 When the deputies offered crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV,King of
Prussia ,he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
 It faced opposition from the military and aristocracy.
 It was disbanded on 31 May, 1849.

e) The role of women in nationalist struggles:

Women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism
with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push
their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a
constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

 Giving political rights to women was controversial with liberal movement.

 Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken
part
 in political meetings and demonstrations

 Women were denied suffrage during Assembly election days.

 Women were seen as observers, who could stand in the visitor’s gallery.

2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity
among the French people?
Ans: Following are the important steps taken by French revolutionaries to make an identity
among French people :

 The ideas of ‘La Patrie’ (the fatherland) and ‘Le Citoyen’ (the citizen) emphasised the
notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
 A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
 New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name
of the nation.
  A centralised administrative system was put in place, and it formulated uniform laws
for all citizens within its territory.
 Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and
measures was adopted.
 Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris,
became the common language of the nation.
 The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the
French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism. In other words, to
help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which
they were portrayed?
Ans: Marianne and Germania were female allegories of French and German respectively.

Marianne, a popular Christian name – underlined the idea of a people’s nation.

Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the
public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

The image of Marianne was marked on coins and stamps.

Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism

4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Ans: The process of German unification are:
 Around the 1800s, feelings of being nationalist were there in the middle-class
German.
 To create a nation-state from various German states, they united in 1848.
 This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined
forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called
Junkers) of Prussia.
 From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national
unification.
 Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out
with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years –
with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the
process of unification.
 In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.

Question 5.
What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in
 the territories ruled by him?
Solution:
The following changes were introduced by Napoleon to make the administrative system
more efficient in the territories ruled by him :

1. Civil Code of 1804 or the Napoleonic Code was issued. It abolished all privileges
based on birth. It established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
2. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland,
in
Italy and Germany. ,
3. The feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial
dues.
4. Guild restrictions were removed in towns.
5. Improvements were made in the transport and communication systems.

Uniform laws, standardized weights, and measures, and a common national currency was
introduced. It facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to
another. In view of the above reforms it is stated that through a return to monarchy, Napoleon
had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field, he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efficient

Discuss
1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political
social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the various national movements pioneered by educated
middle classes alongside the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in
Europe. The liberal middle classes came together to voice their demands for the creation of nation-
states based on parliamentary principles. –a constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
 Politically, liberalism stood for equality, freedom, formation and working of government by consent.
It meant that the middle class liberals demanded for the end of monarchy and wanted the country to
become a republic where people had freedom to express themselves.
 Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birth rights. Serfdom and
bonded labour had to be abolished and extention of universal adult franchise to the women
 Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right to property. The abolition of state-
imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

I.

2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of

nationalism in Europe.
Ans: Three examples that show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in
Europe are:

Language:

Language played a very important role. After the Russian occupation, the Polish language
was forced out of schools, and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The Clergy in
Poland began using language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church
gatherings and all religious instructions. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of
struggle against Russian dominance.

Romanticism:

It was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist

sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and
science, and focussed instead on emotions, intuition and mystic feelings. They tried to portray
a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.

Folk poetry, folk dance, folk songs:

The true spirit of the nation was popularised through the above means. So collecting and
recording these forms of folk culture was an essential part of nation-building.

3. Though a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19 th
century.
Focus countries – Germany and Italy.

Germany
 Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power
and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by
which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states.

Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German

Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large
landowners called the ‘Junkers of Prussia’. Three wars over seven years with Austria,
Denmark, and France ended in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, the Prussian King
William I was proclaimed German emperor.
Italy

. Describe the process of Unification of Italy.

Answer: Unification of Italy:

(i) During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states of which
only one,Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.

(ii) The unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Giuseppe Mazzini, Count
Camillo de Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi

(iii) During 1830, Mazzini decided to unite Italy. He had formed a secret society ‘Young
Italy’ to achieve his goal.

(iv) After earlier failures in 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II took to unify the
Italian states through wars.

(v) Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont

succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

(viii) Under the leadership of Garibaldi armed volunteers marched into South Italy in
1860 and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the
local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.

(ix) In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans: Given below are the points regarding the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest
of Europe:
 In Britain, the nation-state formation was not a result of the sudden revolution.
 The primary identity of people who inhabited the British Isles were – English, Welsh,
Scot or Irish.
 The Union Act of 1707 between Scotland and England formed the ‘United Kingdom
of Great Britain’, which means now England will impose influence on Scotland. The
culture and Political institutions of Scotland were suppressed.
 Scottish were not allowed to speak Gaelic language and wear their national dress.
  England helped Protestants of Ireland to bring their dominance on the Catholic
country.
 The British Flag, national anthem, language were the symbols of new Britain, which
were promoted.

5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Ans: Following are the points of nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans:
 Tensions with nationalism emerged in the Balkans since the idea of romantic
nationalism spread. The Ottoman Empire used to rule over this area.
 Various Salvic communities in the Balkans began to struggle for independent rule.
 They wanted more territory as they were jealous of each other.
 The imperial power in the Balkans made conditions worse.
 England, Germany, Russia and Austro-Hungary wanted more control in this area.
 This conflict led to the First World War in 1914.