UNIT V RADAR TRANSMITTERS

AND RECEIVERS
Radar Transmitter, Linear Beam Power Tubes, Solid State RF
Power Sources, Magnetron, Crossed Field Amplifiers, Other
RF Power Sources. The Radar Receiver, Receiver noise
power, Super Heterodyne Receiver, Duplexers and Receiver
Protectors- Radar Displays. Radar Antenna - Reflector
Antennas - Electronically Steered Phased Array Antennas –
Phase Shifters
Simplified Radar Transmitter/Receiver

Radar transmitter and receiver can be divided into two major subsystems:
– Low power transmit and receive sections
Radar waveform generator and receiver
– High power transmitter sections
Radar Transmitter - Ideal
• Provides sufficient energy to detect the target

• Easily modulated to produce desired waveforms

• Generate stable noise free signal for good clutter rejection

• Provide needed tunable bandwidth

• High efficiency • Easily maintainable

• High reliability • Long life

• Small and light weight • Affordable

• Obviously compromise is necessary

 RF Power Sources
 Linear – Beam Tubes – Klystron, Traveling Wave
Tube, Twystron, Extended Interaction amplifier

 Solid State Power Sources – BJT, FET, GaN

transistors
 Crossed Field Tubes - Magnetron

 Others
 Linear Beam Power Tubes
 The electrons emitted from the cathode are formed into a long
cylindrical beam that receives the full potential energy of the
electric field before the beam enters the RF interaction region.
 Axial Magnetic field is used to confine the electron beam and
keep electrons from hitting the RF structure.
 Transit Time effect is used to density modulate the uniform dc
electron beam to create bunches from which RF energy can be
extracted.
 Produce higher power
 Larger size and high voltages
 Klystron
 The cathode emits a stream of electrons that is
formed into a narrow cylindrical beam by electron
gun.

 The electron gun consists of the cathode (the

source of electrons), modulating anode (Turning
the beam on and off to generate pulses) and
anode.
 Klystron
 The electron emission density at the surface of the
cathode is less than that required for the electron beam, so
a large area cathode surface is used and the emitted
electrons are caused to converge to a narrow beam of high
electron density.

 The multiple RF cavities are at anode potential.

 Electrons are collected by the collector electrode after the

beam has given up its RF energy to the output RF cavity.
Klystron
 Klystron
 The RF input signal is applied across the interaction gap of the first

cavity.

 Those electrons which arrive at the gap when the input signal voltage is

a maximum (peak of the sine wave) experience a voltage greater than

those electrons which arrive at the gap when the input is at a minimum

(trough of the sine wave).

 Thus the electrons that see the peak of the sine wave are speeded up

and those that see the trough are slowed down.

 The process whereby some electrons are speeded up and others

slowed down is called velocity modulation of the electron beam.

 Klystron
 In the drift space, electrons that are speeded up during the peak of

one cycle catch up with those slowed down during the previous cycle.

 The result is that the electrons of the velocity-modulated beam

become "bunched," or density modulated, after traveling through the

drift space.

 A klystron usually has one or more appropriately placed intermediate

cavities to enhance the bunching of the electron beam, which increases

the gain.

 If the interaction gap of the output cavity is placed at the point of

maximum bunching, power can be extracted from the density-

modulated beam.
Klystron
 After the bunched electron beam delivers its RF
power to the output cavity, the energy of the
electron beam that remains is dissipated when
the spent electrons are removed by the collector.

 The energy dissipated by the collector is energy

lost and reduces the efficiency of the tube.
 Klystron
 If the collector is insulated from the body of the tube and
a negative voltage is applied to the collector, the electrons
in the spent beam will have lower kinetic energy so that
less heat is produced when they impact upon the collector.
 This results in an increase in the efficiency of the tube.
 There is a spread, however, in the velocities of the
electrons in the beam; so if the potential is too negative,
some of the slower velocity electrons will be returned to
the walls of the RF section of the tube and be collected as
body current, with a decrease in efficiency.
Klystron
 This problem is overcome by employing a
collector with several segments insulated from
one another and with different negative
potentials so that electrons with different
velocities can be separated and collected at their
optimum potential.
 Traveling Wave Tube
 TWT is a linear beam tube with the cathode, RF
circuit, Collector separated from one another.
 There is continuous interaction of the electron
beam and the RF field over the entire length of
the propagating structure of TWT.

 It has wide bandwidth

Traveling Wave Tube
 Traveling Wave Tube
 A helix is shown for the slow wave RF structure.

 The electron beam is similar to that of the klystron.

 TWT employ the principle of velocity modulation

to cause the electron-beam current to be
periodically bunched (density modulation).

 The electron beam passes thorough the RF

interaction circuit known as the slow-wave
structure, or periodic delay line.
Traveling Wave Tube
 The velocity of propagation of the RF signal is
slowed down by the periodic delay line so
that it is nearly equal to the velocity of the
electron beam.
 This is the reason that the helix and other
microwave circuits used in TWTs are called
slow-wave structures.
Traveling Wave Tube
 The synchronism between the
electromagnetic wave propagating along the
slow-wave structure and the d-c electron
beam propagating inside the helix results in a
cumulative interaction which transfers d-c
energy from the electron beam to increase
the energy of the RF wave, causing the wave
to be amplified.
Traveling Wave Tube
 An axial magnetic field keeps the electron
beam from dispersing as it travels down
the tube.
 After delivering their d-c energy to the RF
field on the slow-wave structure, the
electrons are removed by the collector.
Hybrid Tubes
 Twystron
 Extended interaction klystron
 Clustered-cavity klystron
 Solid State RF Power Sources
 Solid state power generation device

– Transistor amplifier (silicon bipolar and gallium arsenide)

 Inherently low power and low gain

 Operates with low voltages and has high reliability

 To increase output power, transistors are operated in

parallel with more than 1 stage

 Solid State RF Power Sources
 A module might consist of 8 transistors

– Four in parallel as the final stage, followed by

– Two in parallel, as the second stage, followed by

– Two in series, as the driver stages

Solid-state devices in radar
 As a transmitter for a low-power application

 As a high-power transmitter ,where a large number of

individual transistors are combined with microwave circuitry

 Many modules distributed on a mechanically steered planar

array (such as a 3D radar)

 with a module at each of the many elements of an

electronically scanned phased array (active aperture).
 Advantages of Solid State devices
 Long MTBF (mean time between failures).

 Maintenance is relatively easy with the modular

construction.

 Very wide bandwidths can be obtained

 No cathode heater is required.

 Operate at much lower voltages than RF power tubes.

 No pulse modulator is required.

 low noise and good stability

Magnetron
 It is a high power RF power source which is a
power oscillator.

 It is a crossed field device – Electric field and its

magnetic field are perpendicular to one another.
 Compact size

 Efficient operation
Coaxial Magnetron
 Improvement in the power, efficiency,
stability, and life.
 Incorporation of a built-in stabilizing cavity
surrounding the conventional magnetron.
 Coaxial Magnetron
 The "fat" oxide-coated cathode is at the center.

 Cathode is surrounded by number of RF resonant cavities defined by

the radial vanes.

 Between the cathode and the resonant cavities is the interaction space
where the electrons interact with the d-c electric field and the static
magnetic field in such a manner that the electrons give up their d-c
energy to the RF field.

 The crossed electric and magnetic fields cause the electrons to be

"bunched" almost as soon as they are emitted from the cathode.

 After bunching, the electrons move along in a traveling-wave field that

is almost the same speed as that of the electrons.
Coaxial Magnetron
 Coaxial Magnetron
 The frequency of a coaxial magnetron can be
changed by mechanically moving one of the
end plates, called a tuning piston, of the
stabilizing cavity.
 The tuning piston can be positioned
mechanically from outside the vacuum by
means of a vacuum bellows.
Coaxial Magnetron
 There is also an inverted form of the coaxial
magnetron (an inside-out) version with the
anode and resonant cavities in the center and the
cathode around the outer perimeter of the tube.
 It is supposed to provide better performance at
higher frequencies when the cavity becomes small
and the regular type of coaxial magnetron would
result in a small cathode.
 π Mode of Operation
 The preferred magnetron mode of operation

 π mode occurs when the RF field configuration is such that the RF

phase alternates 180° (π radians) between adjacent cavities.

 The advantage of the π mode is that its frequency can be more readily

separated from the frequencies of the other possible modes.

 An N-cavity magnetron has N/2 possible modes of oscillation.

 The π mode oscillates at only a single frequency, but the other modes

can oscillate at two different frequencies, so that the magnetron can

oscillate at a total of N- 1 different frequencies.

 Coaxial Magnetron
 The output of every other resonant cavity is coupled to a

stabilizing cavity that surrounds the anode structure

 The output power is then coupled from the stabilizing cavity.

 The cavity operates in the TE011 mode with the electric lines

closed on themselves and concentric with the circular cavity.

 The RF current at every point on the circumference of the cavity

has the same phase, so that the alternate slots which couple to

the stabilizing cavity are of the same phase as required for π -

mode operation.
Crossed Field Amplifiers
 Magnetic field and electric field are
perpendicular to one another
 Similar in appearance to the magnetron
except that the RF circuit is interrupted
to provide the input and output
connection
Crossed Field Amplifiers
 High efficiency
 Lower voltage
 Lighter in weight
 Smaller in size
 Wide bandwidth
 High peak and average power
 Good Phase stability
 Low gain
Crossed Field Amplifiers
 For radar, CFAs usually have the form diagrammed in Fig. 10.6, which is
reentrant with distributed emission.

 Distributed emission means that, like the magnetron, the cathode is

adjacent to the full length of the RF structure.

 Electrons are emitted from the cylindrical cathode, which is coaxial to the
RF slow-wave circuit that acts as the anode.

 The electrons, under the action of the crossed electric and magnetic fields,
form into rotating electron (space-charge) bunches, or spokes.

 These bunches drift along the slow-wave circuit in phase with the RF signal
and transfer their d-c energy to the RF wave to produce amplification.
 Crossed Field Amplifiers
 The spent electrons that remain after their energy is extracted are collected

by the slow-wave anode structure.

 The electrons that are not collected after their energy is extracted at the

output are permitted to reenter the RF interaction area at the input, which is

the reason such a tube is called reentrant.

 Some of the reentering electrons contain modulation (bunched electrons)

that will be amplified in the next pass around the RF circuit.

 To prevent this, a drift space is included between the output and input ports.

 In the drift space, space charge forces cause the electron bunches to disperse,

removing any modulation that accompanies the reentering electrons.

Crossed Field Amplifiers
Other RF Power Sources
 Microwave Power Modules (MPM)

 Grid – Control Tubes

 Inductive Output Tube (IOT) or Klystrode

 Constant Efficiency Amplifier

 Gyrotrons

 Multiple – Beam Klystrons

Microwave Power Modules (MPM)
The MPM combines in a single unit a solid-state MMIC

(monolithic microwave integrated circuit) amplifier driving a moderate-

power helix traveling-wave tube, along with an integrated power

conditioner in a compact lightweight package.

Microwave Power Modules (MPM)
 It provides an RF power source with

◦ high efficiency

◦ wide instantaneous bandwidth,

◦ low noise

◦ average power levels from several tens to several hundreds of

watts.

◦ It is smaller and lighter

◦ operates at high ambient temperatures.

 Grid-Control Tubes
 Microwave version of the classical triode or tetrode vacuum tube.

 These tubes employ a cathode to generate electrons, an anode to collect

them, and one (if a triode) or two (if a tetrode) control grids in between.

 A voltage applied to the control grid control the number of electrons

traveling from the cathode to the anode.

 By varying the voltage on the control grid, the number of electrons that

reach the plate also varies.

 The process by which the electron density of the electron stream is

modulated by the signal on the control grid to produce amplification is

called density modulation.

Grid-Control Tubes
 The grid-controlled tube is capable of
◦ high power,

◦ wide bandwidth,

◦ good efficiency,

◦ inherent long life;

◦ low or moderate gain.

It can be used only at the lower radar frequencies.

Inductive Output Tube or Klystrode
 Klystrode - The device resembled the klystron in the
region between the anode and the collector and it
resembled a tetrode in the region between cathode
and anode.
 The density modulation of the electron beam was
performed by a grid rather than by an input resonant
cavity and drift space that induced velocity
modulation on the electrons as in the klystron.
Constant-Efficiency Amplifier (CEA)
 This device is obtained by combining the Inductive
Output Tube (IOT) with a multistage depressed
collector similar to that used in klystrons and TWTs.

 The CEA was developed for the television industry.

 The CEA, however, does not operate at frequencies

higher than UHF.
 Gyrotrons
 The gyrotron, does not employ a resonant slow-wave structure.

 It is based on a fast-wave structure such as a smooth circular tube

(one where the phase velocity of the electromagnetic wave is greater
than the speed of light).

 The diameter of the gyrotron circuit can be several wavelengths and

the electron beam need not be placed close to the RF structure.

 Since the size limitations of conventional microwave power sources

with resonant circuits are not present in gyrotrons, their power
handling capability can be considerably greater.
Multiple-Beam Klystrons
 In a conventional klystron with a single electron beam, the power
can be increased by increasing the already high beam voltage.

 Instead of increasing the beam voltage to obtain greater power, it is

possible to employ many electron beams that pass through individual
channels located in a single multichannel drift tube.

 The total power is the sum of the power extracted from each of the
lower-current electron beams.

 The number of beams has been from 6 to 61. Such a power

generator is known as a multiple-beam klystron (MBK).
Multiple-Beam Klystrons
 The significant reduction in beam voltage results in reduced
size and weight compared to a conventional klystron of
comparable power.

 Its magnet and power supply are smaller and lighter.

 The geometry of the multiple beams of the MBK allows an

increase in bandwidth because of an increase in perveance.

 The lower voltage also can eliminate the need for lead
shielding to screen against X-ray radiation.
Radar Receiver
 The function of the radar receiver is to detect
desired echo signals in the presence of noise,
interference, or clutter.
 It must separate wanted from unwanted signals,
and amplify the wanted signals to a level where
target information can be displayed to an
operator or used in an automatic data processor.
Modern Radar Receivers
 It employs a matched filter - to maximize the peak-
signal-to-mean-noise-ratio and discriminate against
unwanted signals whose waveforms are different from
those transmitted by the radar.
 When the clutter echoes are large enough to mask
desired target echoes, the receiver also has to
incorporate means for separating the moving targets
from stationary clutter echoes by recognizing the
doppler frequency shift of the moving targets
 Modern Radar Receivers
Modern RADAR Receivers:

 Decision not by operator – automatic (Threshold

Detection)

 Constant false alarm rate(CFAR) circuitry

 External interference are kept away

 Detection, amplification, signal processing, information

extraction, data processing, EM compatibility, display etc.

Receiver Noise Figure
 The receiver noise figure is a measure of the noise produced by a
practical receiver compared to the noise of an ideal receiver.

 The noise figure of a linear network may be defined as

 The noise figure can be expanded as

ΔN  additional noise introduced by the network itself.

Receiver Noise Figure
where Nout  available output noise power;
Nin = kT0Bn  available input noise power;
k  Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/deg;
T0  standard temperature of 290 K
Bn  noise bandwidth
G = Sout/Sin  available gain;
Sout  available output signal power;
Sin = available input signal power.
Noise Figure of Networks in Cascade
NF of two circuits in cascade is

The noise figure of N networks in cascade may be shown to be

Noise Temperature
 The noise introduced by a network may also be expressed as the
effective noise temperature, Te, defined as the (fictional)
temperature at the input of the network, that accounts for the
additional noise ∆N at the output.

where ∆N = kTeBnG

 The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a

number of networks in cascade is

where T and G are the effective noise temperature & gain of the ith network.
System Noise Temperature
 The system noise temperature Ts is defined as the effective
noise temperature of the receiver including the effects of
antenna temperature Ta.
 If the receiver effective noise temperature is Te, then

where Fs is the system noise figure.

 This equation also defines the system noise figure when it
includes the effects of the antenna temperature Ta and
receiver effective noise temperature Te.
Superheterodyne receiver

Block diagram of a conventional pulse radar with a superheterodyne receiver.

Superheterodyne receiver
 It converts the RF input signal to an intermediate frequency
(IF) where it is easier than at RF to achieve the necessary
filter shape, bandwidth, gain, and stability.
 An advantage of the superheterodyne receiver is that its
frequency can be readily changed by changing the frequency
of the local oscillator (LO).
 The first stage, or front-end, of a radar superheterodyne
receiver can be an RF low-noise amplifier (LNA) such as a
transistor.
Superheterodyne Receiver
 Low-noise RF amplifier
 Mixer
 Stable oscillator
 Phase Sensitive detector
Low-noise RF amplifier
 The first stage of a superheterodyne receiver for
radar application can be a transistor amplifier.

 At the lower radar frequencies the silicon

bipolar transistor has been used.
 Gallium-arsenide field-effect transistors (FET) are
found at the higher frequencies
 Mixers
 The incoming RF signal is converted to IF (intermediate

frequency).

 When the down conversion from RF to IF is performed in one

step, it is called single conversion.

 If down conversion is done in two steps with two mixers and IF

amplifiers. This is known as dual conversion.

 Dual conversion - avoid some forms of interference and

(spoofing) electronic countermeasures.

An ideal mixer - Characteristics
 low conversion loss

 introduce little additional noise of its own

 minimize spurious responses

 not be susceptible to burnout

Noise Figure of a Mixer
 The noise figure of a mixer is determined by its
conversion loss and noise-temperature ratio.

 The conversion loss of a mixer is defined as

 It is a measure of the efficiency of the mixer in

converting RF signal power into IF.
 Noise Figure of a Mixer
 The noise-temperature ratio of a mixer is defined as

where Fm  mixer noise figure

Lc  conversion loss= 1/Gc

The noise temperature ratio varies inversely with the IF frequency

Lower the conversion loss, the larger is the noise temperature ratio.
Receiver Noise Figure With Mixer Front-end
 The noise figure of a mixer is Fm = Lctr.

 The overall noise figure depends not only on the mixer stage, but also
on the noise figure of the IF amplifier.

 The noise figure of the first network (the mixer) is F1 = Lctr and its
gain is G1 = l/Lc

 The noise figure of the second network is that of the IF amplifier, so

that F2 = FIF·

 The receiver noise figure with a mixer front-end is then

 Mixer
 Converts the incoming RF (Radio Frequency) to
IF(Intermediate Frequency).

 An ideal mixer - output is proportional to the product of the

RF echo signal and the local oscillator (LO) signal.

 The mixer provides two output frequencies that are the sum
and difference of the two input frequencies, fRF ± fLo, (fRF > FLO)

 The difference frequency fRF - fLO is the desired IF frequency.

 The sum frequency fRF + fLO is rejected by filtering.

 Mixer
 Two possible difference frequency signals at the IF when a
signal appears at the RF.

fIF = fRF – fLO , (fRF > FLO)

fIF = fLO - fRF· (fRF < FLO)

 If one of these is at the desired signal frequency, the other is

the image frequency.

 Signals and receiver noise that appear at the image frequency

need to be rejected using either an RF filter or an image-
reject mixer
Types of Mixers
 Single-ended Mixer
 Balanced Mixer
 Double- balanced Mixer
 Image-rejection Mixer
 Image-recovery Mixer
Single-ended Mixer
 It uses a single diode that terminates a transmission line
and the LO is inserted via a directional coupler.

 A low-pass filter following the diode allows the IF to

pass while rejecting the RF and LO signals.
Single-ended Mixer
 The diode of a mixer is a nonlinear device and can produce
intermodulation products at other frequencies, called spurious
responses.
 These occur for any RF signal that satisfies the relation
mfRF + nfLO = fIF
where m and n are integers such that m, n =.. , -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ..
 These are unwanted since they appear within the radar
receiver bandwidth.
 Taylor proposed a mixer chart to determine the RF and LO
frequencies that are free from spurious responses.
Balanced Mixer
 Method to eliminate LO noise

 Two single ended mixer in parallel and 180o out of phase.

 A 4-port junction such as magic-T, hybrid junction or

3dB coupler is used.
 Balanced Mixer
 The LO is applied to one port and RF is applied to a second port.

 The signals inserted at these two ports appear in the third port as
their sum and in the four port as their difference.

 At one diode, the sum of the RF and LO signals appears, and at the
other diode is the difference of the two signals.

 The IF signal is obtained by subtracting the outputs of the two

diode mixers

 The balanced diodes are shown reversed so that the IF outputs can
be added to obtain the required difference between the two
channels.
Image-Rejection Mixer
 The RF signal is split into two and fed into two individual
mixers.

 The LO is fed into one port of a 90o hybrid junction that

produces 90o phase difference between the LO inputs to
the two mixers

 A second hybrid junction (IF) imparts another 90o phase

shift to separate the image frequency.

 The port with the image frequency is match terminated.

Image-Rejection Mixer
Image-Rejection Mixer
 Advantages
◦ High Dynamic range
◦ Good VSWR.
◦ Low Inter-modulation Products.
◦ Less susceptibility to Burn out.
 Drawbacks
◦ Provides only 30dB image rejection, which may not be
suitable for some applications.
◦ High noise figure.
 Duplexers
 Most radar systems use one antenna to perform the
transmit and receive functions.

 The duplexer must be able to perform the following main

functions:
◦ Connect the transmitter to the antenna (and disconnect the
receiver)during the sending period.

◦ Connect the receiver to the antenna (and disconnect the

transmitter) during the receive period.

◦ Provide for adequate isolation between the receiver and transmitter

at all times
Balanced Duplexer
 The balanced duplexer is based on the short slot hybrid junction
which consists of two sections of waveguides joined along one of
their narrow walls with a slot cut in the common wall to provide
coupling between the two.
 The short-slot hybrid junction may be thought of as a broadband
directional coupler with a coupling ratio of 3 dB.
 Two TR tubes are used, one in each section of waveguide.
 The short-slot hybrid junction has the property that each time
power passes through the slot in either direction, its phase is
advanced by 90°.
 Balanced Duplexer - Transmit Mode
 In the transmit condition, power is divided equally into each waveguide by the first

hybrid junction (on the left).

 Both gas-discharge TR tubes break down and reflect the incident power out the

antenna arm

 The power travels as indicated by the solid lines.

 Any power that leaks through the TR tubes (shown by the dashed lines) is directed to

the arm with the matched dummy load and not to the receiver.
Balanced Duplexer - Receive Mode
 On reception the TR tubes do not fire and the echo signals pass
through the duplexer and into the receiver

 The power splits equally at the first junction and because of the 90°
phase advance on passing through the slot, the signal recombines in
the receiving arm and not in the arm with the dummy load.
Receiver Protector
These are limiters which provide protection
from the high-power radiation of other
radars that might enter the radar antenna
with less power than necessary to activate
the duplexer, but with greater power than
can be safely handled by the receiver.
Receiver Protector – Diode Limiter
 A PIN diode limiter placed in front of the receiver helps
reduce the leakage and act as a receiver protector

 A diode limiter passes low power with negligible attenuation,

but above some threshold it attenuates the signal so as to
maintain the output power constant.

 This property can be used for the protection of radar

receivers in two different implementations depending
whether the diodes are operated unbiased (self actuated) or
with a d-c forward-bias current.
Receiver Protector
 Passive TR-limiter
 Solid-state Receiver protectors, Diode Limiters
 Varactor Receiver protectors
 Ferrite limiters
 Pre-TR limiter
 Multipactor
 Circulators
Radar Displays
 Originally the radar display had the important purpose of
visually presenting the output of the radar receiver in a form
such that an operator could readily and accurately detect the
presence of a target and extract information about its
location.

 The display had to be designed so as not to degrade the radar

information and to make it easy for the operator to perform
with effectiveness the detection and information extraction
function.
Radar Displays
 As digital signal processing and digital data processing
improved, more and more of the detection and
information extraction process was performed
automatically by electronic means so that the role of
the operator was less.
 Processed detection and target information now are
displayed to the operator who has little responsibility
for making the actual detection decision.
 Radar Displays
 When the display is connected directly to the output of the
radar receiver without further processing, the output is called
raw video.
 When the receiver output is first processed by an automatic
detector or an automatic detector and tracker before display, it
is called synthetic video or processed video.
 The radar display is now more like the familiar television
monitor or computer display that shows the entire scene
continuously rather than just indicate the echoes from the
region currently illuminated by the narrow antenna beam.
Radar Displays - Types of Display Presentations
 A-scope: A deflection-modulated display in which the vertical deflection

is proportional to target echo strength and the horizontal coordinate is

proportional to range.

 B-scope: An intensity-modulated rectangular display with azimuth angle

indicated by the horizontal coordinate and range by the vertical

coordinate.

 C-scope: An intensity-modulated rectangular display with azimuth angle

indicated by the horizontal coordinate and elevation angle by the vertical

coordinate.

 D-scope: A C-scope in which the blips extend vertically to give a rough

estimate of distance.
Radar Displays - Types of Display Presentations

 E-scope: An intensity-modulated rectangular display with distance

indicated by the horizontal coordinate and elevation angle by the

vertical coordinate

 PPI or Plan Position Indicator (P-scope): An intensity modulated

circular display on which echo signals produced from reflecting objects

are shown in plan position with range and azimuth angle displayed in

polar (rho-theta) coordinates, forming a map-like display.

 RNI, or Range-Height Indicator: An intensity modulated display

with height (altitude) as the vertical axis and range as the horizontal axis
 Radar Displays - Types
 CRT Display

 Stroke and Raster Displays

 Scan Converter

 Flat panel displays (FPD)

 Color in RADAR Display

Radar Antenna - Functions
 Acts as the transducer between propagation in space

and guided-wave propagation in the transmission lines.

 Concentrates the radiated energy in the direction of the

target.

 Collects the echo energy scattered back to the radar

from a target.
Radar Antenna - Functions
 Measures the angle of arrival of the received echo signal so
as to provide the location of a target in azimuth, elevation, or
both.

 " Acts as a spatial filter to separate (resolve) targets in the

angle (spatial) domain, and rejects undesired signals from
directions other than the main beam.

 Provides the desired volumetric coverage of the radar.

 Usually establishes the time between radar observations of a

target (revisit time).
Antenna Parameters
 Directivity
 Gain
 Antenna Radiation Pattern
 Effective Aperture
 Polarization
Directive Gain or Directivity
 Gain is a measure of the ability of an antenna to concentrate
the transmitted energy in a particular direction.

 The directive gain of a transmitting antenna may be defined

as

 where the radiation intensity is the power per unit solid

angle radiated in the direction (θ, φ), and is denoted P(θ, φ).
Its units are watts per steradian.
Power Gain
 The power gain is related to the directive gain, but it takes
account of loss in the antenna itself.

 The power gain and the directive gain are related by the
radiation efficiency ρr as follows

 The radiation efficiency is also the ratio of the total power

radiated by the antenna to the net power accepted by the
antenna at its terminals.
Antenna Radiation Pattern
 A plot of the radiation intensity as a function of the angular
coordinates is called a radiation-intensity pattern.

 The power density, or power per unit area, when plotted as a

function of angle is called the power pattern.

 The power pattern and the radiation-intensity pattern are

identical when each is plotted on a relative basis; that is, when
the maximum is normalized to a value of unity.

 When plotted on a relative basis, they are called the antenna

radiation pattern.
Effective Aperture
 The effective aperture of a receiving antenna is a
measure of the effective area presented to the incident
wave by the antenna.

 Gain G and receiving effective area Ae of a lossless

antenna are related by
 Polarization
 The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is defined by the
orientation of the electric field.

 Most radar antennas are linearly polarized, with the orientation

of the electric field being either horizontal or vertical.

 Circular polarization occurs when the electric field rotates at a

rate equal to the RF frequency.

 Elliptical polarization, where the electric field also rotates at

the RF frequency; but the amplitude of the elliptically polarized
electric field varies during the rotation period.
Reflector Antennas
 The parabola works well as a reflector of electromagnetic
energy and has been the basis for many radar antennas.

 The parabolic surface is illuminated by a source of radiated

energy called the feed, which is placed at the focus of the
parabola.

 The parabola converts the spherical wave radiated from the

feed to a plane wave
Feeds For Paraboloids
 A simple half-wave dipole with a parasitic reflector to
direct most of its energy towards the antenna
aperture can be used as the feed for a paraboloid.
 An open-ended waveguide is usually preferred over a
dipole for microwave-radar reflector feeds.
 When more directivity is required from the feed
than is available from an open-ended waveguide, some
form of waveguide horn can be used.
Feeds for Paraboloids
 The dipole and the waveguide horn can be arranged to
feed the paraboloid from the rear.

 Front feed using a horn radiator at the focus.

(a) Rear feed using half-wave dipole with parasitic reflector;

(b) rear feed using horn;
(c) front feed using horn.
 Offset-Fed Reflector
 The feed is placed at the focus of the parabola, but the horn is tipped
(upwards in the figure) with respect to the parabola's axis.

 The lower half of the parabolic surface is removed, leaving that

portion shown by the solid curve in the figure.

 The feed is therefore outside the path of the energy reflected from
the antenna surface.

 There is no pattern deterioration due to aperture blocking

 Cassegrain Antenna
 This is a dual-reflector antenna, with the feed at or near the

vertex of the parabola rather than at its focus.

 The larger (primary) reflector has a parabolic contour and the

(secondary) sub reflector has a hyperbolic contour.

 Cassegrain Antenna
 One of the two foci of the hyperbola is the real focal point of the

system.

 The feed is located at this point, which can be at the vertex of the

parabola or, more usually, in front of it.

 The other focus is a virtual focal point and is located at the focus of

the primary parabolic surface.

 Parallel rays coming from a target are reflected by the parabola as a

convergent beam and are re-reflected by the hyperbolic sub reflector

so as to converge at the position of the feed.

Parameters that can directly influence the performance
of an antenna with integrated reflector:

 Dimensions of the reflector (Big ugly dish versus small

dish)

 Spillover (part of the feed antenna radiation misses the

reflector)

 Aperture blockage (also known as feed blockage)

 Illumination taper (feed illumination reduced at the

edges of the reflector)

 Reflector surface deviation

Array Antennas
 A linear array consists of antenna elements arranged in a straight
line in one dimension.
 A planar array is a two-dimensional configuration of antenna
elements arranged to lie in a plane.
 In both the linear and planar arrays, the element spacings usually are
uniform (equal spacing).

 A broadside array is one in which. the direction of maximum

radiation is perpendicular to the plane of the antenna.

 An endfire array has its maximum radiation parallel to the plane of

the array.
Electronically Steered Phased Array Antennas
 A phased array is a directive antenna made up of a number of
individual antennas, or radiating elements.

 Its radiation pattern is determined by the amplitude and phase of the

current at each of its elements.

 The phased array antenna has the advantage of being able to have its
beam electronically steered in angle by changing the phase of the
current at each element.

 The beam of a large fixed phased-array antenna therefore can be

rapidly steered from one direction to another without the need for
mechanically positioning a large and heavy antenna.
Electronically Steered Phased Array
Antennas - Characteristics
 Agile, rapid beam-steering.
 Large peak and large average power.
 Multiple-target tracking.
 A convenient means to employ solid-state transmitters.
 Convenient shape for flush mounting or for blast hardening.
 Control of the aperture illumination
 A lower radar cross section, if properly designed.
 Operation with more than one function (a multifunction radar),
especially if all functions are best performed at the same frequency
Radiation Patterns of Phased Arrays
 Consider a linear array made up of N elements equally spaced a
distance d apart.

 The elements are assumed to be isotropic radiators in that they

have uniform response for signals from all directions.

 The outputs received from all N elements are summed via lines of
equal length to produce a sum output voltage Ea.

 Element 1 will be taken as the reference with zero phase.

Radiation Patterns of Phased Arrays
 The difference in path length between adjacent
elements for signals arriving at an angle θ with
respect to the normal to the antenna, is d sin θ.
 The Phase difference between adjacent elements
is
φ = 2π(d/ λ) sin θ,
 where λ = wavelength of the received signal.
 Radiation Patterns of Phased Arrays
 For convenience, the amplitude of the received signal at
each element is taken as unity.

 The sum of all the voltages from the individual elements,

when the phase difference between adjacent elements is

φ, can be written

where ω is the angular frequency of the signal.

Radiation Patterns of Phased Arrays
 The sum can be written

 The magnitude represents the field-intensity pattern

 The normalized radiation pattern of an array of

isotropic elements, which is the array factor
Radiation Patterns of Phased Arrays
 The half-power beamwidth of this uniformly
illuminated array of N elements when d = λ/2 is
approximately

 When directive elements are used

 This is the product of the element factor Ge(θ) times

the array factor Ga(θ ).
Beam Steering
 The beam of a linear array can be steered in angle by changing the

relative time delays between the elements.

 Consider two elements of a many-element array spaced a distanced

apart.

 The signal from a direction θ0 , relative to the normal to the two

elements, arrives at element 2 before it arrives at element 1.

 If the signal is delayed at element 2 for a time ∆T = (d/c) sin θ, it will

be in time coincidence (congruent) with the signal at element 1.

 If they are added together, it is as though the "main beam" of this

simple two-element array was pointed in the direction θ0 .

Beam Steering

(a) Beam steering based on true time-delay;

(b) Beam steering using a phase shifter that is variable over the range from 0
to 2π radians.
Beam Steering
 Beam steering occurs by changing the time delay.

 Inserting variable true time-delays at each element of a many-

element phased array, however, can be quite complicated and is
generally unattractive with available technology.

 Instead, it is much simpler to employ a (modulo 2π) phase shift

equal to φ = 2πf0∆T = 2π(d/ λ) sin θ0 , where f0 = frequency.

 The signals are then in phase rather than coincident in time.

Feeding an Array - Parallel-fed array
 Variable phase shifters may be used at each element
of a linear array to steer the beam. This is parallel-
fed array.

 The difference in phase between elements is φ =

2π(d/ λ) sin θ0
Feeding an Array - Series-fed array

 Each phase shifter has the same phase,

which means that only one steering
command (the phase )need be generated,
as compared to the N- l phase commands
needed for the parallel-fed array.
Feeding an Array - Series-fed array

Series-fed from one end

Series-fed from the center

Phase Shifters
 The shift in phase of a signal of wavelength λ
transiting a line of length l at a velocity v is

where the frequency f = v/ λ,

µ =permeability

ε =permittivity.

 The velocity of propagation v,

Methods for obtaining a change in Phase Shift
 Frequency

 Line length - by electronically switching in or out various lengths of

transmission line to achieve the desired phase shift

 Permeability - Ferrite, or ferrimagnetic, materials exhibit a change in

permeability, when the applied magnetic field is changed

 Permittivity - The permittivity of ferroelectric materials changes with a

change in applied voltage. A change in the current of an electrical discharge

also results in a change in the electron density which produces a change in

permittivity.

 Velocity - Changes in µ and ε cause the velocity of propagation to change.

Phase shifters for radar applications should be:
 Able to change phase rapidly

 Capable of handling high peak and high average power

 Require control signals that operate with little drive power

 Low loss

 Insensitive to changes in temperature

 Small in size, Low weight, Low cost

Types of Phase Shifters

 Diode Phase Shifters
 Ferrite Phase Shifters
Diode Phase Shifters
The semiconductor diode works well as a
switching device for radar phase shifters. They are
capable of relatively high power and low loss, and
they can be switched rapidly from one state to
another.
 Methods by which diodes have been used
◦ Digitally Switched Lines
◦ Hybrid Coupled
◦ Loaded-line
Digitally Switched Lines
 A digital phase shifter can be obtained using a cascade of switched
lines of length λ/2, λ /4, λ/8, ...

 An N-bit phase shifter has N line lengths.

 A four-bit cascade of digitally switched phase shifters is capable of

switching in or out lengths of line equal to λ/16, λ/8, λ/4, and λ/2 to
obtain a quantization level of λ/16, which corresponds to a phase
increment of 360/16 = 22.5°.
 Digitally Switched Lines
 Each phase bit consists of two lengths of line that provide the
differential phase shift, and two single-pole, double-throw switches
made up of four diodes.

 When the upper two switches are open, the lower two are closed,
and vice versa.

 In the "zero" phase state, the phase shift is not zero, but is some
residual amount φ0 , so that the two states are φ0 and φ0 + ∆φ0 .
The difference ∆φ0 is the desired phase increment.
Hybrid Coupled
 The hybrid-coupled phase bit uses a 3-dB hybrid
junction with balanced reflecting terminations
connected to the coupled arms.

 Two switches (diodes) control the phase change.

Hybrid Coupled
 The 3-dB hybrid junction has the property that a
signal at port 1 is divided equally in power between
ports 2 and 3, and no signal power appears at port 4.
 The diodes act to either pass or reflect the incident
signals, depending on the bias applied to the diode.
 When the diodes allow the signals to pass, they are
reflected by short circuits located farther down the
transmission lines.
Hybrid Coupled
 The reflected signals combine at port 4, but no reflected signal appears

at port l.

 If the diode impedances are such as to reflect rather than pass the

signals, the total path length traveled is less.

 The difference ∆l is the two-way path length with the diode switches

open and closed, and is chosen to correspond to the desired increment

of digitized phase shift.

 An N-bit phase shifter can be obtained by cascading N such hybrid

junctions and diode switches, with different lengths of lines for each bit.
 Loaded Line
 It consists of a transmission line periodically loaded with spaced, switched
impedances, or susceptances.

 Diodes are used to switch between the two states of susceptance.

 The spacing between diodes is one-quarter wavelength at the operating

frequency.

 Each pair of diodes spaced a quarter-wave apart produces an increment of

the total phase required.

 The number of pairs of shunt susceptances determines the total

transmission phase shift.
 Ferrite Phase Shifters
 Ferrite phase shifters are two-port devices that may be either analog
or digital with either reciprocal or nonreciprocal characteristics.

 They are generally used at the higher microwave frequencies since

their loss decreases with increasing frequency.

 Ferrites are generally preferred over diode phase shifters for radars
above S band.

 The basic operation occurs by the interaction of electromagnetic

waves with the spinning electrons of the ferrite material to produce a
change in the microwave permeability of the ferrite, and therefore a
change in phase.
References
 Merrill .I. Skolnik, “Introduction to Radar
Systems”,Tata McGraw Hill,Third Edition.