MEWAR INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

KM 21 ABUJA-KEFFI ROAD, NASARAWA, NIGERIA

PHY 108
GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS II
 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................1
Getting Set for the Practical ..............................................................................................................................1
Reporting Experiments ......................................................................................................................................1
ERRORS: EXPRESSING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS ........................................................................... 2
POSSIBLE ERROR AND PRECISION .............................................................................................................. 3
RELATIVE ERROR AND ACCURACY .............................................................................................................. 3
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION .................................................................................................................................. 4
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. 4
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................................... 5
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES ........................................................................................................... 6
ERROR ANALYSES ................................................................................................................................................. 7
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 7
TYPES OF ERRORS ............................................................................................................................................. 7
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS ................................................................................................................................... 7
RANDOM ERRORS ........................................................................................................................................ 8
PROPAGATION OF ERROR ........................................................................................................................... 8
USES OF π .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
DETERMINING SIZE OF ERROR......................................................................................................................... 9
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................................... 10
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES ......................................................................................................... 10
Light (Nature, Properties and Propagation) ....................................................................................................... 11
Nature of Light ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Behaviour of Light ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Properties of light ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Reflection ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
Laws of Reflection ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Refraction ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Laws of Refraction ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Refraction Through Lenses ........................................................................................................................ 19
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES ......................................................................................................... 22

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

INTRODUCTION

This physics practical has been designed in such a way that you will develop some manipulative skills in handling some
physics apparatus. It is an integral part of your physics course, which reinforces some, if not all, the principles, theories
and concepts you must have learnt in Mechanics, Heat and Properties of Matter.
Furthermore, the Physics Practical is to enable you determine some physical constants such as acceleration due to
gravity and the force constant of a spiral spring, to mention a few.
This physics practical course will show you how to:
• Identify the two physical quantities to be measured as the variables – the independent and dependent
variables;
• Determine the relationship between the two variables in form of a graph.
In performing these experiments, you must have the following before going to the laboratory:
1. A mathematical set containing the protractor, set squares, pair of compasses,
1. short ruler and pencils.
2. A soft rubber (eraser).
3. 18cm long transparent plastic ruler.
4. A scientific notebook with graph sheets to record your experiments.
5. Four - figure table and or a scientific calculator French - curves for drawing graphs.
Getting Set for the Practical
• You are supposed to read the experiment, as many times as possible so that you know how you will carry out
the experiment in question.
• On the day of the experiment, you are to make sure that you assemble all the apparatus required from the
Laboratory Technologist.
• Set up the apparatus carefully and neatly on the working bench.
• Determine beforehand how you will establish the physical quantities to be measured.
• Remember to include in your table the way to obtain, observe and record the dependent variable twice for
a corresponding value of the independent variable. This is a way of taking a precaution to ensure accurate
measurement. The repetitive values can be used to obtain the mean values of the dependent variable.
• Examine the apparatus very well before the commencement of the experiment to ensure that they are
working well. Then make necessary corrections.
• Do form the habit of writing on scraps of paper, use your notebook straight to contain all observations and
calculations.

Reporting Experiments
The report of each experiment should start from a fresh page in your notebook. The following must be clearly written
in this order:
1. Date when the experiment was performed.
2. The aim or purpose of the experiment.
3. Table of observations.
4. Graph.
5. Calculation of slope or the constant.
6. Estimation of errors where possible.
7. Conclusion.

There is no need to repeat in your report, the section on apparatus, procedure or theoretical consideration. All these
are already contained in your course-text. You are required to spend no more than 2 hr 30min in performing and the
reporting the experiment each time you are in the laboratory. At the end of this period, you are required to submit
your experiment for assessment.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
In carrying out scientific investigations as in physics practical, we know that scientists use devices to measure and
thereby quantify physical quantities. But even the best of devices yields inexact measurements. We express these
measurements as approximate numbers. We distinguish between numbers such as 3.2 cm and 3.20 cm. These are the
results of measurements using different devices. While doing computations with these numbers special care is
required.
32.1
You may have wondered why the ratio of two measurements such as is expressed as 2.7 not as 2.68 or 2.675. The
12
numbers of digits used in a measurement have some significance regarding the quality of measuring instruments. In
this unit we will aim at the meaning and usage of approximate numbers. We will also learn about the techniques of
computations with these numbers. These techniques are of basic importance in calculating the results of experiments
that we will do later. The mastery of these techniques is therefore, essential at this stage. In the next unit we will
study errors, which arise due to defects in measuring instruments, fluctuations in the quantity to be measured and
several other reasons. We will also learn how these errors are propagated and how the final results of an experiment
are expressed.
You should be able to,
• Observe that all measurements are inexact and are expressed in numbers resulting from approximations or
approximate numbers.
• Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
• Express a measurement in scientific notation.
• Add, subtract, multiply and divide approximate numbers.

ERRORS: EXPRESSING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS

We are familiar with at least two reasons why all measurements are inexact. Firstly, the measuring instrument itself,
such as the zero error, causes error. Secondly, error can be due to limitations of human judgement and perception,
such as in aligning the end of a rod to be measured with the zero of the centimetre scale. To better appreciate the
inexact nature of measurement let us reflect on the process of measurement of length. Let us obtain a `perfect'
centimetre scale, which has clear and equal marking of millimetres. We desire to measure the length of three arrows
A, B and C (Fig. 1.1).

FIG: 1.1: Measuring the length of Three Arrows.

Let us suppose that we are able to perfectly align the tails of the arrows with zero marking on the scale. Of course,
this is impossible to achieve in practice, but let us assume it to gain an insight into the process of measurement. In
order to measure the length of these arrows we look at the arrowheads. The head of arrow A is closer to the 4.3cm
mark the R1 to the 4.2 cm mark. We will report the length of arrow A as 4.3 cm to the nearest millimetre. Let us now
measure the length of arrow B. The heads of arrow B is closer to 4.3 cm mark than to the 4.4 cm mark. Therefore, we
will also report its length as 4.3cm to the nearest millimetre or simply 4.3 cm. Similarly, the length of arrow C would
be reported as 4.3 cm. Thus, the lengths of all arrows whose tails are aligned with zero marking, and whose heads lie
in the range Rl and R2, would be reported as 4.3 cm. We can conclude that a measurement which is reported as 4.3
cm (which is in the middle of RIR2) might possibly be in error by 0.05 cm (or one-half of the unit of measure which is
0.1 cm) or less. Thus, in the measurement 4.3 cm the last digit is in error. We will, therefore, report measurements in
such a manner that only the last digit will have error.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

POSSIBLE ERROR AND PRECISION

We have seen that the maximum possible error, barring any mistake in measuring, in a measurement is 1/2 of the unit
of measurement. The possible error is thus due to inherent imprecision in measuring devices. The measurements
having less possible error are more precise. Since possible error is proportional to the unit of measure the instruments
having smaller units of measure will give more precise measurement. A measurement reported to one hundredth of
a centimetre, such as 5.32 cm is more precise than a measurement reported to one tenth of a centimetre, such as
5.3cm.

Self-assessment Question 1
Consider the following pairs of measurement. Indicate which measurement in each pair is more precise.
a. 17.9 cm or 19.87 cm SOLUTION
b. 16.5 s or 3.21 s (a) 19.87 cm
c. 20.56 °C or 32.22 °C (b) 3.21 s
(c) Equally precise

RELATIVE ERROR AND ACCURACY

So far, we have considered measurement of nearly equal lengths with emphasis on precision. Let us now consider
measurement of much different lengths. Suppose, two measurements yield 3.2 cm and 98.6 cm using the same metre
stick. The possible error in both of these measurements is equal to 0.05 cm but the 98.6 cm is much bigger than
measurement 3.2 cm. Would you say that the 98.6 cm is more accurate? How would you compare the accuracy of
measurement such as 7.4 s and 98 s? In order to compare such measurements, we define relative error as the ratio of
possible error to the total measurement. In the table 1.0 below we have computed the relative error in some
measurement. (The exact method of expressing the Relative Error will be discussed in a separate Section).
TABLE 1
MEASUREMENT UNIT OF MEASURE POSSIBLE ERROR RELATIVE ERROR
3.2 cm 0.1 cm 0.05 cm 0.02
9.86 cm 0.1 cm 0.05 cm 0.0005
7.4 s 0.1 s 0.005 s 10.007
98 s 1.0 s 0.5 s 0.005

𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
*Relative error is the ratio of possible error to the total measurement. [𝑹. 𝑬 = ]
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Let us compare measurements 3.2 cm and 98.6 cm. Both have equal unit of measure and are therefore equally precise.
But the measurement 98.6 cm has less relative error (0.0005 compared to 0.02) and is therefore more accurate.
Comparison of measurements 7.4s and 98 s is more revealing. The measurement 7.4 s is more precise than the
measurement 98 s (possible errors 0.05 s and 0.5 s respectively) but less accurate (relative error 0.007 as compared
to 0.005).
You will therefore appreciate that a smaller measurement needs to be more precise for the same accuracy. This is
why when measuring the dimensions of a room, metre is used as unit of measure while in measuring inter-city
distances the unit kilometre is used for the same accuracy.
Self-assessment Question 2
Consider the following pairs of measurements. Indicate which measurement in each pair is more accurate.
a. 40.0 cm or 8.0 cm
b. 0.85 m or 0.05 m
SOLUTION
(a) The relative errors are:
0.05 5 1 0.05 5 1
= = 𝑜𝑟 = =
40 4000 800 8 800 160
Therefore, the measurement 40.0 cm is more accurate.
(b)
0.005 5 1 0.005 5 1
= = 𝑜𝑟 = =
0.85 850 170 0.05 50 10
Therefore, the measurement 0.85 cm is more accurate.

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SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In the system of measurement that we use (SI-system), a measurement is expressed in decimal numerals. While
measuring interatomic distances, we use very small exponential numbers. On the other hand, while measuring
interstellar distances we use very large numbers. In scientific notation these numbers are written as a number
between one and ten multiplied by an integral power of ten. For example, the diameter of the sun is l,390,000,000
metres and the diameter of hydrogen atom is only 0.000000000106 metres. In scientific notation we write the
diameter of the sun as 1.39 x 109 m and the diameter of the hydrogen atom as 1.06 x 10-10 m.

Self-assessment Question 3
The mass of a water molecule is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 03 g. Express this in scientific notation.
SOLUTION
3 x 10-23 g
You have probably guessed that writing numbers in scientific notation will make computations easier. This is because
we can apply the laws of exponents readily.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
We have seen when treating relative error that a measurement reported as 5.32 cm is more precise than 5.3 cm. The
number of digits in these measurements are three and two, respectively. This suggests that the number of digits used
in reporting a measurement have some significance. All non-zero digits are significant. However, in measurements
such as 0.05 m or 0.005 m, none of the zeros is significant. The zeros to the left of the decimal are merely flags pointing
to the decimal. The other zeros are placed to help locate the decimal point. Let us investigate this by calculating the
possible error and relative errors as in the table 2.0 below.

TABLE 2
MEASUREMENT UNIT OF MEASURE POSSIBLE ERROR RELATIVE ERROR
0.5 m 0.1 0.05 m 0.1
0.05 m 0.01 0.005 m 0.1
0.005 m 0.001 0.0005 m 0.1
0.00005 m 0.00001 0.000005 m 0.1

We can see from this table that the unit of measure and the possible error in all the cases are different. But the relative
error is the same. Therefore, we can assert that these zeros are not significant because they do not affect the relative
error. We can thus conclude that a digit is significant if and only if it affects the relative error.

Self-assessment Question 4 (In-class Activity)

Complete the following table,
S/N Measurement (m) Possible Error (m) Relative Error
1 0.2 0.05 0.05
= 0.25
0.2
2 0.20
3 0.2000
4 25
5 250
6 25000
7 102
8 1002
(a) What can you conclude regarding the significance of `trailing' zeros in the first three measurements?
(b) What can you conclude about zeros in the fifth and sixth measurements?
(c) What can you conclude regarding the significance of zeros between non-zero digits in the seventh and eight
measurements?

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SOLUTION
S/N Measurement (m) Possible Error (m) Relative Error
1 0.2 0.05 0.05
= 0.25
0.2
2 0.20
3 0.2000
4 25
5 250
6 25000
7 102
8 1002

Self-assessment Question 5
From the above discussion justify that a measurement possessing greater number of significant digits has greater
relative accuracy. Sometimes we take a sequence of whole number measurements such as 32, 30, 28, 26. All these
measurements have two significant digits except the measurements 30. In such special cases zero can be taken as
significant without any ambiguity.
Self Assessment Question 6
Comment on the following:
"The distance to the sun from the roof of a house (height 20 m) is 150 million kilometres. Therefore, the distance to
the sun from ground is 15 million kilometres plus 20m"
CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that errors do occur in physical measurements. All measurements are not exact. They are
expressed in numbers resulting from approximations. Precision of a measurement is a function of possible error only
while accuracy is related to relative error that occurs in a measurement. Scientific measurements are usually
expressed by using the scientific notations.
SUMMARY
At the end of this unit, we have learnt;
• Exact measurement is impossible. The result of every measurement is expressed in numbers resulting from
approximation such that only the last digit contains error. In scientific notation a measurement is expressed
as a decimal number between one and ten multiplied by powers of ten.
• Possible error is only one-half the unit of measurement. Precision is a function of possible error only.
• Relative error is the ratio of possible error to total measurement accuracy is related to relative error. A digit
is significant if and only if it affects the relative error.
• Rule for multiplication (or division)
o The product (or quotient) of two measurements should be rounded off to contain as many
significant digits as the measurement having fewer numbers of significant digits.
• Rule for addition (or subtraction)
o While adding (or subtracting) approximate numbers, round off the sum (or difference) to the same
unit of measure as the least precise measurement.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES

Awe, O. and Okunola, 0.0. (1986), Comprehensive Certificate Physics, University Press, Ibadan.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R.J. (1970), Analytical Experimental Physics, The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M. (1971), The Feyman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, California.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970), Properties of Matter, John Wiley and Sons Limited, London.

Noaks, M.A. (1963), New Intermediate Physics, Macmillan and company limited, Canada.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980), College Physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, London.

Tyler, F. (1966), Heat and Thermodynamics. Edward Arnold Publisher Limited, London.

Wilkinson, J. (1983): Essentials of Physics, Macmillan Education Australia.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968): Heat and Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

ERROR ANALYSES

INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we studied about errors in measurements due to imprecision of measuring devices. The results of
measurements were expressed as approximate numbers. We also learn about performing basic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of approximate numbers and expressing results using correct
number of significant digits. We assumed that the measuring instruments as well as the observers were perfect.
However, as you are aware, there can be defects in measuring instruments and also humans are not perfect. If the
environment is not perfectly controlled its changes will affect the object to be measured thereby introducing errors
in measurements. In this unit we will familiarise ourselves with these and other sources of errors. We will also learn
how to estimate and possibly eliminate or account for such errors. In most of the physics experiments our objective
is to determine relationship between physical quantities. Therefore, we will estimate the errors in the measurement
of various physical quantities and make efforts to determine valid relationships as mentioned above. In the next
couple of experimental write-ups we will apply our knowledge of errors and its propagation to actual measurements
and deduce relationships. We will first concentrate on the measurements of fundamental quantities such as
mass, length and time, and then do experiments involving two or more of these quantities.
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• distinguish between random errors and systematic errors
• eliminate to some extent the systematic errors
• compute errors in the measurement of various physical quantities
• analyse data by calculation and by plotting graphs to determine functional relationship
• interpret the slope of a graph and to determine the value of certain physical quantities from the slope of a
straight-line graph.

TYPES OF ERRORS
Every measuring instrument has a limitation in that it cannot measure physical quantities smaller than a certain value
known as the least count of instrument. For example, a meter scale can measure only up to 1 mm (smallest division
of the scale). A vernier calliper can generally measure up to 0.1 mm whereas a spherometer and screw gauge can
measure lengths up to 0.01 mm. Similarly, a thermometer usually has the least count of half a degree. In addition to
these limitations, which are inherent in a measuring device, there are other sources of error. These arise due to
changes in environment, faults in observational techniques, malfunctioning of measuring devices etc. The errors in
any measurement can be classified into two broad headings namely - Systematic errors and Random errors. Let us
now study the causes of such errors, and see how they are eliminated or minimised.
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
The systematic errors, also called determinant errors, are due to causes which can be identified. Therefore, these
errors, in principle, can be eliminated. Errors of this type result in measured values which are consistently too high or
consistently too low. Let us discuss these errors one by one.
(i) Zero Error
In the case of vernier callipers, for example, when the jaws are in contact, the zero of the vernier may not coincide
with the zero of the main scale. The magnitude and sign of the `zero error' can be determined for the scale readings.
We can easily eliminate this error from the measurement by subtracting or adding the zero error.
(ii) Back lash Error
While measuring a physical quantity there may be an error due to wear and tear in the instruments like screw gauge
or spherometer due to defective fittings. Such an error is called back lash error and can be minimised in a particular
set of measurements by rotating the screw head in only one direction.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

(iii) End Correction

Sometimes the zero marking of the metre scale may be worn out. Unless we are careful, this will lead to incorrect
measurements. We must therefore compensate for this by shifting our reference point.
(iv) Errors due to changes in the Instrument parameters
Usually, in experiments involving electrical quantities, the values of the electrical quantities change during the course
of the experiment due to heating or other causes. For example, the value of the resistance of a wire will increase
because of current passing through it. This will lead to errors, which are generally difficult to calculate and
compensate for. To some extent this can be avoided by not allowing current to flow through the circuit while
observations are not being taken.
(v) Defective Calibration
Occasionally instruments may not be properly calibrated leading to errors in the results of measurement. This type of
error is not easily detected and compensated for. This is a manufacturer's defect and if possible the instrument should
be calibrated against a standard equipment.
(vi) Faulty Observation
This could be due to causes like parallax in reading a metre scale. These
errors are eliminable by using proper techniques.
RANDOM ERRORS
You must have noticed that many times repeated measurements of the same
quantity do not yield the same value. The readings obtained show a scatter of
values. Some of those values are high while others are low. This function is
due to random errors whose possible sources are:
(i) Observational
These arise due to errors in judgment of an observer when reading a scale to the smallest division.
(ii) Environmental
These arise due to causes like unpredictable fluctuations inline voltage, variation in temperature etc. They could also
be due to mechanical vibrations and wear and tear of the systems. There could be a random spread of readings due
to friction say, wear and tear of mechanical parts of a system.
PROPAGATION OF ERROR
We have so far learnt how to determine the error in the measurement of a quantity, which can be measured directly.
In actual practice, however, we determine values of a quantity from the measurements of two or more independent
quantities. In such cases the error in the value of the quantity to be determined will depend on the errors in other
independent quantities. In other words, the error will `propagate'. The actual analysis of propagation of error is
beyond the scope of this course. We shall therefore, quote some rules which can be used in our laboratory.
ERROR PROPAGATION IN ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
What will be the error, in quantity E, defined by E = x + y + z ?
Let us take the differential of this quantity, we get δE = δx + δy + δz
if the error is small compared to the measurement, we can replace the differential by ‘delta’ to get ∆E = ∆x + ∆y + ∆z
which is simply the sum of errors in x, y and z. It, therefore, is the maximum error in E. Statical analysis shows that a
better approximation is
𝛿𝐸 = √(𝛿𝑥)2 + (𝛿𝑦)2 + (𝛿𝑧)2
We only consider the magnitude of errors in the above calculation. Therefore, the error in the quantity (x + y - z) will
also be the same.
SOLVED EXAMPLE: Let the measured value of two lengths be
Ll + δLl = 1.746 ± 0.010 m
L2 + δL2 = 1.507 ± 0.010 m
The error in the quantity L = L1 + L2 will be

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
𝛿𝐿 = √(0.010𝑚)2 + (0.010𝑚)2 = 0.014𝑚
ERROR PROPAGATION IN MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
If a quantity E = A x B and the result of measurement of A & B is A ±δA and B ±δB then what will be the error δE in
E?
Here if we take differentials
we get 𝛿𝐸 = 𝐵 𝛿𝐴 + 𝐴 𝛿𝐵
Dividing by E = AB and changing differentials by ‘deltas’ we get
𝛿𝐸 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐵
= +
𝐸 𝐴 𝐵
USES OF π
It appears that most of our students are under the impression that the value of π is equal to 22/7 exactly.
Unfortunately, many book writers also have contributed to perpetuate and establish this false idea by setting
22
numerical problems with data cooked up that using 𝜋 = , the factor always happily cancels out and the
7
simplification becomes very easy. However, in the real world the values of actual physical quantities are not such as
to facilitate cancellation with 7. Also, we may as well acknowledge that the value of π cannot be expressed exactly
22
in terms of any whole number. The value of 𝜋 = is one of the many approximations that can be used. In fact, a
7
355 22
better approximation is 𝜋 = = 3.1415928. Compare this with the calculator value π = 3.141592654 and =
113 7
22
3.14286. It may be noted that the value of deviates from the more accurate value from the calculator in the third
7
decimal place; if we round it off to 5-digit accuracy, π = 3.1415 (from calculator), whereas the approximations
355 22
= 3.1416 and = 3.1429 For practical purposes at undergraduate level, the most convenient and
113 7
comparatively more accurate thing to do will be to remember

𝜋 = 3.142 log 𝜋 = 0.4972

𝜋 2 = 9.870 log 𝜋 2 = 0.9943

Wherever the value of π is to be used in our calculations, the above values prove fruitful.
DETERMINING SIZE OF ERROR
When we measure a quantity, it is important to take several readings. It may be preferable that readings are taken by
independent observer. This has the advantage that bias of a single observer is eliminated. The value obtained will
indicate whether the data is scale limited or random. An error analysis can be made to determine the size of error
from these readings. A typical set of values of a measurement is given below in Table 1. The quantity to be measured
as a ‘true’ value is independent of our measuring process. But the imperfection of our measuring process prevents us
from obtaining that value every time. Which one of the values listed in table I would be ‘true’ value? It is impossible
to tell that from the measurements because of this spread. Under the circumstances the average A value can be
quoted. To get the average value we simply add up all the measurements and divide the sum by the total
measurements. As you can see from the table l, the average is 3.68. Also notice that most of the data in table I deviates
from the average d we first take the difference of each data from the average to get individual deviations 𝑑̅ . These
deviations are then added and their sum is divided by the number of observations to obtain 𝑑̅ . As you can see from
table 1 the average deviation in this case is 0.009.
TABLE 3
S/N DATA DEVIATION (𝑑̅ )
1 3.69 0.01
2 3.67 0.01
3 3.68 0.0
4 3.69 0.01
5 3.68 0.0
6 3.69 0.01
7 3.66 0.02

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
8 3.67 0.01

A=3.68 𝑑̅ = 0.009

As you are aware, repeated measurements of the same quantity yield results with better precision. A measure of this
precision index S whose definition (without proof) is:
𝑑̅
𝑠=
√𝑛
where 𝑑̅ is the average derivation and n is the number of observations. The precision index S is a measure of
uncertainty of average. Using the data of Table 3, the precision index is:
𝑑̅ 0.0009
𝑆= = = 0.003
√𝑛 √8

Thus, the final result can be expressed as 𝐴 ± 𝑆. In this case the result of random data analysis gives 3.68 ± 0.003.
We can see that this error is much less than the possible error, which is ±0.005. Thus, in such cases we will consider
the possible error only.

CONCLUSION
In this unit you have been able to distinguish between random errors and systematic errors when measuring physical
quantities and know Systematic errors to some extent, can be eliminated. Errors in the measurement of various
physical quantities can also be computed. When graphs are used to show relationship between certain physical
quantities, they can also be used to determine the errors in the calculation of slopes.
SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt the following:
• the difference between random errors and systematic errors,
• systematic errors, to some extent can be eliminated;
• errors in the measurement of various physical quantities can be computed.
• the use of π in calculations.
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Awe, O. and Okunola, 0.0. (1986), Comprehensive Certificate Physics, University Press, Ibadan.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R.J. (1970), Analytical Experimental Physics, The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M. (1971), The Feyman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, California.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970), Properties of Matter, John Wiley and Sons Limited, London.

Noaks, M.A. (1963), New Intermediate Physics, Macmillan and company limited, Canada.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980), College Physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, London.

Tyler, F. (1966), Heat and Thermodynamics. Edward Arnold Publisher Limited, London.

Wilkinson, J. (1983): Essentials of Physics, Macmillan Education Australia.

Zemansky, M. W. (1968): Heat and Thermodynamics, McGraw- Hill Book Company, New York.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

Light (Nature, Properties and Propagation)

Blue lakes, ochre deserts, green forests and multicoloured rainbows can be enjoyed by anyone who has eyes with
which to see them. But by studying the branch of physics called optics, which deals with the behaviour of light and
other electromagnetic waves, we can reach a deeper appreciation of the visible world. A knowledge of the properties
of light allows us to understand the blue colour of the sky and the design of optical devices such as telescopes,
microscopes, cameras, spectacles, and the human eye. The same basic principles of optics also lie at the heart of
modern developments such as the laser, optical fibres, holograms, optical computers and new techniques in medical
imaging. In this Section we begin with a study of the properties of light governed by the laws of reflection and
refraction and the concepts of dispersion, polarisation and scattering of light. Along the way we compare the various
possible descriptions of light in terms of particles, rays or waves, and we introduce Huygens’s principle, an important
link that connects the ray and wave viewpoints. After which we will use the ray description of light to understand how
mirrors and lenses work, and we’ll see how mirrors and lenses are used in optical instruments used by Nature, Science
and Technology.

Nature of Light
Until the time of Isaac Newton (1642–1727), most scientists thought that light consisted of streams of particles (called
corpuscles) emitted by light sources. Galileo and others tried (unsuccessfully) to measure the speed of light. Around
1665, evidence of wave properties of light began to be discovered. By the early 19th century, evidence that light is a
wave had grown very persuasive. In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and
calculated their speed of propagation. This development, along with the experimental work of Heinrich Hertz starting
in 1887, showed conclusively that light is indeed an electromagnetic wave.

The wave picture of light is not the whole story, however. Several effects associated with emission and absorption of
light reveal a particle aspect, in that the energy carried by light waves is packaged in discrete bundles called photons
or quanta. These apparently contradictory wave and particle properties have been reconciled since 1930 with the
development of quantum electrodynamics, a comprehensive theory that includes both wave and particle properties.
The propagation of light is best described by a wave model, but understanding emission and absorption requires a
particle approach. The fundamental sources of all electromagnetic radiation are electric charges in accelerated
motion.

All bodies emit electromagnetic radiation as a result of thermal motion of their molecules; this radiation, called
thermal radiation, is a mixture of different wavelengths. At sufficiently high temperatures, all matter emits enough
visible light to be self-luminous; a very hot body appears ‘red-hot’ or ‘white-hot’. Thus, hot matter in any form is a light
source.

Light is also produced during electrical discharges through ionised gases. The bluish light of mercury-arc lamps, the
orange-yellow of sodium-vapour lamps, and the various colours of ‘neon’ signs are familiar. A variation of the mercury-
arc lamp is the fluorescent lamp. This light source uses a material called a phosphor to convert the ultraviolet radiation
from a mercury arc into visible light. This conversion makes fluorescent lamps more efficient than incandescent lamps
in transforming electrical energy into light.

A light source that has attained prominence in the last forty years is the laser. In most light sources, light is emitted
independently by different atoms within the source; in a laser, by contrast, atoms are induced to emit light in a
cooperative, coherent fashion. The result is a very narrow beam of radiation that can be enormously intense and that
is much more nearly monochromatic, or single-frequency, than light from any other source. Lasers are used by
physicians for microsurgery, in CD players and computers to scan the information encoded on a compact disc or CD-
ROM, in industry to cut through steel and to fuse high-melting-point materials, and in many other applications.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
The branch of optics for which the ray description is adequate is called geometric optics; the branch dealing
specifically with wave behaviour is called physical optics.

Behaviour of Light
No matter what its source, electromagnetic radiation travels in vacuum at the same speed. The speed of light in
vacuum is defined to be
𝑐 = 2.99792458 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

To describe the directions in which light propagates, it’s often convenient to represent a light wave by rays rather
than by wave fronts. Rays were used to describe light long before its wave nature was firmly established. In a particle
theory of light, rays are the paths of the particles. From the wave viewpoint a ray is an imaginary line along the direction
of travel of the wave. In Fig. 1.1 (a) the rays are the radii of the spherical wave fronts, and in Fig. 1.1 (b) they are straight
lines perpendicular to the wave fronts. When waves travel in a homogeneous isotropic material (a material with the
same properties in all regions and in all directions), the rays are always straight lines normal to the wave fronts. At a
boundary surface between two materials, such as the surface of a glass plate in air, the wave speed and the direction
of a ray may change, but the ray segments in the air and in the glass are straight lines.

FIG 1.1 (a) (b)

Properties of light
Reflection
Laws of Reflection
Fig. 1.2 shows a ray of light which is incident on a plane reflective surface an Angle of Incidence i from the normal to
the mirror. This is known as the Incident Ray. The ray of light reflected from the surface and is therefore known as the
Reflected Ray. The angle formed by the reflected ray with normal is r called Angle of Reflection. As it can be seen from
Fig.1.2, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the plane reflective surface at the point of incidence all lie
in the same plane. This is the first law of reflection.

Incident Ray Normal

Reflected Ray

r
i

Reflective surface

Fig.1.2: Reflection from a surface of a Reflective Surface

Also, it has been experimentally found that

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.1)

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
That is, Eq. 1.1 implies that the angle of incident is always equal to the angle of reflection. This has given rise to what
is known as second law of reflection.
Consequently, the laws of reflection can be summarized as follows:
1st Law
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2nd Law
The angle of incident equals the angle of reflection.
Reflection at Plane Surfaces
When light is reflected from a surface that is smooth or polished it may act as a mirror and produce a reflected image.
If the mirror is flat, or plane, the image of the object appears to lie behind the mirror at a distance equal to the distance
between the object and the surface of the mirror. In figure 1.3, the light source is the object A, and the point on A
sends out rays in all directions. The two rays that strike the mirror at B and C, are reflected as the rays BD and CE. To
an observer in front of the mirror, these rays appear to come from the point F behind.

A F

Light Source Mirror Image

FIG. 1.3

FIG. 1.4

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

In the mirror, it follows from the laws of reflection that CF and BF form the same angle with the surface of the mirror,
as do AC and AB. If the surface of reflection is rough, then normal to various points of the surface lie in random
directions in that case, rays that may lie in the same plane when they emerge from a point source nevertheless lie in
random planes of incidence and therefore of reflection, and are scattered and cannot form an image.

FIG. 1.5
Any polished surface is capable of becoming a reflector of light. Where a reflection occurs, the incident ray, the reflected
ray and the normal all lie in the same plane. Also, the angle of incidence, i, is equal the angle of reflection r. These two
laws constitute the laws of reflection. Finally, the formation of an image by a mirror is an application of reflection of light
at a plane surface.
Unless stated otherwise, when referring to ‘reflection’ we will always mean specular reflection.
Reflection at Curved Surfaces
We just studied reflections at plane (flat) surfaces. What happens to reflection at curved surfaces? Such surfaces
include concave and convex mirrors. When light is incident on a curved surface of mirror, the reflected rays either
diverge or converge depending on the direction of curvature of the surface. We could produce a curved surface by
cutting out a part of a hollow spherical shell. A concave mirror is a curved surface which is silvered inside while a
convex mirror is a curved surface that is silvered side is outside, as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) and 1.5 (b) respectively.
Therefore, a concave or converging mirror reflect light from its inside while a convex or diverging mirror reflect light
from its outside as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) and Fig. 1.6 (b).

Silvered Side
Reflective Side
Silvered Side
Reflective Side

FIG. 1.5: (a) Concave Mirror (b) Convex Mirror

P
F C
P F C

FIG. 1.6: (a) Concave Mirror (b) Convex Mirror

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
Because the convex mirror or the concave mirror is part of a sphere, it has a centre C called the centre of curvature,
and a radius (r) called radius of curvature. And it also has a Principal Focus F whose distance from the pole P to the
mirror is half the radius of curvature. These parameters are shown in Fig. 1.6 for the concave and convex mirror
respectively.

Images Formed by Curved Mirrors

We can find the nature and position of the images formed by curved mirrors with the help of ray diagrams drawn to
scale. To do this, we make use of the following facts:
i) A ray parallel to focus after reflection (refer Fig. 1.7 (a))
ii) A ray through the centre of curvature is reflected back along its path (refer Fig. 1.7(b)).
iii) As a corollary to (i), any ray through the principal focus is reflected points to which these reflected rays
converge or from which they appear to diverge represent the required image. In practice however, the
tracing of only two of these rays will enable us to find the position of the image.

P P
F C F C

FIG. 1.7: (a) Ray parallel to principal axis reflects back (b) A ray goes through centre of curvature
through Principal Focus. reflected back along its path

P
F C

(c) A ray goes through principal focus F reflected back parallel to the principal axis.

The Mirror Formula

As you have learnt, we can call the distance of the object from the mirror is known as object distance. This is usually
represented by letter u. Similarly, the distance between image and mirror is known as the image distance, this is
generally represented by letter v, also one may not need to determine u or v by construction as done in the previous
section because it has been experimentally found, that there is mathematical relationship connecting these
parameters. mathematical relationship is given as:
1 1 1
+ = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟) 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.2)
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1 1
− =− (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑀𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟) 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.3)
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
Where f is the focal length (the distance between the Principal Focus and the Pole of the mirror).

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Magnification
In the day-to-day language, magnification is the degree of enlargement or reduction of the size of an object through
it image formed. Magnification is mathematically represented by M.
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑀= 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.4)
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

This can also be represented in terms of image distance of the mirror v and object distance u from the mirror.
Mathematically it can be expressed as:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣
𝑀= = (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1.5)
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢

A “real” image is considered as having positive value, whereas a “virtual” image is considered as having negative
value. This convention is normally borne in mind in the application of the mirror formula. This means that distances
for real objects and images considered as positive while distance for virtual objects or images are considered to be
negative. Also, the focal length for a concave mirror is normally considered as positive while that of a convex mirror
is considered as negative value.
Practice Questions 1
1. An object is placed 0.15 m in front of a concave mirror of focal length 0.1m. Determine the position, nature and
magnification of the image formed.

NOTE: The question requiring you to state the nature of the image means that you are required to state whether the
image is real or virtual.
2. A man has a concave mirror with focal length of 40 cm. How far should the mirror be held from his face in order
to give an image of two-fold magnification?
Things to note about Convex Mirrors
Images produced by convex mirrors are always:
i) Upright.
ii) Formed behind the mirror; therefore, it is virtual (v is always negative).
iii) Diminished, that is, smaller than the object.

It is necessary to note that the characteristics of the image stated above are true for the convex mirror, irrespective
of where the object is placed in the front of the mirror. Thus, convex mirror is said to have a very wide field of view.
Hence, because the image formed by the convex mirror is erect, the convex mirror is always used in vehicles as the
side mirror.

3. A diverging mirror of 50.0 cm focal length produces a virtual image of 25.0 cm from the mirror. How far from the
mirror should the object be placed?
4. A pin 2 cm long is placed 25 cm away from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. Determine its
magnification.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
Refraction
Light plays a vital role in our life. This is the only mean by which one can see the objects. From the very beginning,
efforts were made to explain many properties of light. The phenomena of reflection and refraction were explained
by Newton. Later Huygens explained the phenomena of reflection and refraction by using wave theory of light. We
will not discuss the wave theory of light.
As we saw earlier, we learnt about reflection at plane and curved surfaces respectively. Here, we will study the
refraction of light which primarily occurs when light travels from one medium to another medium through a
boundary. When a ray enters to the second medium, it bent at the boundary. This bending of a ray of light from the
boundary is known as refraction.

Refraction depends on the properties of the two media in which light rays travel and also on the incident angle i. The
medium like air is called rarer medium and the medium like glass and water are denser medium. Now, let us consider
the two cases:
1. First, when a ray of light enters towards a medium where the speed of light is less i.e., the ray travels from
air (medium 1) to water or glass (medium 2). The speed of light (3x108) is more in comparison to the speed
when it enters a block of glass (2x 108 m/s).
2. Second, when the ray of light travels towards a medium where the speed of light is more i.e., the ray travels
from water or glass (medium 2) to air (medium 1). Therefore, the ray is travelling from a denser medium to
second medium where its speed is greater.

Before proceeding further for the laws of refraction and total internal reflection in this unit, it is important to know
about the concepts of refractive index and critical angle. Let’s briefly discuss these concepts.
Refractive Index
You have learnt that the speed of light is different for different substances like air, water, and glass. Let us consider
that the speed of light in vacuum (air) is c and the speed of light in some substance (i.e. water) is v. Therefore, there
is relation between c and v because of the difference in the speed of light in these substances and can be denoted by
a symbol n called refractive index. Therefore, refractive index can be defined as the ratio of the speed of light c in a
vacuum (air) to the speed of light v in some other substance. Mathematically, it can be expressed as
𝑐
𝑛= 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.6)
𝑣
In general, for two given media, if 𝑣1 is the velocity of light in medium 1 and 𝑣2 is the velocity of light in medium 2,
then the refractive index n can be written as
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1
𝑛=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2

𝑣1
𝑛= 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.7)
𝑣2

Since, refractive index n is a ratio of speed in two different mediums; therefore, it is a dimensionless number and is
always greater than unity as v is always less than c.
Critical Angle
It has been observed that when light rays pass from water (or glass) to air (it means that the ray is passing into a
medium of lower refractive index), then the ray of light bends away from the normal. Refer to figure 1.8. Here, there
are Normals N1 N2 and N3 at points O, P and Q respectively. MO, MP and MQ are the incident rays. When an incident
ray of light MO strikes the surface at O, the refracted ray is OK with the angle of refraction r1. But as the angle of
incidence in water gets larger, so does the angle of refraction.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

N1 N2 N3

r1 r2 =900
r3
Q
O P
i2 i3
i1

Fig. 1.8: When light travels from water to air, if the angle of incidence produces the angle of
refraction of 90o, this angle is known as the critical angle θc. (i2= θc)

But at a particular incident angle, the angle of refraction will be 900 as shown above. Here, for light ray MP, the angle
of incidence i2 produces an angle of refraction r2=900. Hence, the incident angle for which the angle of refraction is
90o is called the critical angle. The notation for critical angle is θc. Therefore, critical angle θc is the angle of incidence
for which the angle of refraction is 900.

The mathematical relation between critical angle and the refractive index is
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.8)
where n is the refractive index of the medium.
Total Internal Reflection
Now you may ask a question: what would happen for incident angles greater than critical angles? You have seen in
Fig. 1.8 that for incident angle less than θc there will be a refracted ray. So, it is interesting to know what happens to
the rays of light if they fall at an incidence angle greater than θc. But if we look at Fig. 1.8 again for incident ray MQ at
Q for which the angle of incidence is i3. This angle of incidence is greater than θc (i3 is greater than θc). It can be
observed that the ray is reflected back into the water. There is no refracted ray but all the light is reflected back.
Therefore, when a ray of light incident at an angle greater than the critical angle θc, it reflects back inside the medium
(with the larger refractive index). This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection occurs only when light strikes a boundary where the medium beyond is optically has a lower
refractive index. Now a day, total internal reflection has wider applications.
1. It is used in many optical instruments like binoculars.
2. The principle behind the fibre optics is total internal reflection. Through fibreoptics, light can be transmitted
with almost no loss.
3. Optical fibres revolutionized the present era of telecommunications. Nowadays, optical fibres are used in
place of copper cables in telecommunications. They can carry a much greater number of data packets in
comparison to electrical copper cables.
4. In surgery, these fibre optic devices are very helpful to locate the areas of body which are not accessible
easily. In examine internal organs of the body, these are used.
5. Another application of total internal reflection is in submarine periscope.
Laws of Refraction
Snell’s Law
A relation between the angle of incidence and angle of refraction was established by a scientist Snell and known as
Snell’s law. According to this law, the sine of the angle of incidence (i) and refraction (r) have a constant ratio to each
other. The two laws of refraction are:

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2
First Law
The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
Second Law
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant for two given media.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
sin 𝑖
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1.9)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
You will be curious to know that this constant is actually the refractive index n as we have discussed earlier!
Practice Questions 2
1. Determine the speed of yellow light with wavelength = 589 nm in diamond. The refractive index of diamond is
2.42.

2. A beam of light of wavelength 550 nm traveling in air is incident on a surface of transparent material. The incident
beam makes an angle of 600 with the normal and the refracted beam makes an angle or 450 with the normal.
Calculate the refractive index of the material.

3. A ray of light of wavelength 540 nm traveling in air is incident on a slab of transparent material. The refractive
index of the material is 1.47. Calculate the wavelength of light in the material.

4. Do light waves of different colours all travels at the same speed in glass? Explain.

5. A ray of light strikes a surface of glass at an incident angle of 60 o with the normal. Calculate the angle of refraction
in the glass. The refractive index of the glass is 1.5. (Assume that the incident ray is in air.)

6. Determine the angle of deviation of a ray by a glass prism with a prism angle of 3 o if the angle of incidence of the
ray on the front face of the prism is zero. The refractive index of the glass material is 1.5.

Refraction Through Lenses

The phenomenon of refraction is the change in direction of ray of light when it travels from one medium to another
of different density. Refraction through lenses involves the same change in the direction of light rays. A lens is a
portion of a transparent medium bounded by two spherical surfaces or by a plane and a spherical surface. The various
types of lenses are shown in the figure below.

(i) Biconvex (ii) Plano-convex (iii) Meniscus (iv) Plano-concave (v) Biconcave (vi) Meniscus

FIG. 1.9: (a) Converging Lenses (b) Diverging Lenses

Generally, a converging or convex lens makes rays of light originating from a point come together at another point
while the diverging or concave lens makes rays of light which pass through a point spread out or diverge.

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 GENERAL PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2

The Major Features of a Lens

A typical lens of whatever type has the major feature illustrated below.

C F2 F1 C C F2 F1 C

Light Source

FIG. 2.0: (a) Converging Lens (b) Diverging Lens

1. The Principal Axis This is the line joining the canters of curvature of the two curved surfaces forming the lens.
2. Optical Centre: For every lens there is a point C through which rays of light pass through without being
deviated by the lens. This point is called the optical centre of the lens.
3. The Principal Focus: The principal focus F of a converging lens is the point to which all rays parallel and close
to the principal axis converge after refraction through the lens. The principal focus of a diverging lens is the
point from which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis appear to diverge from after refraction
through the lens.
4. Focal Length The focal length F is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focal of the lens.

Note that the principal focus of a converging lens is on the far side from the incident rays while for the diverging lens the
principal focus is on the same side as the incident rays and the refracted rays do not actually pass through it.
The Lensmaker’s Equation
The Lensmaker’s Equation is a relationship among the focal length f, the index of refraction n of the lens, and the radii
of curvature R1 and R2 of the lens surfaces. It uses the principle that an image formed by one reflecting or refracting
surface can serve as the object for a second reflecting or refracting surface.

FIG 2.1: The image formed by the first surface of a lens serves as the object for the second surface. The distances s’1
and s2 are taken to be equal; this is a good approximation if the lens thickness t is small. We assume that the lens is
thin, so that the distance t between the two surfaces is small in comparison with the object and image distances and
can therefore be neglected. This is usually the case with eyeglass lenses.
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

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Practice Questions 3
1. A small tropical fish is at the centre of a spherical fish bowl 1m in diameter. Determine the position and the lateral
magnification of the image of the fish seen by an observer outside the bowl. The refractive index of water is 4/3.

2. An object 3 cm tall is placed 30 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Determine using a ray diagram
(i) magnification of the image.
(ii) the image distance.

3. If the object is from Question 2 above is placed 15 cm away from the lens, what will be the
(i) the height of the new image formed?
(ii) the new image distance?
4. A convex lens with focal length 15 cm is placed 45 cm away from the object 2.5 cm tall
(a) Determine the position and the size of the image.
(b) If the convex lens were a concave lens, what is the value of the magnitude of the image and the image
distance?

Ray tracing is an interesting technique to determine the images formed by concave and convex lenses. The three rules
governing the rays are summarized as in seen above. The characteristics of image formed by convex lens are as
follows:
When object distance is greater than 2f then image formed is as follows:
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) diminished.
The characteristics of image formed by convex lens when the object is kept at 2f are;
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted
(iii) It is of unit magnification
When the object is placed at the focal point of a convex lens, the image is formed at infinity. The characteristics of
image formed by a convex when the object distance is less than f is as follows:
(i) it is virtual
(ii) it is erect
(iii) and it is enlarged
The image formed by a concave lens irrespective of its object distance is always virtual and erect and upright. It may
be diminished or enlarged.

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REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES

H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, A. L. Ford, “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics 12th Edition”,
Pearson Education Inc., 2008. ISBN-13:978-0-321-50121-9

Nelkon and Parker. Advance Level Physics. British Library Publication.

Kenneth .W. Ford. Basic Physics. Toronto London: Waltham Massachusetts.

Mark .W. Zemansky. College Physics. London: Addison – Wesley.

Shortley and Williams. Principles of College Physics. Englewood Cliff New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.

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