Math Classical Mechanics
Math Classical Mechanics
Math Classical Mechanics
Abstract
The mathematical study of the motion of everyday objects and the forces that affect them is
called classical mechanics. Classical mechanics is often called Newtonian mechanics because
nearly the entire study builds on the work of Isaac Newton. Some mathematical laws and
principles at the core of classical mechanics include the following: Newton’s Laws of Motion,
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, Law of Conservation of Energy, Law of Conservation
of Momentum, and Bernoulli’s Principle.
This document, which is a first draft of the handbook of Classical Mechanics provides
the course instructor and the student of Bachelor of Science with Education with a series of
topics to be covered during the course of study. The document is intended to provide all those
interested in learning classical mechanics with knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enable them
solve problems that involve use of Newton’s laws of motion. Among the chapters included in
this document are the linear motion, potential energy, uniform force fields, simple harmonic
motion, forced vibrations, restrained motion, elastic strings and springs, and motion under
a central force.
Oh Thanks!
This work was compiled by Ronald Mwesigwa on behalf of the department of Mathematics
in the Faculty of Science. However, the information herein has been generated and made
available because of the participation of fellow instructors in teaching other relevant topics
to students at the University. The students have had a tremendous contribution towards the
compilation of these lecture notes for all the time they have attended lectures, after all, they
are the main reason why this is done. The administration, support staff, and instructors
from all other departments in the faculty have been such a wonderful people, and I guess
they will continue to be. Ms. Sharon Kashemeire, currently secretary to the Vice-chancillor
typed these notes and typeset them in Latex. It is indeed a pleasure to thank you all.
The following staff from the Faculty have directly or indirectly contributed to this work
through editing, photocopying, and making useful suggestions: Dr. Simon K. Anguma
(Dean, Faculty of Science), Ms. Kasifa Namyalo (Lecturer, Mathematics), Dr. Julius Tumwi-
ine (Associate Professor, Mathematics), Mr. Daniel Baguma (Lecturer, Mathematics), Dr.
Eunice A. Olet (Senior Lecturer, Biology), Mr. Michael Byamukama (Lecturer, Mathemat-
ics), Mr. Patrick Mungufeni (Lecturer, Physics), Ms. Mackleane Kyokwebaza (Secretary,
Faculty of Science), and Ms. Peace M. Mbabazi (Administrator, Faculty of Science).
ii
Contents
1 Linear motion 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Newton’s laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Inertial Frames of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Impulsive forces 31
4.1 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.1 Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Torque and angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.1 Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Conservation of momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Conservation of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5 Worked examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.7 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6 Motion of projectiles 43
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Range on an inclined plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.5 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7 Resisting medium 51
7.1 Motion in a resisting medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.4 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8 Constrained motion 59
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.3 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.5 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.6 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
12 Forced vibrations 95
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
12.2 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.3 Simple pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.4 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
12.6 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Linear motion
1.1 Introduction
Mass of a particle is defined as the quantity of the matter that it contains. A force is a
measure of the push or pull on an object. If m denotes the mass of the particle in some
chosen system of units, and that at a particular instant, the particle has velocity v, then the
vector
p = mv (1.1)
defines the linear momentum of the particle at the instant. Standard units of mass are
the grammes (g) in the centimeter-gramme-second (c.g.s.) system, kilogramme (kg) in the
metre-kilogramme-second (M.K.S.) system and pound (lb) in the foot-pound-second (f.p.s.)
system. Standard units of force in these systems are the dyne, newton (N) and poundal
(pdl), respectively. A dyne is that force which will give 1 g mass an acceleration of 1 cms−1 .
A newton is the force which will give 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 ms−1 and a poundal is
that force which will give a 1 lb mass an acceleration of 1 fts−1 .
1. Law I states that ”Every particle continues in its state of rest or of uniform velocity in
a straight line unless acted upon by an external force”. This is sometimes refered to
as the law of inertia, that is, the tendency of a body to resist changes in motion.
2. Law II states that ”The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the exerted or
impressed force and takes place in the direction of the action of force”. In other words,
if F is the external force acting on the particle of mass m which as a consequence is
3
4 1.3. WORKED EXAMPLES
F = ma, (1.2)
3. Law III states that ”To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. That
is, if particle 1 acts on particle 2 with a force F12 then particle 2 will react on particle
with a force F21 of the same magnitude but in an opposite direction, that is,
Find, at time t = 1, (a) the velocity, (b) the momentum, (c) acceleration, and (d) force
field.
Solution
(a) Given the position vector r = (4t2 − t3 )i − 5tj + (t4 − 2)k, then v(t) = dr/dt =
(8t − 3t2 )i − 5j + (4t3 )k. Now, v(1) = 5i − 5j + 4k
(b) Momentum is given as p = mv, where v = (8t − 3t2 )i − 5j + (4t3 )k, then p(t) =
(16t − 6t2 )i − 10j + (8t3 )k. Now, p(1) = 10i − 10j + 8k
(c) Given the velocity v(t) = (8t − 3t2 )i − 5j + (4t3 )k, then a(t) = dv/dt = (8 − 6t)i +
(12t2 )k. Now, a(1) = 2i + 12k
(d) Force is given as F = ma, where a = (8 − 6t)i + (12t2 )k, then F(t) = (16 − 12t)i +
(24t2 )k. Now, F(1) = 4i + 24k
(b) Given that the velocity is v = (4t3 + 6)i + (9t2 − 8t + 15)j − (3t2 + 8)k and since
v = dr/dt, we integrate v with respect to t and obtain r = (t4 + 6t)i + (3t3 −
4t2 + 15t)j − (t3 + 8t)k + c2 , where c2 is an abitrary constant. Now, at t = 0,
r = 3i − j + 4k so that c2 = 3i − j + 4k. Therefore, the position at any time t is
dv 1
= F.
dt m
Now, if F and m are constants, then by integration with respect to t we have
F
v= t + c1 .
m
F
At t = 0, v = v1 so that c1 = v1 and thus v = m t + v1 . Also, at t = t, v = v2 so that
F
v2 = m t + v1 , and therefore
m
F = (v2 − v1 ).
t
Here, the force and mass were taken to be constant, otherwise integration involving F
and m(t) with respect to t would have produced a different result.
can be shown that to both observers the particle appears to have the same force acting on it
if and only if the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to each other.
Let the position of the particle in the Oxyz and O0 x0 y 0 z 0 coordinate systems be r and r0
respectively and let the position vector of O0 with respect to O be R = r − r0 . Relative to
observers O and O0 the forces acting on P according to Newton’s law are given by
d2 r 0 d2 r0
F=m and F = m
dt2 dt2
d2 R dR
2
= 0 or is constant.
dt dt
In other words, the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to each other.
Such coordinate systems are called inertial coordinate systems, and the result is sometimes
called the classical principle of relativity.
1.5 Exercises
1. A particle of mass 2 units moves along the space curve defined by
Find
2. A particle moving in a force field F has its momentum given at any time t as
(a) r × p = mabωk
(b) r · p = 12 m(b2 − a2 )ω sin 2ωt
(c) r × F = 0
4. A force of 100 dynes in the direction of positive x-axis acts on a particle of mass 2
grammes for 10 minutes. What velocity does the particle acquire assuming that it
starts from rest?
Its initial position and velocity are given respectively by r0 = 2i − 3j and v0 = 5i + 4j.
Find
1.6 Answers
1. (a) Momentum, p(t) = (16t − 6t2 )i + 10j + (6t2 − 8)k and p(1) = 10i + 10j − 2k .
(b) Force, F(t) = (16 − 12t)i + 6t)k and F(1) = 4i + 12k .
3. (a) Given the position vector r = a cos ωti + b sin ωtj, then velocity is v(t) = dr/dt =
−aω sin ωti + bω cos ωtj and momentum is p = mv = −maω sin ωti + mbω cos ωtj.
Thus, r × p = mabωk.
(b) r · p = 12 mω(a2 − b2 ) sin 2ωt.
CHAPTER 1. LINEAR MOTION 9
(c) By Newton’s second law of motion, force is given as, F = ma = −mω 2 (a cos ωti +
b sin ωtj), and thus r × p = 0
5. (a) Position is r(t) = (t3 − 4t2 + 5t + 2)i + (4t − 3t5 )j + (t5 + 3t4 − 3)k and r(2) =
4i − 88j + 53k.
(b) Velocity is v(t) = (3t2 − 8t + 5)i + (4 − 15t4 )j + (5t4 + 12t3 )k and v(2) = i − 236j +
176k.
10 1.6. ANSWERS
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
A force field which has constant magnitude and direction is called a uniform or constant
force field. If the direction is taken as the negative z-direction and the constant magnitude
F0 > 0, then the force field is given by
F = −F0 k.
2.3 Weight
If air resistance is negligible the acceleration near the earth is found to be a constant and
is denoted by g. This acceleration is due to gravity and is sometimes called gravitational
acceleration. The approximate magnitude of g is 9.8 m/s−2 or one moves from the equator
toward the poles. Assuming that the surface of the earth is represented by xy-plane, the
force acting on a particle of mass m is given by w = −mgk. This force which is called the
weight of the particle, has magnitude
w = mg.
11
12 2.4. GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
V = mg(z − z0 ).
2.6.1 Theorem
The potential energy of a particle in a constant gravitational field is the product of the
magnitude of its weight and the height above some prescribed reference level.
Note that the potential energy is work done by weight in moving through the distance z − z0
Solution
(a) Suppose that at time t a particle P is at a distance x from the origin. If i is the
unit vector in the direction of OP and v is the speed at time t, then the velocity
is vi. By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d d
(mvi) = F i or (mv) = F,
dt dt
since m is a constant. Integrating and applying the condition v = v0 at t = 0
gives the speed as
F
v = t + v0 .
m
(b) Here we write
dx F
v= = m + v0 .
dt t
Integrating and applying the condition x = 0 at t = 0 gives the distance as
1 F 2
s= t + v0 t.
2 m
Since m is a constant.
2. A particle of mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a constant force
of magnitude F . If its initial speed is v0 , show that the speed of the particle at any
position x is given by
12
2 2F
v = v0 + x .
m
Solution
We know that
dv dv F
a= =v = .
dt dx m
Separation of variables leads to
Z Z
F
vdv = dx.
m
Integrating and applying the initial condition v = v0 at x = 0 gives
2F
v2 = x + v02 .
m
and hence the required result.
14 2.8. EXERCISES
3. An object of mass m is dropped from a height h above the ground. Prove p that if the
air resistance
√ is negligible then it will reach the ground (a) in time. 2h/g, and (b)
with speed 2gh.
Solution
(a) Considering the motion of the object along the z-direction, then
d2 z
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = 0 at t = 0 gives the speed
of the object at any time t as
dz/dt = −gt
Integrating again and applying the condition z = h at t = 0 gives the distance of
the object at any time t as
1
z = h − gt2 .
2
Now, when the object reaches the ground z = 0, and thus 0 = h − 12 gt2 , which
gives the time taken to reach the ground as
s
2h
t= .
g
2.8 Exercises
1. An object of mass m is dropped from a height h above the ground. After travelling
through a distance d below the point of projection, a second object os dropped. Prove
that if air resistance is negligible,
√ when the first object strikes the ground, the second
object is at a height of 2 dh − d above the ground.
3. A ball which is thrown vertically upward reaches its maximum height of 100 ft and
then returns to the starting point.
4. A ball which is thrown vertically upward reaches a particular height h after a time t1
on the way up and a time t2 on the way down. Prove that (a) the initial velocity with
which the ball was thrown has magnitude 12 g(t1 + t2 ), (b) the height h = 12 gt1 t2 , and
(c) the maximum height reached is 18 g(t1 + t2 )2
5. An object of mass m is thrown vertically upward from the earth’s surface with speed
v0 . Prove that it returns to the earth’s surface
2.9 Answers
1. Considering the motion of the object along the z-direction, then
d2 z
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = 0 at t = 0 gives the speed of the
object at any time t as
dz
= −gt
dt
Integrating again and applying the condition z = h at t = 0 gives the distance of the
object at any time t as
1
z = h − gt2 .
2
Now, the time t1 taken for the first object to reach a distance d below the cliff is given
by
1
h − d = h − gt21 ,
2
q
which simplifies to t1 = 2d g
. The time t2 taken for this object to reach the ground
q
is given by 0 = h − 2 gt2 or t2 = 2h
1 2
g
. Now we find the distance of the second object
above the ground after time t2 − t1 as
s s !
1 2 1 2h 2d
z = h − g(t2 − t21 ) = h − g − (2.1)
2 2 g g
s !
1 2h 2d hd
= h− g − −4
2 g g g
√
= h − h − d + 2 hd
√
= 2 hd − d.
16 2.9. ANSWERS
d2 z
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = −v0 at t = 0 gives the speed of
the object at any time t as
dz/dt = −gt − v0
Integrating again and applying the condition z = h at t = 0 gives the distance of the
object at any time t as
1
z = − gt2 − v0 t + h.
2
Now, when the object reaches the ground z = 0, and thus 0 = − 12 gt2 − v0 t + h, which
gives the time taken to reach the ground as
p
−2v0 ± 4v02 + 8gh
t= .
2g
3. (a) By Newton’s second law and considering the motion of the object along the z-
direction, then
dz
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = v0 at t = 0 gives the speed
of the object at any time t as
dz/dt = −gt + v0
(b) Now, the time taken to reach maximum height is t = v0 /g = 80/32 = 2.5 seconds,
and time of flight is the sum of time taken to reach the maximum height and the
time taken to travel back to the point of projection. Thus time taken to return
is 5 seconds.
4. (a) By Newton’s second law and considering the motion of the object along the z-
direction, then
d2 z
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = v0 at t = 0 gives the speed
of the object at any time t as
dz/dt = −gt + v0
5. (a) Considering the motion of the object along the z-direction and by Newton’s second
law of motion,
d2 z
= −g.
dt2
Integrating and applying the initial condition dz/dt = v0 at t = 0 gives the speed
of the object at any time t as
dz/dt = −gt + v0
3.1 Introduction
A conservative force has the property that the work done in moving a particle between two
points is independent of the taken path. Equivalently, if a particle travels in a closed loop,
the net work done by a conservative force is zero. Mathematically, a force field F, defined
everywhere in space (or within a simply-connected volume of space), is called a conservative
force or conservative vector field if it meets any of these three equivalent conditions:
• The curl of F is the zero vector:
∇ × F = 0. (3.1)
• There is zero net work (W) done by the force when moving a particle through a
trajectory that starts and ends in the same place:
I
W ≡ F · dr = 0. (3.2)
C
3.2.1 Theorem
The total work done in moving the particle along the curve C from P1 to P2 is
Z P2
W = F · dr = V (P1 ) − V (P2 ).
P1
19
20 3.2. CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS
In such a case the work done is independent of the path joining P1 and P2 . If the work done
by a force field in moving a particle from one point to another point is independent of the
path joining the points, then the force field is said to be conservative.
Proof
If the force acting on a particle is given by F = −∇V , then work done W is obtained as
follows
F = −∇V (3.4)
Z P2 Z P2
W = F · dr = (−∇V ) · dr
P1 P1
Z P2
= − dV = −V |PP21
P1
= −(V (P2 ) − V (P1 )) = V (P1 ) − V (P2 )
3.2.2 Theorem
A force field F is conservative if and only if there exists a continuous differentiable scalar
function V such that F = −∇V of equivalently, if and only if ∇ × F = 0 identically.
Proof
If F = −∇V , then
Z P2
Work done, W = F · dr (3.5)
P1
Z P2
∂V ∂V ∂V
= − i+ j+ k · (dxi + dyj + dzk)
P1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Z P2
∂V ∂V ∂V
= − dx + dy + dz
P1 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Z P2
= − dV = V (P1 ) − V (P2 )
P1
Then the integral depends only on the points P1 and P2Rand not on the path joining
them. The function V has to be single valued. Now, suppose C F · dr is independent of the
path C joining any two points, then it can be shown that there exists a scalar function V
such that
F = −∇V ,
that is, F is conservative.
R Let F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k
By hypothesis, F · dr is independent of the path C joining any two points which we
may take as (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x, y, z) respectively. Then
Z (x,y,z) Z (x,y,z)
−V (x, y, z) = F · dr = (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 )dz
(x1 ,y1 ,z1 ) (x1 ,y1 ,z1 )
CHAPTER 3. CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS 21
Since the last integral must be independent of the path joining (x, y, z) and x + ∆x, y, z),
we may choose the path to be a straight line joining these points so that dy and dz are zero.
Then Z (x+∆x,y,z)
V (x + ∆x, y, z) − V (x, y, z)) 1
− = F1 dx
∆x ∆x (x,y,z)
Taking limits as x → 0, if the limit exists, we obtain
∂V
− = F1
∂x
Similarly −∂V /∂y = F2 , and −∂V /∂z = F3 . Then
∂V ∂V ∂V
F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k = − i− j− k = −∇V
∂x ∂y ∂z
3.2.3 Theorem
A continuous differentiable force field F is conservative if and only for any closed non-
intersecting curve C I
F · dr = 0.
c
Proof
If F is conservative then there exists a scalar differentiable function V such that
F = −∇V
and thus Z Z
F · dr = F · dr. (3.9)
P1 AP2 P1 BP2
W = V1 − V2 ,
where r0 is some standard position vector and r the final position vector of the particle.
Thus V is a function of the position (x, y, z) of the particle. This means that V = 0 when
r = r0
W = V1 − V2 ,
CHAPTER 3. CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS 23
where V1 and V2 are potential energies at P1 and P2 respectively. Since the work done must
be equal we must have T2 − T1 = V1 − V2 or T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 . This means that
1 2 1
mv1 + V1 = mv22 + V2 (3.11)
2 2
The quantity E = T + V , where T is the kinetic energy and V is the potential, is called
the total energy. This suggests that the total energy at P1 is the same as the total energy
at P2 . This is the principle of conservation of energy. It states that ”In a conservative force
field the total energy is a constant”.
Then the force is conservative. Alternatively, the force field F is conservative if and
only if there exists a scalar function V (x, y, z) such that F = −∇V . Then
∂V ∂V ∂V
F = −( i+ j+ k) (3.12)
∂x ∂y ∂t
= (y 2 z 3 − 6xz 2 )i + 2xyz 3 j + (3xyz 2 z 2 − 6x2 z)k
V = 3x2 z 2 − xy 2 z 3 + g(y, z)
24 3.5. WORKED EXAMPLES
V = 3x2 z 2 − xy 2 z 3 + f (z)
Finally differentiating with respect to z and equating to the last equation gives df /dz =
0 or f (z) = c, a constant. Thus,
V = 3x2 z 2 − xy 2 z 3 + c
F = (2xy + z 3 )i + x2 j + 3xz 2 k
Solution
(a) A necessary and sufficient condition that a force will be conservative is that ∇ ×
F = 0. In this case we have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F = ∂x ∂y ∂z
2xy + z 3 x 2
3xz 2
∂V ∂V ∂V
F=− i− j− k
∂x ∂y ∂t
= (2xy + z 3 i + x2 j + 3xz 2 k
Hence if F is conservative we should be able to find V such that
∂V ∂V ∂V
= −2xy − z 3 , = −x2 , = −3xz 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
CHAPTER 3. CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS 25
Integrating with respect to x and keeping y and z constant the first equation gives
V = −x2 y − xz 3 + g(y, z)
∂V ∂g
= −x2 + = −x2
∂y ∂y
V = 3x2 z 2 − xy 2 z 3 + f (z)
Finally differentiating with respect to z and equating to the last equation gives
df /dz = 0 or f (z) = c, a constant. Thus,
V = −x2 y − xz 3 + c
(c) Work done is the difference in potentials at the two points. Thus,
F = −F0 k
∇ × F = 0.
Now,
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F= ∂x ∂y ∂z =0
0 0 −F0
Thus the force field is conservative.
26 3.5. WORKED EXAMPLES
(b) Since F is a conservative force field, there exists a scalar function V such that
F = −∇ × V . Since F = −F0 k, we have
∂V ∂V ∂V
−F0 k = − i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
Then
∂V ∂V ∂V
= 0, = 0, = F0
∂x ∂y ∂z
From equation (1) we have V = F0 z + c
If V = 0 at z = z0 , then
0 = F0 z0 + c
This implies that c = −F0 z0 and thus
V = F0 (z − z0 )
(c) For uniform gravitational force field F = −mgk. This corresponds to F0 = mg.
Thus the potential energy is
V = mg(z − z0 )
4. A particle of mass m moves along the x-axis under the influence of a conservative
force field having potential V (x). If the particle is located at positions x1 and x2 at
respective times t1 and t2 , prove that if E is the total energy, then
12 Z x2
m 1
t2 − t1 = p dx.
2 x1 E − V (x)
Solution
By the principle of conservation of energy, the sum of the kinetic energy and potential
energy equals E, a constant. Thus,
2
m dx
+ V (x) = E
2 dt
This may be written as
2
dx 2
= (E − V (x)) (3.13)
dt m
12
dx 2
= (E − V (x))
dt m
m
dt = 1 dx
2(E − V (x)) 2
Integration gives the desired result.
CHAPTER 3. CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS 27
3.6 Exercises
1. A force field F is defined by
is conservative
along
5. A particle of mass 3 units moves in the xy-plane under the influence of a force field
having potential
V = 12x(3y − 4x).
The particle starts at time t = 0 from rest at the point with position vector 10i − 10j.
(a) Set up the differential equations and conditions describing the motion.
(b) Solve the equations in (a)
(c) Find the position at any time
(d) Find the velocity at any time
3.7 Answers
1. (a) F is conservative if ∇ × F = 0, and indeed it is.
(b) Since the force field is conservative, there exists a potential V such that F = −∇V .
It is easy to show, using the method of examples that the potential is
3
V = x2 yz 3 − xy 2 − 3y − z 4
2
(c) Work done is the difference between potential energy at (2, −1, 2) and potential
energy at (−1, 3, −2). At the point (2, −1, 2) we have V = −32 − 2 +3 − 24 = −55
whereas at (−1, 3, −2) we have V = 24+9−9−24 = 0. Thus, work done = −55−0,
written as 55.
2. Here, it can be shown that ∇ × F 6= 0 and therefore the force field is not conservative.
3. (a) Let x = 2t, y = t, z = 3t be the parametric equations for a straight line joining
(0, 0, 0) and (2, 1, 3). Then the position vector is r = 2ti + tj + 3tk, the velocity
is v = 2i + j + 3k and the force was given as F = 3x2 i + (2xz − y)j + zk =
12t2 i + (12t2 − t)j + 3tk. Now, work done is
Z 1
dr
W = F· dt
0 dt
Impulsive forces
4.1 Impulse
The impulse of a force acting on a particle in any interval of time is defined to be the
momentum change produced. Thus if a particle of constant mass m has a velocity changed
from v1 to v2 in a time t by a force F acting, then the impulse I is given by
I = mv2 − mv1 (4.1)
Z t2 Z t2
dv
= m dt = Fdt
t1 dt t1
Since F = m(dv/dt). Thus the impulse of the force F is the time-integral of the force. Now
suppose that F grows very large, the interval t2 − t1 will be very small but in such a way as
to ensure that the time-integral I stays finite. Such forces are called impulsive forces.
4.1.1 Theorem
The impulse is equal to the change in momentum, that is,
Z t2
Fdt = mv2 − mv1 = p2 − p1
t1
q=r×F (4.3)
The magnitude of q is a measure of the turning effect produced on the particle by the force.
4.2.1 Theorem
The torque acting on the particle equals the time rate of change in the angular momentum.
Proof The moment of force or torque about the origin O is
d
q=r×F =r× (mv)
dt
The angular momentum or the moment of momentum about O is
dΩ d
= r × (mv) = r × F = q
dt dt
which is the rquired result.
d
(mv) = 0
dt
or mv = c, a constant. This proves the principle of conservation of momentum, which
states that ”If the net external force acting on a particle is zero, its momentum will remain
unchanged”.
CHAPTER 4. IMPULSIVE FORCES 33
dΩ d
= (mr × v) = q = 0
dt dt
or mr × v = constant. This proves the principle of conservation of angular momentum,
which states that ”If the net external torque acting on a particle is zero, then the angular
momentum will remain unchanged”.
where t is time.
Solution
dv
= (3t2 − 4t)i + (12t − 6)j + (6t − 12t2 )k,
dt
Then
v = (t3 − 2t2 )i + (6t2 − 6t)j + (3t2 − 4t3 )k + c.
At t = 1, v = 4i − 5j + 10k so that 4i − 5j + 10k = −i + 0j − k + c giving
c = 5i − 5j + 11k. Thus, v(t) = (t3 − 2t2 + 5)i + (6t2 − 6t − 5)j − (3t2 − 4t3 + 11)k
and so v(2) = (8 − 8 + 5)i + (24 − 12 − 5)j + (12 − 32 + 11)k = 5i + 7j − 9k.
34 4.5. WORKED EXAMPLES
Determine
Solution
(a) Given that F = 24t2 i + (36t − 16)j − 12tk, then since particle is of mass 2, the
acceleration is a = 12t2 i + (18t − 8)j − 6tk. By integrating and applying the
initial conditions, we obtain v = (4t3 + 6)i + (9t2 − 8t + 15)j − (3t2 + 8)k and
r = (t4 + 6t + 3)i + (3t3 − 4t2 + 15t + 1)j − (t3 + 8t − 4)k. Then the torque is
q = r × F = (32t3 + 108t2 − 200t + 64)i + (12t5 + 19t3 − 168t2 − 30t)j − (36t5 −
80t4 + 360t3 − 240t2 − 12t − 148)k
(b) Angular momentum, Ω = r × mv = m(r × v) = (8t4 + 36t3 − 130t2 + 64t − 104)i −
(2t6 + 48t4 − 56t3 − 18t2 − 96)j − (6t6 − 16t5 + 90t4 − 80t3 − 6t2 + 48t − 102)k
Find
Solution
(a) Given the position vector r = a cos ωti + b sin ωtj = xi + yj, then velocity is
and acceleration is
a = −ω 2 a cos ωti − ω 2 b sin ωtj.
By Newton’s second law of motion, F = −mω 2 a cos ωti − mω 2 b sin ωtj. Then the
torque is q = r × F = 0i + 0j − 0k.
(b) Angular momentum, Ω = r × mv = m(r × v) = mabωk
CHAPTER 4. IMPULSIVE FORCES 35
4.6 Exercises
1. A particle of unit mass moves in a force field given by
where t is time. Assuming that at t = 0 the particle is located at the origin, find
2. A particle moves in a force given by F = φ(r)r. Prove that the angular momentum of
the particle about the origin is constant.
from t = 0 to t = 2.
5. A particle moves in a force field given by F = r2 r where r is the position vector of the
particle. Prove that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved.
4.7 Answers
1. (a) Given that F = (3t2 − 4t)i + (12t − 6)j + (6t − 12t2 )k, then since particle is of unit
mass, the acceleration is a = (3t2 − 4t)i + (12t − 6)j + (6t − 12t2 )k. By integrating
twice and applying the initial conditions, we obtain
4
t 2 3
r= − t + 5 i + (2t3 − 3t2 + 5t)j + (t3 − t4 + 11t)k.
4 3
26
Now, r(2) = 3
i + 6j + 14k and F(2) = 4i + 18j − 36k
36 4.7. ANSWERS
(b) The torque is given as q = r × F and thus q(t) = (−12t5+ 30t4 + 48t3 − 162t2 +
66t)i + (2t3 − 3t2 + 5t)j + −3t5 + 15 2
t4 7t3 + 40t2 − 30t k and q(2) = −36i +
368j + 180k. Also, since q = dΩ/dt then Ω(t) = (−2t6 + 6t5 + 12t4 − 54t3 +
5 6
33t2 )i + − 12 t + 93
4
t4 − 74
3
t3 j + − 12 t6 + 32 t5 + 74 t4 + 40
3
t3 − 15t2 k and Ω(2) =
232
−44i + 148j + 3 k.
3. Impulse, Z 2
I= F(t)dt = 8i + 12j + 24k.
0
6. Given that Ω = 6t2 i − (2t + 1)j + (12t3 − 8t2 )k and q = dΩ/dt, then q(t) = 12ti − 2j +
(36t2 − 16t)k. Thus, q(1) = 12i − 2j + 20k.
Chapter 5
dW = F · dr (5.1)
The total work done by a force field F in moving a particle from point P1 to point P2
along the curve C is given by the integral
Z Z P2 Z r2
W = F · dr = F · dr = F · dr (5.2)
C P1 r1
where r1 and r2 are the position vectors of P1 and P2 respectively. If F and r are functions
of time, then
dr
dr = dt = vdt
dt
where the velocity v = dr/dt and therefore the work done is given as
Z t2
W = F · dvdt (5.3)
t1
37
38 5.2. ENERGY
where t1 and t2 are the times when the particle is at P1 and P2 respectively.
The time rate of doing work on a particle is often called instantaneous power or briefly
the power applied to the particle. If W is work done and P is the power, then
dW
P = . (5.4)
dt
If F is the force acting on a particle and v is the velocity of the particle, then
dr
P =F· = F · v,
dt
since v = dr/dt.
5.2 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. In this section we shall look at one type of mechanical
energy called kinetic energy, since potential energy has already been considered. This is the
energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. Suppose that a particle has a constant
mass m and that at times t1 and t2 it is located at P1 and P2 and moving with velocities v1
and v2 , respectively. It can be proved that the total work done in moving the particle along
a curve from P1 to P2 (in figure) is given as
Z
1
W = F · dr = m(v22 − v12 )
C 2
The quantity T = 12 mv2 = 12 mv 2 is called the kinetic energy of the particle. This result
is equivalent to the statement ”Total work done from P1 to P2 along C equals kinetic energy
at P2 minus kinetic energy at P1 ”, or in symbols
1 1
W = mv22 − mv12 (5.5)
2 2
CHAPTER 5. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 39
a2
(1 − cos ωt),
mω 2
a2
sin ωt.
mω
Solution
By Newton’s second law of motion, we have F = ma = a(sin ωti + cos ωtj), and thus
a
a= m (sin ωti + cos ωtj). Since a = d2 r/dt2 , we integrate a with respect to t and obtain
dr a
= (− cos ωti + sin ωtj) + c1 ,
dt mω
a
where c1 is a constant of integration. At t = 0, dr/dt = 0 and thus − mω i + c1 = 0, or
a
c1 = mω i. Therefore,
dr a
= (1 − cos ωt)i + sin ωtj.
dt mω
Now, the work done from time t = 0 to any time t is given as
Z t
dr
W = F · dt (5.6)
0 dt
Z t
a
= a(sin ωti + cos ωtj) · ((1 − cos ωt)i + sin ωtj)dt
0 mω
Z t
a2
= (sin ωt − sin ωt cos ωt + cos ωt sin ωt)dt
mω 0
Z t
a2
= sin ωtdt
mω 0
t
−a2 cos ωt
=
mω ω 0
2
a
= (1 − cos ωt)
mω 2
40 5.3. WORKED EXAMPLES
2. Find the instantaneous power applied to a particle of mass 5 units moving along a
space curve whose position vector is given as a function of time t by
Solution
The position vector, which is also refered to as the displacement is given as
Solution
(a) Given the position vector r = a cos ωti + b sin ωtj, then velocity is v(t) = dr/dt =
−aω sin ωti + bω cos ωtj and kinetic energy is given as
1 1
K.E. = mv 2 = mω 2 (a2 sin2 ωt + b2 cos2 ωt).
2 2
Since the path is an ellipse with lengths of major and minor axes given as 2a and
2b respectively, then at x = a, cos ωt = 1 and sin ωt = 0, and kinetic energy,
K.E. = 12 mω 2 b2 . Again, at y = b, cos ωt = 0 and sin ωt = 1, and kinetic energy,
K.E. = 12 mω 2 a2 .
(b) Work done in moving the particle from point A(a, 0) to point B(0, b) is the differ-
ence in kinetic energy at the two points. Thus,
1
W = mω 2 (a2 − b2 ).
2
CHAPTER 5. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 41
5.4 Exercises
1. A particle is moved by a force F = 20i − 30j + 15tk along a straight line from point A
to point B with position vectors 2i + 7j − 3k and 5i − 3j − 6k respectively. Find the
work done.
2. Find the kinetic energy of a particle of mass 20 units moving with velocity 3i − 5j + 4k.
3. Due to a force field F, a particle of mass 4 units moves along the space curve r =
(3t2 − 2t)i + t3 j − t4 k. Find the work done by the field in moving the particle from the
point where t = 1 to the point where t = 2.
5. A body of mass m, traveling in a straight line, is supplied with constant power P and
is subjected to a resistance kmv 2 , where v is its speed and k is a constant.
(a) Prove that the speed of the body cannot exceed a certain value and that, if it
starts from rest it acquires half the maximum speed after traveling a distance
1 8
ln .
3k 7
(b) If the power is then cut off and an additional retarding force of constant value F
is imposed, find the subsequent time which elapses before the body comes to rest.
5.5 Answers
1. Work done is given as
W = F · r,
where r = (5i − 3j − 6k) − (2i + 7j + 3k = 3i − 10j − 3k. Thus, work done is
Motion of projectiles
6.1 Introduction
An object fired from a gun or dropped from a moving airplane is often called a projectile.
Suppose that a particle of mass m is projected with a velocity v0 at an angle α with the
horizontal. The problem is to find the time of flight of the particle and the range on a
horizontal plane. We assume the following:
1. The gravitational acceleration g is constant.
d2 y d2 z
Fy = m = 0 and F z = m = −mg
dt2 dt2
Now, along the direction of the y-axis, we have
d2 y
m = 0 (6.1)
dt2
d2 y
= 0
dt2
y = c1 t + c2
At t = 0, y = 0 and so c2 = 0. Thus,
y = c1 t.
dy
Again, at t = 0, dt
= v0 cos α and so c1 = v0 cos α. Thus,
Then the distance travelled along the plane, called the range R is given by
The maximum range occurs when sin 2α is maximum, i.e., sin 2α = 1 or α = π/4.
y1 2v02 cos2 α
OP = = (tan α − tan β) (6.9)
cos β g cos β
2v02 cos2 α sin α cos β − cos α sin β
=
g cos β cos α cos β
2
2v0 sin(α − β) cos α
=
g cos β
For maximum range we use the trigonometric identity sin A cos B = 12 (sin(A+B)+sin(A−B))
to write
v02
OP = (sin(2α − β) − sin β).
g cos2 β
46 6.3. WORKED EXAMPLES
Thus OP is maximum when sin(2α − β) is maximum, that is, when sin(2α − β) = 1 and this
menas that 2α − β = π/2 or α = π4 + β2 . The value of maximum range OP is then
v02
OPmax = (1 − sin β) (6.10)
g cos2 β
v02 (1 − sin β)
=
g(1 − sin2 β)
v02
=
g(1 + sin β)
Solution
The equations governing the motion of projectiles are y = v0 cos αt along the horizontal
direction, and z = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2 along the vertical direction.
(a) The distances travelled along the√ y− and z−axes are y = 980 cos 60o t = 490t
and z = 980 sin 60o t − 12 t2 = 490 3t − 12 gt2 , respectively. The maximum height
√
is reached
√ when dz/dt √ = 0 or t = 490 3/g. Taking g = 9.8ms−2 √, we obtain
t = 490 3/9.8 = 50 3. The maximum height is zmax = 490 3t − 12 t2 =
√ √ √
490 3(50 3) − 12 (50 3)2 = 36750 metres.
(b) In this case, total time of flight is twice the time to reach the maximum height,
√
that is, 2 × 50 3 = 173.2 seconds.
(c) The range R is the horizontal distance covered during the time of flight, that is
R = 490 × 173.2 = 84870 metres.
(d) The speed of the projectile along the y− and z−directions√ are vy = dy/dt =
980 cos 60o = 490 and vz = dz/dt = 980 sin 60o −√gt = 490 3 − 9.8t, respectively.
So then, after 60 seconds vy = 490 and vz = 490
√ 3 − 9.8 × 60 = 260.7. Therefore
the speed of the particle after 60 seconds is 4902 + 260.72 = 555.0 metres per
second.
CHAPTER 6. MOTION OF PROJECTILES 47
(e) Substitute for z = 24500 in z = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2 to obtain t1 = 36.6, when the
particle is going up, and t2 = 136.6, when the particle is going down. We shall use
t1 = 36.6 since both values of t will lead to the same answer.
√ Use vy = dy/dt =
o o
980 cos 60 = 490 and vz = dz/dt = 980 sin 60 − gt = 490 3 − 9.8t with t = 36.6
to obtain the speeds in both directions as vy = 490 and v√ z = 490, and therefore
the speed of the particle at a height of 24500 metres is 4902 + 4902 = 692.9
metres per second.
2. A projectile having horizontal range R reaches maximum height H. Prove that it must
have been launched with
Solution
The equations governing the motion of projectiles are y = v0 cos αt along the horizontal
direction, and z = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2 along the vertical direction. The maximum height
is attained when dz/dt = 0, that is, v0 sin α − gt = 0 or t = v0 sin g
α
. So, if H is the
maximum height, then
2
v0 sin α 1 v0 sin α v 2 (1 − cos 2α)
H = (v0 sin α) − g = 0 .
g 2 g 4g
This then means that cos 2α = 1 − 4gh/v02 and sin 2α = gR/v0 . Now, use cos2 2α +
sin2 2α = 1 to eliminate α from these two equations and get
r
g(R2 + 16H 2
v0 = .
8H
p
Then substitute for v0 = g(R2 + 16H 2 )/8H into H = v02 sin2 α/2g to obtain
4H
α = arcsin √ .
R2 + 16H 2
48 6.4. EXERCISES
6.4 Exercises
1. Find the maximum range possible and height reached for a projectile fired from a
cannon having muzzle velocity of 1,960 ms−1 .
2. A cannon has its maximum range given by Rmaxp . Prove that (a) the height reached in
such case is 14 Rmax and (b) the time of flight is Rmax /2g.
6.5 Answers
1. From the previous examples, range is given as
v02 sin 2α
R= .
g
The maximum value of R is attained when sin 2α = 1 and thus Rmax = v02 /g = 392
km. The maximum height reached is Hmax = v02 /4g = 98 km.
2. (a) We know that the equations governing the motion of projectiles are y = v0 cos αt
along the horizontal direction, and z = v0 sin αt− 12 gt2 along the vertical direction.
The maximum height is attained when dz/dt = 0, that is, v0 sin α − gt = 0 or
v 2 sin 2α
t = v0 sin
g
α
. So, if R is the range then R = 0 g , which is maximum when
sin 2α = 1, that is, α = π/4 and Rmax = v02 /g. The maximum height zmax may
be obtained by substituting for α = π/4 and v02 = gRmax in z = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2
to get
1
zmax = Rmax .
4
(b) First note that the time of flight here is twice the time to attain maximum height,
2
p the substitute for α = π/4 and v0 = gRmax in tf = 2v0 sin α/g to get tf =
and
Rmax /2g.
3. Remember that the equations governing the motion of projectiles are y = v0 cos αt
along the horizontal direction, and z = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2 along the vertical direction.
Now, when the projectile reaches sea-level, then z = −h so that −h = v0 sin αt − 12 gt2 ,
and this gives p
2v0 sin α ± 4v02 sin2 α + 8gh
t= .
2g
CHAPTER 6. MOTION OF PROJECTILES 49
p
Taking the positive value of time gives t = v0 sin α + v02 sin2 α + 2gh /g. The
horizontal distance covered during this time is then
q
v0 cos α
d= v0 sin α + v02 sin2 α + 2gh .
g
This may be simplified as follows:
q
gd
= v0 sin α + v02 sin2 α + 2gh (6.11)
v0 cos α
q
gd
− v0 sin α = v02 sin2 α + 2gh
v0 cos α
g 2 d2
− 2gd tan α + v02 sin2 α = v02 sin2 α + 2gh
v02 cos2 α
gd2
− 2d tan α = 2h
v02 cos2 α
gd2
v02 =
2(h + d tan α) cos2 α
v0 sin α
The maximum height is attained when dz/dt = 0, that is, v0 sin α−gt = 0 or t = g
.
So, if zmax is the maximum height, then
v02 sin2 α
zmax = .
2g
Now, substituting for v0 in the equation for zmax gives the maximum height above point
of projection as
Resisting medium
2. A projectile is launched with the initial speed v0 at an angle α with the horizontal.
Suppose we assume that due to air resistance the projectile has, acting upon it, a force
equal to −βv where β is a positive constant and v is the instantaneous velocity. Find
(a) the velocity and (b) the position vector at any time t.
Solution
d2 r
m = −mgk − βv,
dt2
which may as well be written as
dv β
+ v = −gk.
dt m
Using the method of integrating factor, we obtain
β β βt
e m tv = − ge m k + c,
m
where c is a constant of integration. Now, at t = 0, v = v0 = (v0 cos α)j +
(v0 sin α)k. This gives the value of c and we then write
mg β
−m t mg
v=− k+e (v0 cos α)j + v0 sin α + k .
β β
(b) Since v = dr/dt, the position vector can be obtained by integration and applying
the initial condition, r = 0 at t = 0, and this leads to
m −mβ
t
mg m −βt m
r= 1−e v0 − t+ e m − k.
β β β β
7.3 Exercises
1. A man on a parachute falls from rest and acquires a limiting speed of 25 kph. Assuming
that air resistance is proportional to the instantaneous speed, determine how long it
takes to reach the speed of 20 kph.
2. A mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a constant force of mag-
nitude F . Assuming that there is a resisting force numerically equal to kv 2 where v is
the instantaneous speed and k is a constant, prove that the distance traveled in going
from speed v1 to v2 is
m F − kv12
ln
2k F − kv22
54 7.4. ANSWERS
3. A particle of mass m moves in a straight line acted upon by a constant resisting force
of magnitude F . If it starts with a speed of v0 (a) how long will it take before coming
to rest and (b) what distance will it travel in this time?
4. A locomotive of mass m travels with constant speed v0 along a horizontal track. (a)
How long will it take for the locomotive to come to rest after the ignition is turned off,
if the resistance to the motion is given by α + βv 2 where v is the instantaneous speed
and α and β are constants, (b) what is the distance traveled?
5. A particle moves along the x-axis acted upon only by a resisting force which is propor-
tional to the cube of the instantaneous speed. The initial speed is v0 and after a time
τ the speed is 12 v0 .
7.4 Answers
1. Suppose the paracutist is located at a distance z from the ground. Applying Newton’s
second law gives
dv
m = mg − βv.
dt
This may be written by using the technique of separation of variables as
Z Z
m
dv = dt.
mg − βv
The paracutist approaches limiting speed when the limiting accelaeration is zero, that
is, mg − βv = 0 or v = 125/18. The time to reach a speed of 20 km/h is calculated to
be 1.12 seconds.
d2 x
m 2
= F − kv 2 .
dt
Integrating and applying the initial conditions, at x = 0, v = v1 , and at x = d, say,
v = v2 , where d is the distance travelled during this time, gives the required expression.
CHAPTER 7. RESISTING MEDIUM 55
When v = 0 we write r √
β αβ
v0 − tan t = 0,
α m
56 7.4. ANSWERS
and then get the time taken for the locomotive to stop, as
r !
m β
t= √ arctan v0 .
αβ α
1 k 1
− 2
= − t− 2 (7.4)
2v m 2v0
k 1 1 1
t = −
m 2 v 2 v02
1 k 1
− = − v− (7.6)
v m v0
k 1 1
x = −
m v v0
3m 3m 2v02
x= = = 2v0
kv0 v0 3m
58 7.4. ANSWERS
Chapter 8
Constrained motion
8.1 Introduction
We now consider the motion of a single particle constrained to move on curves or surfaces,
for example, the inclined plane or the inner surfaces of a hemispherical bowl. Just as the
particle exerts a force on the constraint, there will, by Newton’s law, be a reaction force of
the constraint on the particle. This reaction force is often described by giving its component
N and F, normal and parallel to the direction of motion respectively. In most cases which
arise in practice, F is the force due to friction and is taken in a direction opposing the motion.
The normal reaction does no work during the motion of a particle. In these circumstances
if the external forces are conservative, the principle of conservation of energy may be applied.
8.2 Friction
In the constrained motion of a particle, one of the most important forces resisting motion is
that due to friction. Let N be the magnitude of the normal component of the reaction of
the constraint on the particle of mass m as shown in figure. Then it is found experimentally
that the magnitude of the force F due to friction is given by
F = µN
Solution
(a) Since there is no friction the only forces acting on the particle P are the weight
w = −mgk, and the reaction force of the incline which is given by the normal N .
Let e1 and e2 be unit vectors parallel and perpendicular to the incline, respectively.
If we denote by s the magnitude of the displacement from the top A of the inclined
plane, we have by Newton’s second law
d2
m (se1 ) = (mg sin α)e1 ,
dt2
for motion of the particle along the inclined plane, and this gives
d2 s
= g sin α (8.1)
dt2
Thus the acceleration down the incline at any time t is a constant equal to g sin α
(b) Since the speed v is given by v = ds/dt, (8.1) may be written as
dv
= g sin α
dt
On integration we have
v = (g sin α)t + c1
Using the initial conditions at t = 0, v = 0 we obtain c1 = 0, so that the speed at
any time t is
v = (g sin α)t (8.2)
The velocity ve1 = (g sin α)te1 which has magnitude (g sin α)t in the direction e1
down the incline.
CHAPTER 8. CONSTRAINED MOTION 61
(a) the time t taken for the particle to reach the bottom B of the incline, and
(b) the speed of the particle at B.
Solution
(a) Since s = l at B, the time t to reach at the bottom from (8.3) is given by
1
l = (g sin α)t2
2
or
2l
t2 =
g sin α
This implies that s
2l
t=
g sin α
(b) The speed at B is given from (8.3) by
v = (g sin α)t
where t is the time the particle takes to reach the bottom B. In this case the time
taken is t obtained in (a) above. So we have
Solution
Let x be the instantaneous distance of the object of mass m from O and suppose that
at t = 0, x = 0, dx/dt = v0 . There are three forces acting on the object, namely the
weight W = mg, the normal reaction N of the surface on the object and the frictional
force F . By Newton’s second law we have, if v is the instantaneous speed.
dv
m i=W+N+F
dt
CHAPTER 8. CONSTRAINED MOTION 63
dx
= v0 − µgt (8.8)
dt
Integrating again, using the fact that x = 0 at t = 0, we find
1
x = v0 t − µgt2
2
From (8.8) we see that the object comes to rest when v0 − µgt = 0 or
v0
t=
µg
Substituting this value of t into equation for x and noting that the particle comes to
rest after it has traveled distance x0 we obtain
2
v0 1 v0
x0 = v0 − µg (8.9)
µg 2 µg
v02
=
2µg
v02
µ =
2gx0
8.4 Exercises
1. A weight of 50 kg slides from rest down a 60o incline of length 60 m starting from the
top. Neglecting friction, (a) how long will it take to reach the bottom of the incline
and (b) what is the speed with which it reaches the bottom?
3. An object is thrown up a smooth incline of angle α and length l starting from the
bottom, so as to just reach the top.
4. If it takes a time t for an object starting from speed v0 on an icy surface to come to
rest, prove that the coefficient of friction is v0 /gt.
5. A mass m rests on a horizontal piece of wood. The wood is tilted upward until the
mass m just begins to slide. If the angle which the wood makes with the horizontal at
that instant is α, prove that the coefficient of friction is µ = tan α.
8.5 Answers
1. Time t = 3.76 seconds and speed at the bottom of the incline is 31.9 metres per second.
2. Time t = 4.14 seconds and speed at the bottom of the incline is 29.1 metres per second.
√ p
3. v0 = 2gl sin α and t = 2l/g sin α.
d2 s
m = mg sin α − µmg cos α,
dt2
where s is the distance along the inclined plane. Now, when the particle is just about
to slide, mg sin α − mgµ cos α = 0 or µ = tan α, as required.
Chapter 9
9.1 Introduction
A rectilinear simple harmonic motion is one in which a particle moves along a straight line
under a force which is always directed towards a fixed point O in that line, the magnitude
being proportional to the particle’s displacement from O.
A mass m lies on a frictionless horizontal table indicated by the x-axis and is attached
to one end of a spring or negligible mass and unstretched length l whose other end is fixed
at E. If the mass is given a displacement along the x-axis and released, it will vibrate back
and forth about the equilibrium position O. Now when the spring is of length l + x there is
a force tending to restore m to equilibrium position. By Hooke’s law this restoring force is
proportional to the stretch x and is given by
FR = −kxi
where FR stands for restoring force and k is a constant of proportionality which is called
spring constant, elastic constant, stiffness factor or modulus of elasticity.
By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 x
m i = −kxi
dt2
or
d2 x
m + kx = 0 (9.1)
dt2
This vibrating system is called the simple harmonic oscillator or linear harmonic oscil-
lator. This type of motion is often called simple harmonic motion.
Equation (9.1) can be written as
d2 x k
2
+ x=0
dt m
or
d2 x
2
+ ω2x = 0
dt
65
66 9.2. AMPLITUDE, PERIOD AND FREQUENCY
where ω 2 = k/m.
x = eαt
α2 eαt + ω 2 eαt = 0
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from initial conditions. Now, at
t = 0, x = A so that
A = c1 cos 0 + c2 sin 0.
This implies that c1 = A and therefore
x = A cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
Now,
dx
= −ωA sin ωt + c2 ω cos ωt
dt
CHAPTER 9. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 67
At t = 0, dx/dt = 0 so that
= −ωA sin 0 + c2 ω cos 0
This gives c1 = 0 since ω 6= 0 and therefore
x = A cos ωt
Since cos ωt varies between −1 and 1, x varies between −A and A. Thus the mass oscillates
between −A and A. The amplitude of the motion is the greatest distance from the equilib-
rium position. In this case it is A. The period of the motion is the time for one complete
oscillation. It is sometimes called a cycle. In this case it is the time taken from A to -A and
then back to A.
Let T denote the period then
r
2π m
T = = 2π
ω k
The frequency of the motion denoted by f is the number of complete oscillations per unit
time i.e., r
1 ω 1 k
f= = =
T 2π 2π m
We may write the solution x = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt in the form
q
c 1 c 2
x = c21 + c22 p 2 cos ωt + p 2 sin ωt
c1 + c22 c1 + c22
Let tan α = c2 /c1 . Then
c2 c
sin α = p 2 and cos α = p 1
c1 + c22 c21 + c22
Thus q
x= c21 + c22 (cos φ cos ωt + sin φ sin ωt) = C cos(ωt − φ)
In this representation for x, the amplitude is C, whereas the period and frequency remain
the same. The angle φ is called the phase angle or epoch. It is chosen so that 0 ≤ φ ≤ π. If
φ = 0 we obtain the previous expression.
Let T be the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a particle moving with simple
harmonic motion. Then the total energy of the simple harmonic oscillator is E = T + V .
We already know that T = 12 mv 2 and V = 12 kx2 , where m is the mass of the particle, v the
speed of the particle, x the distance of the particle from the equilibrium point, and k is the
spring constant. Thus, from the principle of conservation of energy,
1 1
E = mv 2 + kx2 .
2 2
(a) the differential equation and initial conditions describing the motion,
(b) the position of the particle,
(c) the speed and velocity, at any time t,
(d) the amplitude, period and frequency of the vibration.
Solution
d2 d2 x
(xi) = 2 i
dt2 dt x
The net force acting on P is −8xi. Then by Newton’s second law,
d2 x
i = −8xi
dt2
or
d2 x
+ 4x = 0,
dt2
which is the required differential equation describing the motion. The initial con-
ditions are x = 20, dx/dt = 0 at t = 0.
(b) The general solution of (1) is
x = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t
20 = c1 cos 0 + c2 sin 0
CHAPTER 9. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 69
2. Work out example taking P to be initially at 20 but moving (a) to the right with speed
30, (b) to the left with speed 30. Find the amplitude, period and frequency in each
case.
Solution
(a) The only difference here is that the condition dx/dt = 0 at t = 0 of example 1 is
replaced by dx/dt = 30 at t = 0. Then from equation (5) of example 1 we find
that c2 = 15 and equation (3) of example 1 becomes
x = 20 cos 2t + 15 sin 2t
which gives the position P at any time. This may be written as
√ 20 15
x = 202 + 152 √ cos 2t + √ sin 2t (9.3)
202 + 152 202 + 152
4 3
= 25 cos 2t + sin 2t
5 5
= 25 cos(2t − φ)
where cos φ = 45 and sin φ = 35
Since the cosine varies between −1 and +1 the amplitude is 25. The period and
frequency are the same as before
70 9.4. WORKED EXAMPLES
(a) If x denotes the position of the object at time t then the initial conditions are
x = 4, dx/dt = −15, d2 x/dt2 = −100 at t = 0. Now, for simple harmonic motion,
we have
x = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
At t = 0, x = 4, giving c1 = 4. Thus
x = 4 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
Differentiating this gives
dx
= −4ω sin ωt + ωc2 cos ωt
dt
At t = 0, dx/dt = −15, giving ωc2 = −15. Thus
dx
= −4ω sin ωt − 15 cos ωt
dt
CHAPTER 9. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 71
d2 x
2
= −4ω 2 cos ωt + 15ω sin ωt
dt
At t = 0, d2 x/dt2 = −100 giving ω 2 = 25. This then gives ω = 5 and c2 = −3.
Thus
x = 4 cos 5t − 3 sin 5t
d2 x
m 2 = −kx (9.6)
dt
dv
mv = −kx
dx
mvdv = −kxdx
Integrating gives
1 2 1
mv = − kx2 + E,
2 2
which may be written as
1 1
E = mv 2 + kx2 .
2 2
72 9.5. EXERCISES
9.5 Exercises
1. A particle of mass 12 grams moves along the x-axis attracted toward the point O on it
by a force in dynes which is numerically equal to 60 times its instantaneous distance x
(in cm) from O. If the particle starts from rest at x = 10 cm, find the (a) amplitude,
(b) period and (c) frequency of motion.
3. A particle moves with simple harmonic motion in a straight line. Its maximum speed
is 15 m/s and its maximum acceleration is 135 m/s2 . Find the period and frequency
of the motion.
5. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion has speed 3 cm/s and 4 cm/s at
distances 8 cm and 6 cm, respectively, from the equilibrium position. Find the period
of the motion.
6. When a mass m1 hanging from the lower end of a vertical spring is set into motion, it
oscillates with period T . Prove that the period T1 when a mass m2 is added is given
as r
m2
T1 = T 1 +
m1
9.6 Answers
1. Let r = xi be the position vector of the particle, say, P . The acceleration of P is
d2 d2 x
(xi) = i.
dt2 dt2
The net force acting on P is −60xi. Then by Newton’s second law,
d2 x
12 i = −60xi
dt2
or
d2 x
+ 5x = 0,
dt2
which is the required differential equation describing the motion. The initial conditions
are x = 10, dx/dt = 0 at t = 0.
CHAPTER 9. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 73
10 = c1 cos 0 + c2 sin 0
dx √ √ √ √
= −10 5 sin 5t + 5c2 cos 5t
dt
At t = 0, dx/dt = 0, so we have
which gives the position of the particle at any time t, with amplitude 10 cm.
√
(b) The period is given as T = 2π/ω = 2π/ 5 seconds.
√
5
(c) The frequency = 2π
hertz.
d2 x
+ 5x = 0,
dt2
with initial conditions x = 10, dx/dt = −20 at t = 0. The general solution of this
equation is √ √
x = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants. Since at t = 0, x = 20, then
10 = c1 cos 0 + c2 sin 0
which gives the position of the particle at any time t. Now, this equation may be
rewritten as
q √
√ 10 √ 4 5 √
x = 102 + (4 5)2 q √ cos 5t − q √
sin 5t(9.7)
2
10 + (4 5) 2 2
10 + (4 5) 2
√ !
√ 10 √ 4 5 √
= 180 √ cos 5t − √ sin 5t
6 5 6 5
√ !
√ 5 √ 2 √
= 6 5 cos 5t − sin 5t
3 3
√ √
= 6 5 cos( 5t + φ)
√ √ √
where cos φ = 35 and sin φ = 23 . The amplitude is 6 5 and the period is 2π/ 5.
√ √
(b) The particle reaches O for the first time, when x = 0, that is, 6 5 cos( 5t + φ) =
0. Solving for t gives t = 0.34 seconds.
3. Since the particle moves with simple harmonic motion, its motion is given by x =
A sin ωt. The speed at any time t is given as dx/dt = −Aω sin ωt and this is maximum
when sin ωt = 1 or ωt = π/2. Now, if maximum speed is 15 m/s, then we write
−Aω = −15 or A = 15/ω so that
15
x= cos ωt.
ω
The speed is then dx/dt = −15 sin ωt and the acceleration is d2 x/dt2 = −15ω cos ωt.
This acceleration is maximum when cos ω = 1. We then write −15ω = −135 or ω = 9,
and therefore,
5
x = cos 9t.
3
This gives the position of the particle at any time t, with amplitude 53 , and the period
is given as T = 2π/ω = 2π/9 seconds. Frequency is f = ω/2π = 9/2π.
CHAPTER 9. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 75
4. Since the particle moves with simple harmonic motion, its motion is given by x =
A sin ωt. Now, for a particle of mass m attached to a spring of constant k, by Newton’s
law of motion,
d2 x d2 x k
m 2 = kx or 2 = − x.
dt p dt m
2
This means that ω = k/m or ω = k/m. Now, when the acceleration is a and the
distance is l, then we write
k a
ma = −kl or =− .
m l
p p
Thus, ω = k/m = a/l, and the period is given as
r
2π l
T = = 2π .
ω a
5. Since the particle moves with simple harmonic motion, its motion is given by x =
A sin ωt. Now, for a particle of mass m attached to a spring of constant k, ω 2 = k/m.
By Newton’s second law of motion,
d2 x
m = −kx (9.8)
dt2
d2 x
= −ω 2 x
dt2
dv
v = −ω 2 x
dx
vdv = −ω 2 xdx
Integrating gives
v2 1
= − ω 2 x2 + c,
2 2
where c is a constant. Applying the initial conditions v = 3 at x = 8 and v = 4 at
x = 6 gives ω = 12 . The period of motion is then T = 2π/ω = 2π/0.5 = 4π seconds.
6. Since the particle moves with simple harmonic motion, its motion is given by x =
A sin ωt. Now, for a particle of mass m1 attached to a spring of constant k, by Newton’s
second law of motion,
d2 x d2 x k
m1 2 = kx or 2 = − x.
dt dt m p
2
This means that ω = k/m, and therefore the period is T = 2π/ω = 2π m1 /k. When
the mass m2 is now added, then
d2 x d2 x k
(m1 + m2 ) = kx or = − x.
dt2 dt2 m1 + m2
2
This
p means that ω = k/(m1 + m2 ), and therefore the period is T = 2π/ω =
2π (m1 + m2 )/k. Eliminating k in these equations gives the desired result.
76 9.6. ANSWERS
Chapter 10
10.1 Introduction
Suppose a particle of mass m moves in the xy-plane under the influence of a force field F
given by
F = −k1 xi − k2 yj
where k1 and k2 are constants. Here the position vector r is given by
r = xi + yj.
d2 r
m = F (10.1)
dt2
d2 (xi + yj)
m = −k1 xi − k2 yj,
dt2
from which we obtain the equations of motion of the form
d2 x d2 y
m 2 = −k1 x and m 2 = −k2 y.
dt dt
We may then write this as
d2 x 2 d2 y
+ w1 x = 0 and + w22 x = 0,
dt2 dt2
where ω12 = k1 /m and ω22 = k2 /m. Solutions of these equations are, respectively,
x = c1 cos ω1 t + c2 sin ω1 t
and
y = c3 cos ω2 t + c4 sin ω2 t
77
78 10.2. WORKED EXAMPLES
where c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 are constants to be determined from the initial conditions. The mass m
subjected to the force field above is often called a two-dimensional harmonic oscillator. These
ideas can easily be extended to three dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass m which is
subject to a force field given be
F = −k1 xi − k2 yj − k3 zk,
d2 r
m =F
dt2
or
d2 (xi + yj)
m = −kxi − kyj
dt2
Since the position vector r in this case is r = xi + yj, then the equations of motion are
d2 x d2 y
m = −kx and m = −ky.
dt2 dt2
If ω 2 = k/m then equations of motion become
d2 x d2 y
2
+ ω 2 x = 0 and 2
+ ω 2 y = 0.
dt dt
The solutions are
Also
dx dy
= −aω sin ωt + ωB1 cos ωt and = −bω sin ωt + ωB2 cos ωt
dt dt
CHAPTER 10. THE 2D- AND 3D-HARMONIC OSCILLATORS 79
or
∂V ∂V ∂V
= k1 x = k2 y = k3 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
Integrating the first equation with respect to x, keeping y and z constant we obtain
1
V = k1 x2 + g(y, z)
2
Differentiating (2) with respect to y and equating to the second equation in (1) we
have
∂V ∂g
= = k2 y
∂y ∂y
∂g
so that ∂y = k2 y. Now, integrating equation (3) with respect to y keeping z constant
we have
1
g(y, z) = k1 x2 + f (z)
2
So equation (2) becomes
1 1
V = k1 x2 + k2 y 2 + f (z)
2 2
Now differentiating (4) with respect to z and equating to the last equation in (1) we
have
∂V df
= = k3 z
∂z dz
Integrating gives f = 12 k3 z 2 + c, and thus the potential is
1 1 1
V = k1 x2 + k2 y 2 + k3 z 2 ,
2 2 2
where c is taken to be zero.
10.3 Exercises
1. A particle of mass 2 units moves in the xy-plane attracted to the origin with a force
given by F = −18xi − 50yj. At t = 0 the particle is placed at the point (3, 4) and given
a velocity of magnitude 10 in a direction perpendicular to the x-axis.
(a) Find the position and velocity of the particle at any time t.
(b) Find the total energy of the particle.
2. A two dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass 2 units has potential energy given by
V = 8(x2 + 4y 2 ). If the position vector and velocity of the oscillator at the time t = 0
are given respectively by r0 = 2i − j and v0 = 4i + 8j
(a) Find its position and velocity at any time t > 0, and
CHAPTER 10. THE 2D- AND 3D-HARMONIC OSCILLATORS 81
(a) Prove that if the particle is placed at arbitrary point in space other than the
origin, then it will return to the point after some period of time. Determine this
period.
(b) Is the velocity on returning to the starting point the same as the initial velocity?
Explain.
4. A particle moves in the xy-plane so that its position is given by x = A cos ωt,y =
B cos 2ωt. Prove that it describes an arc of a parabola.
d2 x d2 y
= −4y and = −4x
dt2 dt2
At t = 0, the particle is at rest at the point (6, 3). Find (a) its position, and (b) its
velocity, at any time t.
10.4 Answers
1. (a) The external force acting on the particle is F = −18xi − 50yj. By Newton’s
second law we have
d2 r
2 2 = −18xi − 50yj,
dt
where r = xi + yj. We then obtain the equations
d2 x d2 y
+ 9x = 0 and + 25y = 0
dt2 dt2
The solutions to these equations are x = A1 cos 3t + B1 sin 3t and y = A2 cos 5t +
B2 sin 5t. Now, at t = 0, x = 3 and y = 4, so that A1 = 3 and A2 = 4. Thus,
Also
dx dy
= −9 sin 3t + B1 cos 3t and = −20 sin 5t + B2 cos 5t
dt dt
At t = 0, dx
dt
= 0 and dy dt
= 10 and so B1 = 0 and B2 = 2. Thus x = 3 cos 3t and
y = 4 cos 5t + 2 sin 5t. Hence the position at any time t is
d2 r
m = −kxi − kyj − kzk,
dt2
where r = xi + yj + zk. Thus we obtain the equations
d2 x d2 y d2 z
= −ω 2 x, = −ω 2 y, = −ω 2 z
dt2 dt2 dt2
k
where ω 2 = m
. The general solutions of these equations are
or r = (A1 cos ωt + B1 sin ωt)i + (A2 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt)j + (A3 cos ωt + B3 sin ωt)k. This
may be written as
The initial velocity is v(0) = −ωA sin 0 + ωB cos 0 = ωB, and therefore the velocity
on returning to the starting point is the same as the initial velocity.
4. Given that x = a cos ωt and y = b cos 2ωt and it should be noted that cos 2ωt =
2 cos2 ωt − 1. Then, we eliminate cos ωt from both equations and obtain
2 !
x
y=b 2 −1
a
5. Given that
d2 x d2 y
= −4y and = −4x
dt2 dt2
From the first equation, differentiating twice gives
d4 x d2 y
= −4 ,
dt4 dt2
and using the second equation gives
d4 x
= −4(−4x) = 16x
dt4
The solution to this equation is
At t = 0, x = 6 so that
A+C +D =6 (10.2)
CHAPTER 10. THE 2D- AND 3D-HARMONIC OSCILLATORS 85
Also,
dx
= −2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t + 2Ce2t − 2De−2t
dt
and at t = 0, dx/dt = 0 so that
B+C −D =0 (10.3)
Again,
d2 x
= −4A cos 2t − 4B sin 2t + 4Ce2t + 4De−2t
dt2
d2 x
and at t = 0, dt2
= −4y = −12 so that
A−C −D =3 (10.4)
B−C +D =0 (10.5)
11.1 Introduction
In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system. Due to frictional
force, the velocity decreases in proportion to the acting frictional force. While simple har-
monic motion oscillates with only the restoring force acting on the system, damped harmonic
motion experiences friction. In many vibrating systems the frictional force Ff can be mod-
eled as being proportional to the velocity v of the object: Ff = −cv, where c is called
the viscous damping coefficient. Balance of forces, according to Newton’s second law, for
damped harmonic oscillators is then
dx d2 x
F = −kx − c =m 2.
dt dt
When no external forces are present, i.e., when F = 0, this can be rewritten into the form
d2 x dx
2
+ 2γ + ω 2 x = 0, (11.1)
dt dt
q
k β
where ω = m is called the ’undamped angular frequency of the oscillator’ and γ = 2m is
called the ’damping ratio’. The value of the damping ratio critically determines the behavior
of the system.
To solve equation (11.1), we try a solution of the form x = ert , meaning that ẋ = rert
and ẍ = r2 ert . Substituting for these in the given equation gives
r2 ert + 2γrert + ω 2 ert = 0,
or (r2 + 2γr + ω 2 )ert = 0. Now, since ert 6= 0, we obtain the algebraic equation
r2 + 2yr + ω 2 = 0.
This is a quadratic equation in r and therefore has two roots, given as
p
r1 , r2 = −γ ± γ 2 − ω 2
According to this solution, a damped harmonic oscillator can be:
87
88 11.2. CASES OF DAMPING
x = e−γt (c1 + c2 t) .
Again the motion is periodic and the system is said to be critically damped.
In case of under-damped or damped oscillatory motion, γ 2 < ω 2 or β 2 < 4mk, the roots
of the quadratic equation are complex, and the general solution is of the form
or
x = ce−γt cos(λt − φ),
p p
where λ = ω 2 − γ 2 and c = c21 + c22 is called the amplitude and φ is called the phase
angle or epoch. In the first two cases, the damping is so large that no oscillation takes place.
The mass simply returns to the equilibrium position.
In the third case, oscillations occur although the amplitude of these oscillations tends to
decrease with time. The different in time between two successive maxima (or minima) in
the under-damped motion is called the period of the motion and is given by
2π 2π 4πm
T = =p =p .
λ ω2 − γ2 4km − β 2
CHAPTER 11. THE DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 89
The period and frequency corresponding to β = 0 are called natural period and natural
frequency, respectively. The period T given by
2π 2π 4πm
T = =p =p
λ 2
ω −γ 2 4km − β 2
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F= ∂x ∂y ∂z
−kx 0 0
∂V ∂V ∂V
F = −kxi = − i− j− k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
1
V = kx2 ,
2
which is the required potential energy of the simple harmonic oscillator.
90 11.3. WORKED EXAMPLES
2. A particle of mass 5 moves along the x-axis under the influence of two forces (i) a
force of attraction to origin 0 which is numerically equal to 40 times the instantaneous
distance from 0 and (ii) a damping force proportional to the instantaneous speed such
that when the speed is 10 units/s, the damping force is 200 units. Assuming that the
particle starts from rest at distance 20 units from O.
(a) Set up the differential equation and initial conditions describing the motion.
(b) Find the position of the particle at any time t.
(c) Determine the amplitude, period and frequency of the damped oscillation.
(d) Sketch the graph of the motion
Solution
(a) The force due to attraction is −40xi. For the damping force of magnitude f we
have
dx
f =β .
dt
When dx/dt = 10, f = 200, and so 200 = 10β or β = 20. Thus the damping force
is f = −20 dx
dt
i. By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 x dx
5 2 i = −20 i − 40xi,
dt dt
or
d2 x dx
2
+ 4 + 8x = 0,
dt dt
with initial conditions are x = 20, dx/dt = 0 at t = 0.
(b) Let x = ert be the solution of equation (5) then ẋ = rert , and ẍ = r2 ert . Now,
substituting in equation (5) and since ert 6= 0 we have r2 + 4r + 8 = 0. So,
r = −2 ± 2i and thus the general solution is
11.4 Exercises
1. A mass of 200 grammes placed at the lower and of a vertical spring stretches it 20cm.
When it is in equilibrium, the mass is hit and due to this goes a distance of 8cm before
coming down again. Find (a) the magnitude of the velocity imparted to the mass when
it is hit and (b) the period of motion.
2. A vertical spring of constant k having natural length l is supported at a fixed point A.
A mass m is placed at the lower end of the spring, lifted up to a height h below A and
dropped. Prove that the lowest point reached will be at a distance below A given by
r
mg m2 g 2 2mgh
l+ + + .
k k2 k
3. Solve the differential equation
d2 x dx
2
+ 2 + 5x = 0,
dt dt
subject to the conditions x = 5, dx/dt = −3, at = 0, and give a physical interpretation
of the results.
4. A bead of mass m is constrained to move on a frictionless wire in the shape of a
cycloid whose parametric equations are x = a(φ − sin φ), y = a(1 − cos φ) which lies
in a vertical plane. If the bead starts from rest at point O, (a) find the speed at the
bottom of the path, and (b) show that the bead performs oscillations and find the
period of oscillation.
11.5 Answers
1. (a) At the equilibrium position of the object, the potential energy is zero whereas the
kinetic energy is given as K.E. = 12 mv 2 . After the particle has been hit, and has
gone down a distance of 8 cm or 0.08 m, the potential energy at that point of
stopping is P.E. = 12 kx2 = 12 k × (0.08)2 whereas the kinetic energy is zero. By
the principle of conservation of energy we have
1 1
× 200 × v 2 = k × (0.08)2
2 2
By Hooke’s law mg = kx, with m = 0.2 kg, g = 9.8 m/s2 , and x = 0.2 m. Thus,
mg 0.2 × 9.8
k= = = 9.8
x 0.2
Therefore, solving for v from
1 1
× 200 × v 2 = k × (0.08)2
2 2
will give v = 0.56 m/s or v = 56 cm/s.
92 11.5. ANSWERS
2. If x is the stretch in the spring when a mass m is added then by Hooke’s law mg = kx or
x = mg/k. Let y be the distance of the lowest point of the particle from the equilibrium
position, and this will be taken as the reference point. At this point, kinetic energy
is zero, whereas the potential energy is P.E. = 12 k(x + y)2 = 12 k( mg k
+ y)2 . At the
point where the mass is dropped, kinetic energy is zero whereas the potential energy
is P.E. = mg(x + y + h) = mg( mg k
+ y + h). By the principle of conservation of energy
we have
k mg 2 mg
+ y = mg +y+h
2 k k
Solving for y gives r
m2 g 2 2mgh
y= +
k2 k
The lowest point will then be
r
mg m2 g 2 2mgh
l+ + +
k k2 k
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants. Using the initial conditions x = 5, dx/dt = −3
at t = 0 we obtain c1 = 5 and c2 = 1, and therefore
4. (a) Let P be the position of the bead at any time t and let s be the arclength along
the cycloid measured from O. By conservation of energy, measuring potential
energy relative to the time AB through the minimum point of the cycloid, we
CHAPTER 11. THE DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 93
have the sum of potential and kinetic energy at P equals sum of potential and
kinetic energy at O, that is,
2
1 ds
mg(2a − y) + m = mg(2a) + 0
2 dt
Thus, 2
2 ds
v = = 2gy
dt
At the lowest point, y = 2a, and the speed is
p √
v = 4ga = 2 ag.
Forced vibrations
12.1 Introduction
Suppose that in addition to the restoring force−kxi and damping force −βvi we impress on
the mass m a force F (t)i where F (t) = F0 cos αt. Then the differential equation becomes
d2 x dx
m 2
= −kx − β + F0 cos αt
dt dt
or
ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = f0 cos αt, (12.1)
where γ = β/2m, ω 2 = k/m, f0 = F0 /m. The general solution is obtained by adding the
complementary solution of ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = 0 to the particular solution of ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x =
f0 cos αt. Now that the complementary solution is already obtained, we find the particular
solution by solving the equation ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = f0 cos αt using the method of undetermined
coefficients.
Now, let x = A cos αt + B sin αt be the particular solution. Then x = A cos αt + B sin αt
and ẋ = −αA sin αt + αB cos αt and ẍ = −α2 A cos αt − α2 B sin αt. Substituting these in
the given differential equation gives
−α2 A cos αt − α2 B sin αt + 2γ(−αA sin αt + αB cos αt) + ω 2 (A cos αt + B sin αt) = f0 cos αt
(12.2)
This simplifies to
Equating the coefficients of cos αt and sin αt on both sides of the equation gives (2γαB +
(ω 2 − α2 )A) = f0 and ((ω 2 − α2 )B − 2γαA) sin αt = 0, and solving for A and B gives
(ω 2 − α2 )f0
A=
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
95
96 12.2. RESONANCE
and
2αγf0
B=
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
Thus the particular solution is
(ω 2 − α2 )f0 2αγf0
x = cos αt + sin αt (12.4)
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2 (ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
f0
= p (cos αt cos φ + sin αt sin φ)
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
f0
= p cos(αt − φ),
(ω − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
2
where tan φ = 2αω/(ω 2 − α2 ). The general solution may now be written as a combination
of this and the solution to the homogeneous equation ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = 0. It should be noted
that solution to the homogeneous equation, called the transient solution, approaches zero
in a short time. After this time has elapsed, the motion of the mass m is now governed by
the particular solution, which is often called the steady-state solution. The vibrations which
take place are called forced vibrations and have a frequency equal to that of the impressed
force but lag behind by the phase angle φ.
12.2 Resonance
The steady-state solution of the forced vibration is
f0
x= p cos(αt − φ)
(ω − α )2 + 4α2 γ 2 )
2 2
f0
A= p (12.5)
(ω − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
2
We assume that γ 6= 0, i.e. β 6= 0, so that the damping force is present. We shall prove
α
that the maximum value of A in this case occurs when the frequency, 2π , of the impressed
2 2 2 1 2
force is such that α = αR = ω − 2γ assuming that γ < 2 ω . Near this frequency very
large oscillations may occur, sometimes causing damage to the system. This phenomenon is
called the resonance and the frequency α2πR is called the frequency of resonance or resonant
frequency. The value of maximum amplitude at the resonance frequency is
f
Amax = p 0 (12.6)
2γ ω − γ 2
CHAPTER 12. FORCED VIBRATIONS 97
f0
A= 2 2
(12.7)
(α2 − αR ) + 4γ 2 (ω 2 − γ 2 )
The graph of A against α2 is symmetric about the resonant frequency. In case there is no
damping i.e. γ = 0 or β = 0 all the frequencies, resonant frequency, frequency with damping
and natural frequency - are the same. In such case resonance occurs where the frequency of
the impressed force equals the natural frequency of oscillation. The general solution is, then,
f0 t
x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt + sin ωt (12.8)
2ω
From (12.8) it is seen that the oscillations build up with time until finally the spring breaks.
f
p 0
2γ ω 2 − γ 2
98 12.4. WORKED EXAMPLES
Solution
The amplitude of the steady-state oscillation A is given by
f0
A= p
(ω − α2 )2 + 4α2 γ 2
2
2. Determine the motion of a simple pendulum of length l and mass m assuming small
vibrations and no resistance force.
Solution
Let the position of m at any time t be determined by s, the arc length measured from
the equilibrium position O. Let θ be the angle made by the pendulum string with the
vertical. If e is the unit tangent vector to the circular path of the pendulum bob m,
then the force acting on it is −mg sin θe. By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 s
m 2 e = −mg sin θe
dt
or
d2 s
= −g sin θ
dt2
Now the arclength is given by s = lθ so that equation (1) can be written as
d2 (lθ)
= −g sin θ
dt2
CHAPTER 12. FORCED VIBRATIONS 99
or
d2 θ g
+ sin θ = 0 (12.11)
dt2 l
If θ is small then sin θ ≈ θ, so that we obtain the linearised equation
d2 θ gθ
+ =0 (12.12)
dt2 l
The period is s
2π l
T = p g = 2π ,
l
g
and the frequency is given as r
1 1 g
f= =
T 2π l
3. By using the principle of conservation of energy, show that
d2 θ g
+ sin θ = 0,
dt2 l
Solution
100 12.5. EXERCISES
We see from figure above that OA = OC − AC = l(1 − cos θ). Then by the principle
of conservation of energy, the sum of the potential energy at B and kinetic energy at
B equals the total energy, E, that is,
2
1 ds
mgl(1 − cos θ) + m =E (12.13)
2 dt
12.5 Exercises
1. Find the solution if in addition to restoring force −kxi with no damping we impress
on the mass m a force F (t)i where F (t) = F0 cos αt and the impressed frequency of
oscillation, and give a physical interpretation.
3. A periodic external force acts on a 6 kg mass suspended from the lower end of a
vertical spring having constant 150 newtons/metre. The damping force is proportional
to the instantaneous speed of the mass and is 80 N when the speed is 2 ms−1 Find the
frequency at which resonance occurs.
CHAPTER 12. FORCED VIBRATIONS 101
4. Find the length of a simple pendulum whose period is 1 second. Such a pendulum
which registers seconds is called seconds pendulum.
5. A simple pendulum whose length is 2 metres has its bob drawn to one side until the
string makes an angle of 30o with the vertical and the bob is then released. Find the
6. A simple pendulum of length and mass m hangs vertically from a fixed point O. The
bob is given an initial horizontal velocity of magnitude v0 . Prove that the arc through
which the bob swings in one period has a length given by
−1 v02
4l cos 1−
2gl
12.6 Answers
1. The restoring force is −kxi, the impressed force is (F0 cos αti, and therefore the effective
force is (−kx + F0 cos αt)i. By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 x
m i = (−kx + F0 cos αt)i
dt2
or
d2 x k F0
2
+ x= cos αt = f0 cos αt
dt m m
Since the impressed frequency is equal to the natural frequency of oscillation we have
α = ω, that is,
d2 x
+ α2 x = f0 cos αt (12.15)
dt2
To find the general solution of this equation we add the solution of
d2 x
2
+ α2 x = 0 (12.16)
dt
which is x = A cos αt+B sin αt, and called the complementary solution, to the solution
of ẍ + α2 x = f0 cos αt, called the particular solution. Now, to find the particular
solution, we assume the solution of the form x = t(c1 cos αt + c2 sin αt). However,
substituting this into the left side of (12.16) gives zero. Therefore we must modify the
form of the assumed particular solution to
dx
ẋ = = t(−αc1 sin αt + αc2 cos αt) + c1 cos αt + c2 sin αt (12.18)
dt
ẍ = t(−α2 c1 cos αt − α2 c2 sin αt) + 2(−αc1 sin αt + αc2 cos αt) (12.19)
Substituting (12.17), (12.18) and (12.19) into (12.16), we find, after simplification
f0
x= t sin αt
2α
The general solution of (12.17) is therefore
f0
x = A cos αt + B sin αt + t sin αt (12.20)
2
The constants A and B in (12.20) are determined from the initial conditions. Unlike
the case with damping, the terms involving A and B do not become small with time.
However, the last term involving t increases with time to such an extent that the spring
will finally break.
2. By Hooke’s law, if 50 dynes stretches the spring by 5 cm, then using F = kx gives
50 = k × 5 or k = 10 dynes per centimeter. For the mass of 10 grammes, the force is
10 × 980 = 9800 dynes and so the extention of the spring will be x = 980 centimeters.
By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 z
10 k = −10zk + 20 cos ωtk
dt2
or
d2 z
+ z = 2 cos ωt (12.21)
dt2
2
The solution of ddt2z + z = 0, called the complementary solution, is z = A cos t + B sin t.
Now, let z = −c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt be the solution of (1), called the particular solution.
Then
dz d2 z
= −c1 ω sin ωt + ωc2 cos ωt and = −ω 2 c1 cos ωt − ω 2 c2 sin ωt
dt dt2
Substituting in the given equation we have
or
(1 − ω 2 )c1 cos ωt + (1 − ω 2 )c2 sin ωt = 2 cos ωt
2
Comparing coefficients of cos ωt and sin ωt on both sides gives c1 = 1−ω 2
and c2 = 0,
and therefore
2
z= cos ωt
1 − ω2
Thus the general solution
2
z= cos ωt + A cos t + B sin t
1 − ω2
Applying the initial conditions z = 980, dz
dt
= 0, at t = 0 gives the constants A =
2
980 − 2/(1 − ω ) and B = 0, and therefore
2 2
z= cos ωt + 980 − cos t
1 − ω2 1 − ω2
3. The force acting due to the tension in the spring is −150zk where z is the stretch in
the spring. The magnitude of the damping force is f = βv and when v = 2 metres per
second, f = 80 newtons. This gives 80 = 2β or β = 40 and so the damping force is
−40vk = −40 dzdt
k. By Newton’s second law of motion we have
d2 z dz
6 2
k = −150zk − 40 k
dt dt
or
d2 z 20 dz
+ + 25z = 0 (12.22)
dt2 3 dt
The auxiliary equation is
20
γ2 + γ + 25 = 0 (12.23)
3
The solution of this equation is
10 5 √
γ=− ± 5i.
3 3
The general solution of the given equation is
−10
t 5√ 5√
z=e 3 A cos 5t + B sin 5t
3 3
√
The angular velocity is ω = 5 3 5 and the period of oscillation is T = 2π
ω
= 6π
√ .
5 5
Thus
the frequency at which resonance occurs is
√
5 5
6π
104 12.6. ANSWERS
5. (a) We see from the figure that OA = OC − AC = 2 − 2 cos 30o = 2(1 − cos 30o ).
Then by the conservation of energy taking the reference level for potential energy
at the horizontal plane through the lowest point O we have the sum of potential
energy at B and kinetic energy at B as equal to sum of potential energy at O and
kinetic energy at O. So, now potential energy at B is myg 2 (1 − cos 30o ) whereas
kinetic energy at B is zero. Also, potential energy at O is zero whereas kinetic
energy at O is 12 mv 2 , where v is the speed of the bob at O. Thus by the principle
of conservation of energy we have
1
mg 2 (1 − cos 30o ) + 0 = 0 + mv 2
2
This means that v 2 = 4g(1 − cos30o ) = 2.3 meters per second, and this is the
speed of the bob as it passes its lowest point.
ds
(b) We know that dt
= v and s = lθ. So then
d(lθ)
=v
dt
This implies that l dθ
dt
= v or dθ
dt
= vl . Since v = 2.3 and l = 2, we have dθ
dt
= 1.15
and therefore the angular speed at the lowest point is 1.15 radians per second.
(c) The equation of the pendulum is
g
θ̈ + sin θ = 0
l
Thus magnitude of the angular acceleration is
9.8
θ̈ = sin 30o = 2.45
2
radians per second, and acceleration = lθ̈ = 2 × 2.45 = 4.9 meters per second2 ,
which occurs at the angle 30o .
6. In one period the mass m moves from B to D and then back to B. Let s1 be the
distance along the arc from O to B. Then the required arc length is 4s1 . But s1 = lθ or
θ = s1 /l. Now, AO = CO − CA = l − l cos θ = l(1 − cos θ). Let the reference level for
CHAPTER 12. FORCED VIBRATIONS 105
potential energy be taken the horizontal plane through the lowest point O. The total
energy at O is the kinetic energy given by 12 mv02 . Now, since the velocity at B is zero,
the total energy at B is the potential energy mgl(1 − cos θ) = mgl(1 − cos(s1 /l)). By
the principle of conservation of energy we have
1 2
mv = mgl(1 − cos(s1 /l))
2 0
Solving for s1 gives
v2
−1
s1 = l cos 1− 0
2gl
and the required arc length is
−1 v02
4s1 = 4l cos 1−
2gl
106 12.6. ANSWERS
Chapter 13
13.1 Introduction
When an elastic string is subjected to tensile forces it is found experimentally that the exten-
sion produced is proportional to the tension in the string. The same is also true of springs,
but in addition compressive forces will produce contractions for which the proportionality
law still holds. This law is known as Hooke’s law.
If l is the natural length of the string (or spring) and z is the extension produced by a
tensile force T , then
λz
T = , (13.1)
l
where λ is a constant known as the modulus of the string (or spring), which may also be
interpreted as the force required to double the length of the string (or spring) provided
Hooke’s law still holds for such a loading.
Essentially λ is a constant of the string (or spring) but it depends on the geometry as
well as the material of the string (or spring). In consequence it is sometimes useful to state
Hooke’s law in a form which involves quantities separately dependent on geometry and on
the material of the spring. Thus if we have a steel wire of natural length l, tensile force T ,
uniform cross sectional area A and extension z, then it is found that
T z
=E ,
A l
where E is a constant dependent only on the material and termed Young’s modulus. When
an elastic string is stretched, work is done by the tensile force, this work is stored as elastic
potential energy in the string. Thus if a tensile force T is applied to a string of natural length
l and modulus λ produces an extension z, the work done in producing a further extension
dz is
λz
dW = dz,
l
107
108 13.2. WORKED EXAMPLES
This requires that the depth z below the equilibrium position should never exceed mgl/λ or
that
2mgl
x≤ .
λ
2. Two light strings, S1 and S2 , are joined together at one end only. One end of the
combined string is attached to the ceiling at O, and a mass of 3 kg is attached to the
other, and allowed to hang freely in equilibrium. The moduli of S1 and S2 are 75 N
and 120 N, and their natural lengths are 50 cm and 40 cm. Find the distance of the 3
kg mass below O.
4. Two elastic springs, S1 and S2 , are joined at each end, so that they are side by side.
The bottom end of the combined spring is placed on a table, and a weight of 60 N is
placed on the top. The moduli of S1 and S2 are 80 N and 100 N, and their natural
lengths are 50 cm and 60 cm. Find the distance of the 60 N weight above the table.
7. An elastic string has natural length l, and is held vertically, with the upper end fixed.
A heavy particle, mass m attached to its lower end produces a static deflection d the
string if the particle is pulled down a further distance c below equilibrium and released,
show that in the case when d(d+4l) > c2 > d2 , the time taken for the particle to return
to its original position of release is
12
d
2 (π − θ + tan θ),
g
λd
mg = ,
l
110 13.2. WORKED EXAMPLES
or λ = mgl/d. When the string is extended a further distance x from the equilibrium
position, its length becomes l + d + x and the tension is
λd mg
T = (d + x) = (d + x).
l d
Since the weight of the particle is mg, the net downward force in this position is
mg
mg − T = − x
d
and since the downward acceleration has magnitude ẍ, we have
mg
mẍ = − x, (13.5)
d
or ẍ = −gx/d. This equation holds only so long as the string is taut. The general
solution of (13.5) is
r r
g g
x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t
d d
At t = 0, x = c so we have c1 = c. Also since ẋ = 0 at t = 0 we have c2 = 0 so solution
of (13.5) is
r
g
x = c cos t.
d
This solution holds only as long as the string remains taut. But when x = −d the
string has attained its natural length. If t1 be the time taken for this to happen, then
r
g
−d = c cos t1 .
d
p p
Now, if cos θ = d/c, then − cos θ = c cos gd t1 or cos(π − θ) = c cos gd t1 . This means
that s
d
t1 = (π − θ).
g
At this instant, the speed is given as
r r r
g g g
ẋ = −c sin t1 = −c sin θ.
d d d
Thus at time t = t1 , the particle is rising against gravity with an upward velocity
r
g
v=c sin θ.
d
CHAPTER 13. ELASTIC STRINGS AND SPRINGS 111
Let t2 be the further time taken for the particle to attain its greatest height. The
greatest height the particle would attain under free gravitational flight would be
v2 c2 2 c2 d2
= sin θ = 1− 2 ,
2g 2d 2d c
since cos θ = d/c. If the string does not tighten in this phase of the motion, then the
maximum height should not exceed 2l, that is, c2 − d2 < 4ld or d(4l + d) > c2 . As
this condition holds, it follows that in the subsequent upward flight of the particle, the
string does not tighten. Hence
r s
v c g d
t2 = = sin θ = tan θ
g g d g
and the total time from release to the highest point attained is
s
d
t1 + t2 = (π − θ + tan θ)
g
Thus the total time required is
s
d
2 (π − θ + tan θ).
g
13.3 Exercises
1. Two points A and B in a horizontal plane distance l apart are joined by a light elastic
string of natural length l0 and modulus λ, where l0 < l. A particle of mass m is
attached to the mid-point of the string. This particle is drawn aside a small distance
and released. Show that the ensuing motion of the particle is approximately simple
harmonic and find the period.
2. A heavy particle of mass m hangs at the lower end of a light vertical elastic spring
of natural length l0 and modulus 2mg. Initially, the system is in equilibrium and the
upper end of the spring is made to execute vertical oscillations so that its downward
displacement at time t is a sin pt, where p2 = 2g/l0 . Find the displacement of the
particle at this instant.
13.4 Answers
1. The figure above shows the configuration at time t, and T is the tension in the strings
AP, BP. Then
12
1 2 2
AP = BP = l +z
4
112 13.4. ANSWERS
1
Therefore, the stretch of AP = 14 l2 + z 2 2 − 12 l0 ≈ 12 (l − l0 ), to first order. If z denotes
the displacement of the particle from O at time t, the equation of motion is
−2T cos θ = mz̈
Now,
z z 2z
cos θ = = 1 ≈ ,
AP 1 2
l + z2 2 l
4
to the first order. Hence the equation of motion is
1 1
mz̈ = −4λ − z
l0 l
or
4λ(l − l0 )
z̈ + z=0
ml0 l
and so the motion is simple harmonic with period given as
12
ml0 l
T = 2π
4λ(l − l0 )
x = A cos pt + B sin pt
Now, let x = t(c1 cos pt + c2 sin pt) be a particular solution of (13.6). Then ẋ =
t(−pc1 sin +pc2 cos pt) + c1 cos pt + c2 sin pt) and ẍ = t(−p2 c1 cos pt − p2 c2 sin pt −
pc1 sin +pc2 cos pt − pc1 sin pt + pc2 cos pt = t(−p2 c1 cos pt − p2 c2 sin pt) − 2pc1 sin pt +
2pc2 cos pt. Substituting in the given equation we have
t(−p2 c1 cos pt−p2 c2 sin pt)−2pc1 sin pt+2pc2 cos pt+p2 t(c1 cos pt+c2 sin pt) = p2 a sin pt
Comparing the coefficients of sin pt and cos pt we obtain c1 = −ap/2 and c2 = 0. Thus
the particular solution is
ap
x = − t cos pt
2
Hence the general solution is
ap
x = A cos pt + B sin pt − t cos pt
2
Applying the initial conditions x = 0 and ẋ = 0 at t = 0 gives A = 0 and B = a/2 so
that
a ap
x = sin pt − t cos pt
2 2
114 13.4. ANSWERS
Chapter 14
14.1 Introduction
Consider an isolated system composed of two particles of masses m1 and m2 respectively.
An isolated system is a system on which no external forces act, Fext = 0; in such a system,
the total momentum is conserved. Internal forces are forces acted by one part of the system
on another, these are irrelevant for the motion of the system as a whole: they cannot change
the total momentum of the system. According to the Newton’s second law of motion,
dv1 dv2
m1 = F21 and m2 = F12 (14.1)
dt dt
A more general formulation, which allows to consider systems composed of several bodies,
or, equivalently a body with a varying mass, is the following:
1. Define the momentum of particle i as pi = mi vi . The momentum is a vector. A system
composed of several particles has the momentum which is the vector sum of all the
constituent particle momenta:
X X
P = pi = mi vi (14.2)
i i
2. Distinguish between internal forces and external forces. For the two particles acting
upon each other, by applying Newton’s third law of motion, the force acted by particle
1 on 2 is equal in size and opposite in direction to the one acted by particle 2 on 1.
This means that
dv1 dv2
m1 = −m2
dt dt
or
d dP
[m1 v1 + m2 v2 ] = = 0,
dt dt
namely the total momentum of an isolated system is conserved.
115
116 14.2. MASS ACCRETION
3. Assume now a non-vanishing net external force Fext on the system. By Newton’s second
law,
dP
= Fext (14.3)
dt
namely, it states that the rate of change of the total momentum P of the system is
equal to the external force. This is a general formulation of Newtonian dynamics.
Momentum conservation of an isolated system can of course be obtained in the special
case of a vanishing external force. Clearly, another special case is the one of a body of
a fixed mass m, in which case the mass can be pulled out of the time derivarive on the
left hand side of (14.3), returning to the formulation of mẍ = F.
Newton’s second law in (14.3) is most conveniently used in its integrated form. Consider
for example the effect of the force between time t and time t + ∆t. Integrating (14.3) we get:
Z t+∆t Z t+∆t
dP
dτ = Fext (t)dτ
t dt t
The integral on the right hand side of this equation is called impulse. The statement of
Newton’s second law is then:
Z t+∆t
P (t + ∆t) − P (t) = Fext (t)dτ (14.4)
t
namely that the net change in the total momentum of the system over a period of time
equals to the impulse of the external force in this time. Among the examples of applications
in which the mass of the system is varying in time, are the rain drops falling vertically within
a cloud and the equation of motion of a rocket.
where we neglected O((δt)2 ) corrections. Clearly the non-infinitesimal term m(t)v(t) drops
in the difference on the left hand side. Dividing by δt and then taking the limit δt → 0
(where upon δm/δt → ṁ) we get:
F = −m(t)gk
dy
where k is a unit vector pointing up. The problem is then one dimensional, with v = dt
k.
Because we assumed u = 0, eq. (120) reduces to
ṁ(t) = αm(t)
where α is some constant. Under this assumption we can solve the problem. We obtain:
ẇ + αw(t) = g (14.8)
118 14.4. THE ROCKET EQUATION
The basic mechanism is depicted in figure above: a certain amount of gas of mass is
thrown backwards, with velocity u with respect to the rocket. We shall assume that this
velocity is constant throughout the flight. Thus, according to (14.9) the remaining body of
the rocket moves forward at a higher speed v + δv. Note that the total mass is conserved.
So if at time t the mass of the rocket was m(t), at (infinitesimally) later time t + δt the mass
can be obtained as a Taylor expansion:
dm
m(t + δt) ≈ m(t) + δt + O((δt)2 ) = m(t) + dm
dt
The mass is decreasing, i.e. dm
dt
< 0 so dm < 0. Thus, as shown in figure, the amount of
mass thrown backwards is −dm > 0.
At time t, before throwing the amount −dm the momentum in some inertial frame is
P (t) = m(t)v(t)
After throwing it
P (t + ∆t) = (m(t) + dm)(v(t) + dv) + (−dm)(v + dv − u)
where the second term accounts for the momentum of the exhaust gas of mass −dm, which
moves with velocity −u with respect to the rocket, or v + dv − u with respect to the inertial
frame (where the rockets velocity is v + dv). Comparing the momenta before and after:
(m(t) + dm)(v(t) + dv) + (−dm)(v + dv − u) − m(t)v(t) = 0
CHAPTER 14. MOMENTUM AND VARIABLE-MASS PROBLEMS 119
m(t)dv + udm = 0
Dividing by m(t) and integrating between the initial (i) and final (f ) times, we get:
Z vf Z mf
dm
dv = −u
vi mi m
yielding:
mi
∆v = vf − vi = u ln
mf
which is the so-called Rocket Equation. It states that the difference between the final and
initial velocities is the exhaust velocity times the logarithm of the ratio between the initial
and final rocket mass.
which is the speed at any time. Note that we must have m0 − αt > 0, otherwise there
will be no gas expelled from the rocket in which case the rocket will be out of fuel.
14.6 Exercises
1. A particle of varying mass m(t) is moving with velocity v under a force F(t), matter
being emitted at a constant rate λ with velocity u relative to the particle. Prove that
the total distance traveled by the rocket in time t is given as
1 2 m0 − αt m0 − αt
s = − gt + v0 t + u ln
2 α m0
14.7 Answers
1. From (14.11) we have
m0
v = −g + u ln
m0 − αt
If s is the distance travelled by the rocket, then
ds m0
= −g + u ln
dt m0 − αt
Integrating gives
1 2 u m0
s = − gt − (m0 − αt) ln +1 +c
2 α m0 − αt
r × F = r × f (r)r1 = f (r)r × r1 = 0
r·r×v = r·h
124 15.5. WORKED EXAMPLES
2. Prove that the angular momentum of a particle moving in a central force field is a
constant.
Solution
We know that r · r × v = r · h, where h is a constant vector. Then multiplying this by
mass m we obtain
mr · r × v = mh
or r × mv = mh and since the left side is the angular momentum, it follows that the
angular momentum is a constant.
3. Prove that a central force field is conservative and find the corresponding potential
energy of a particle in this field.
Solution
If we can find the potential V , then we will also have subsequently proved that the
field is conservative. Now if the potential V exists, it must be such that
F · dr = −dV
−dV = f (r)dr
We have on integration Z
V =− f (r)dr
It follows that the field is conservative and that V represents the potential energy. In
polar coordinates, velocity v is given by
v = ṙr1 + rθ̇θ1
so that v 2 = v · v = ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 . Thus the kinetic energy of the particle moving with
velocity v is given as
1
K.E. = (ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 )
2
So the equation of conservation of energy is
Z
1 2 2 2
(ṙ + r θ̇ ) − f (r)dr = E
2
CHAPTER 15. MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE 125
dθ
If we write θ̇ = h/r2 or dt
= h/r2 , then r2 dθ = hdt so that
Z
1
t= r2 dθ
h
5. Under the influence of a central force at point O, a particle moves in a circular orbit
which passes through O. Find the law of force.
Solution
In polar coordinates the equation of a circle of radius a passing through O is r =
2a cos θ. Since u = 1/r, we can write u = sec θ/2a so that
du sec θ tan θ d2 u sec3 θ + sec θ tan2 θ
= , =
dθ 2a dθ2 2a
Now
u
1 2 2 d
f = −mh u +u (15.9)
u dθ2
3
2 2 sec θ + sec θ tan2 θ sec θ
= −mh u + (15.10)
2a 2a
3 2
2 2 sec θ + sec θ(tan θ + 1
= −mh u (15.11)
2a
3 3
2 2 sec θ 2 2 2 sec θ
= −mh u = −8mh u a (15.12)
2a a
2 2 5
= −8mh a u (15.13)
−8mh2 a2
f (r) = (15.14)
r5
Now since m, h, and a are constants, the force is one of attraction varying inversely as
the fifth power of the distance from O.
CHAPTER 15. MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE 127
15.6 Exercises
1. Indicate which of the following central force fields are attractive toward origin O and
which are repulsive from O.
(a) F = −4r3 r1
(b) F = √k r1 , k>0
r
r(r−1)
(c) F = r
r2 +1 1
(d) F = (sin πr)r1
2. Prove that in rectangular coordinate system the magnitude of the areal velocity is gives
as
1
v = (xẏ − y ẋ).
2
3. Find the potential energy or potential corresponding to the central force fields defined
by
4. A particle moves in a central force field defined by F = −kr2 r1 . It starts from rest at
a point on the circle r = a. Prove that when it reaches the circle r = b its speed will
be r
2π(a3 − b3 )
,
3m
and the speed will be independent of the path.
k
F=− r1
rn
where k and r are constants. It starts from rest at r = a and arrives at r = 0 with
finite velocity v0 . Prove that we must have n < 1, k > 0, and
s
2ka1−n
v0 =
m(m − 1)
6. A particle moving in a central force field located at r = 0 describes the spiral r = e−θ .
Prove that the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to r3 .
128 15.7. ANSWERS
15.7 Answers
1. (a) Here f (r) = −4r3 , which is negative since r > 0 and thus the force is attractive.
(b) Since k > 0, the force is always positive so this is a repulsive force.
(c) This force is directed toward the origin, i.e., repulsive if 0 < r < 1, and repulsive
if r > 1.
(d) Here f (r) = sin πr. In this case, f (r) > 0 if 2nπ < πr < (2n + 1)π or 2n <
r < 2n + 1 for n = 0, 1, 2, ...and f (r) < 0 if (2n + 1)π < πr < (2n + 2)π or
2n + 1 < r < 2n + 2 for n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Thus F is repulsive for 2n < r < 2n + 1 and attractive for 2n + 1 < r < 2n + 2.
√
(a) V (r) = − 2rk2 (d) V (r) = 2 r
(b) V (r) = αr + rβ3
1
(c) V (r) = − 12 kr2 (e) V (r) = π
cos πr
m 2 k
(ṙ + r2 θ̇2 ) − r3 = E
2 3
At r = a, ṙ = 0, θ̇ = 0 since the particle starts from rest. Thus E = ka3 /3 and thus
m 2 k k
(ṙ + r2 θ̇2 ) − r3 = a3
2 3 3
This may be written as
2k 3
ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 = (a − r3 )
3m
CHAPTER 15. MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE 129
2ka1−n
v02 =
m(n − 1)
6. From Newton’s second law of motion we have ma = f (r)r1 , where f (r) is the magnitude
of force. In polar coordinates acceleration a is given by
where r1 is a unit vector in the direction of increasing r and θ1 is the unit vector in
the increasing θ-direction. Thus we obtain the two equations
The second equation gives rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ = 0 or r2 θ̈ + 2rṙθ̇ = 0 after multiplying through
by r. This may be written as
d 2
(r θ̇) = 0
dt
130 15.7. ANSWERS
which is the same as r2 θ̇ = h, a constant. So we have θ̇ = h/r2 . Now from the first
equation,
2 h2
f (r) = m(r̈ − rθ̇ ) = m r̈ − 3
r
Now if r = r(θ) then
dr dr dθ h dr
ṙ = = = 2
dt dθ dt r dθ
and also
d h dr 2h h dr h2 d2 r
r̈ = = − +
dt r2 dθ r3 r2 dθ2 4 dθ2
Equation (4) becomes
h2 d2 r 2h2 dr h2
f (r) = m − 5 − 3
4 dθ2 r dθ2 r
If r = e−θ , then dr/dθ = −e−θ = −r and d2 r/dθ2 = e−θ = r so that equation (5)
becomes 2
h 2h2 2 h2 2mh2
f (r) = m r− 5 r − 3 =− 3
4 r r r
Since m and h are constants, the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to
r3 .