Sandwich pressurization

systems for smoke control

These systems have proven to be efficient and cost-effective
in numerous multi-story buildings in Australia

f8Y Roger Marchant

A
ustralian building legislation has in the past paid lit- then attain a higher pressure than that which occurs on the other
tle attention to smoke control within multi-story floors.
buildings apart from the old Australian Standard The degree of positive pressure achieved will depend upon
1668, Fire Precautions in Buildings with Air Han- how much exhaust is provided, how much air enters the floor and
dling Systems. The objective of that standard was to prevent the how hot the fire is (entering air will expand because of heat). This
migration of smoke to other parts of a building by way of the condition will promote smoke migration from the fire floor to
installed air-conditioning ductwork. However, there was no other floors via interconnecting paths.
requirement in the old AS-1668 or in Australian building regula- Smoke will enter the elevator shaft, which will be at a lower
tions (AMUBC) to minimize smoke spread through a multi-story pressure because the non-fire floors will be scavenging from it.
building by connecting paths other than the air-conditioning This interconnecting path will transport large volumes of smoke
ductwork (building service, elevator and ventilation shafts). to other parts of the building. It may also attain a temperature gra-
Because the old standard only applied to buildings employ- dient and act as a chimney if the fire is not quickly extinguished.
ing a central air handling plant, in those early days (before some This problem will hamper firefighters who need the elevators to
authorities woke up to the loophole) it was possible to construct transport resources up to the forward command post two floors
a multi-story building with individual on-floor (unitary) air con- below the fire.
ditioners, to save the expense of a smoke control system. A recent hot smoke test 1 in Adelaide, Australia, verified the
Occupants would then, for their safety, rely solely upon required above scenario. Specifically, a 1.5 MW test fire in a below-ground
stair pressurization systems to provide smoke-free paths of egress. car park smokelogged a large department store five floors above.
Local ad hoc tests have demonstrated that smoke will migrate Smoke migrated by way of an elevator shaft interconnecting these
from the fire floor to other parts of a building via transfer paths spaces because the store pressurization system failed to operate.
such as elevator shafts, construction joints and ventilation ducts. The resultant automatic exhaust in the department store exacer-
The traditional AS-1668 modus operandi, at time of fire, bated the situation by decreasing pressure in the store. The situ-
consists of running the building air-conditioning plant in what we ation was corrected by switching off all store exhaust systems and
now call the purge mode. Using economy cycle dampers, all floors operating air-conditioning supply air to pressurize the store.
(including the fire floor) are supplied with 100% fresh air and From the commentary document, the oldAS-1668 commit-
exhausted to atmosphere. This is usually accomplished via a tee recognized (two decades ago) the desirability of a positive pres-
return air shaft, using either dedicated smoke spill fans or the air- sure differential between fire and non-fire floors, but did not
conditioning return air fans.
In this purge mode, the fire stairs are maintained at a posi- About the author
tive pressure to prevent smoke entry into these escape routes.
Because the A/C system is required to supply less air than that Roger Marchant is a fire safety engineer with the South Australian
exhausted, the building has all floors at a pressure below that of Metropolitan Fire Service, Adelaide, Australia. He received his
the elevator, service and stair shafts, with no induced pressure Graduate Diploma in fire engineering at the Institution ofFire Engi-
neers, Leicester, United Kingdom. Marchant is a member of the serv-
differential between the fire and other floors. ices and equipment committee of the Australian Uniform Building
When doors to the fire floor are opened for occupant escape Regulation Coordinating Council as well as the technical advisory
or firefighter access, pressure on this floor will increase because group of the Building Regulation Review Task Force.
of the inrush of air from the pressurized stairs. This floor will

20 ASHRAE Journal November 1992

 believe the costs of control systems to achieve this were justified.
OPTIONAL LARGE
Cost is now less of an imposition on the building owner, because DIAMETER SMOKE
multi-story buildings of any significance have computerized man- SUPPLY AIR FAN SPILL FAN
agement systems that can be (carefully) modified to achieve this RUNNING RUNNING

..
desired effect. V.D.SHUT
V.D.SHUT ,
The new AS-1668.1 includes for the design of zone pressuri-
zation systems and The Building Code of Australia has been
amended to include this standard. From practical experience, I am V.D.OPEN
convinced that positive zone pressurization is necessary if we are . . -Ii===~
to successfully cope with the kinetic effects of the hot smoky
gasses generated by a fire in a multi-story building.
Recognized smoke control methods
It would appear that there are but two principle dynamic
methods of controlling the movement of smoke within a build-
ing: removal and containment. (I discount dilution as a practical
form of control.) \;;::==~===:==I I
F.D.: V.D. OPEN V.D. SHUT
The oldest control method is to exhaust or relieve smoke
from above the hot layer. 2 If this layer is contained in a defined
smoke reservoir (bounded by vertical screens or other geometric
I[ + 20Pa.

F.D. ; V.D. OPENV.D.SHUT

rf-'
UI
rr'
ceiling configuration), we can prevent the smoke from descend-
ing and spreading laterally. Applications of this principle typically I 11
lb
+ 20 Pa.
QI

It
F.D.: V.D. OPEN V.D. SHUT
include smoke and heat vents employed in industrial buildings 3
and smoke exhaust fans located at the top of atriums or in shop- + 20Pa. (i
ping malls. F.D.::v.D. OPEN v.o. SHUT
The second method, containment, employs the use of air
velocity in the opposite direction to smoke movement to overcome
I[ + 20Pa. ri
F.D.:v.D. OPEN V.D. SHUT
its kinetic energy. This merhod is very sensitive and can be mis-
+ 20Pa.
applied. Remember, the "control" air volume will create excessive
turbulence, thereby stirring up and increasing the smoke volume. SECTION THROUGH BUILDING
Some will argue that the smoke will be more dilute, hence NOTE: F.D. = FIRE DAMPER
implying less dangerous. Forget the academics; the dilute smoke V.D. = VOLUME CONTROL DAMPER
will usually be black, opaque and very toxic. Figure 1. Central plant air conditioning.
Traditional stair pressurization systems use velocity to pre-
vent smoke entry into stairs; apparently 0.8 mis (158 fpm) will pre-
vent smoke passing through an open stair door into the stairwell. Non-fire floor pressurization is achieved by operating the air-
I believe this velocity was derived from tests on standard door conditioning system at 100<1/o fresh air.
openings with a bulkhead above the door. Smoke will principalJy be contained within the fire floor and
The bulkhead is a very important component of the test the relief path from lhat floor to atmosphere. Leakage of air
assembly. Most smoke layers have a jet stream of high tempera- within the building via elevator shafts, stairs and construction
ture, fast moving gasses close to the ceiling. The bulkhead causes joints will always be towards the fire floor and any selected smoke
the jet stream and the smoke layer to turn down at the door open- relief shaft, which will be at a lower pressure than all other parts
ing. The turbulent eddy at this point is then prey to the low veloc- of the building. This allows smoke to leave the building by a
ity air flowing through the door. However, if the door opening was chosen path. For central plant systems, a return air shaft with or
flush wit11 the ceiling, more than 0.8 mis (158 fpm) would be without fans may be used for this purpose.
required. This form of control relies on air velocity through cracks and
I prefer well in excess of l mis (197 fpm) through any open- openings in the structure to prevent smoke moving in the oppo-
ing. In fact, 2 mis (394 fpm) is very effective and, as explained site direction via these paths. 4 The increase in air pressure neces-
later, is often achieved when using a sandwich (zone) pressuriza- sary to create this velocity is usually created by the supply air fan
tion system. If we employ this principle over large openings, buge backing up its performance curve. The pressure increase is the
quantities of air are required and large volumes of smoke can be most obvious component of these systems.
generated. This may also exacerbate firefightfog operations in the Ad hoc smoke tests have shown that air infiltration onto the
space where the smoke is contained. fire floor typically achieves crack velocities (through elevator shaft
doors) of 3 to 4 mis (591 to 787 fpm). Air may also back-flow
Smoke control by sandwich pressurization through toilet and other miscellaneous exhaust ducts at 1.5 to 2.5
In Adelaide, there are now more than 25 buildings (ranging mis (295 to 492 fpm) and through open stair doors at 1.0 to 2.5
from 10 to 30 floors in height) that have sandwich (zone) pressu- mis (197 to 492 fpm).
rization smoke control systems. Now optional within the new
AS-1668, 5 this method employs the building air-conditioning The new Australian Standard 1668.1
system to pressurize lhe non-fire floors, and to provide either relief AS-1668.1 (Fire and Smoke Control) now specifies zone
or exhaust of the fire affected floor (see Figures 1 and2). smoke control systems. 5 These employ the same components as
The fire floor is sandwiched between the higher pressure a traditional purging system e~cept that additional volume control
zones (non-fire floors), hence the name sandwich pressurization. dampers are necessary for central plant systems. It is the control

ASHRAE Journal November 1992 21

 Smoke control sandwich pressurization systems will dictate the exhaust quantity to the fire floor. To size a smoke
exhaust fan connected to a shaft, the designer must allow for leak-
age into the shaft through closed dampers on non-fire floors
(indeed through the fabric of the shaft itself if it is masonry) and
add this allowance to the required at-floor exhaust. If this fan fails
(depending upon fire floor pressure), there should still remain a
degree of sandwich pressurization between the non-fire floors and
the fire floor, which should hinder smoke migration.
Section 6 of the new standard details zone smoke control
using on-floor unitary air handling systems. These must supply
100% fresh air to non-fire floors and stop on the fire floor, which
is relieved to outside the building or exhausted by shaft or local
fan. Under the Building Code of Australia, zone pressurization
systems are mandatory in all buildings employing unitary plants.
Central plant and on-floor systems may be used to pressu-
rize the stairs via leakage from the pressurized floors. In practice,
this works well and has been utilized in South Australia for many
years now. However, it is important that stairwells have a relief
li~NSTOP +20Pa. path to atmosphere to prevent over-pressurization.
It is intended that central plant zone pressurization systems
SMOKE
EXHAUST-X{J used to pressurize stairs incorporate:
FANS LJi:=F=AN=STO
= P=+=2=0=P=a=. ===~===;1 • A standby supply air fan, or
• A standby drive arrangement, and
+20Pa. • Dual fresh air intakes on opposite sides of the building
such that, if one is contaminated, it will shut down and the other
intake be utilized.
The control of the dual air intakes must be arranged so that,
if one intake becomes contaminated, enough time is available to
permit it to close down and the fresh air plenum to clear, before
NOTE: .-V.O. = AIR CONDITIONING AlJlbMJIJIC
, ., .c -~_.\/ULUME CONTROL DAMPER . '
the fan itself is stopped by the supply air smoke sensor.
-~~ -
Fi{iure 2:_.~ Unitary plant air conditioning. Discussion
~,;. -
A common misconception is that smoke control systems
within multi-story buildings are intended to keep the smoke on the
'
of these dampers, or the unitary plant, that achieves the necessary fire floor at high level, clear of the occupants. This is not a prac-
pressure differentials between floors. tical proposition.
Section 5, clause 5.8 of the new standard details requirements Instead, the intent is to prevent smoke from threatening
for central plant zone pressurization systems. These require building occupants on floors remote from the fire. In reality, the
volume control dampers within the supply air ductwork to each fire floor will rapidly smokelog down to the floor because the air-
floor that supply air to every floor except the fire floor. The fire conditioning system will be completely overwhelmed by the fire.
floor is either relieved or exhausted by a shaft to outside the Hopefully, the occupants of the fire floor will be driven out of that
building. area into safe refuge/escape zones.
An exhaust shaft serving all floors requires volume control Currently, it is not possible to accurately predict the pressure
dampers on each floor in addition to the traditional sub-duct fire differentials that will be achieved by a proposed system. These can
separation. These dampers close on non-fire floors (creating a only be measured on completion. As far as I know, there is no
back-pressure) and open 011 the fire floor. Because all dampers accurate design data for the unfortunate design engineer. I believe
used must fail in the open position, the system will revert to a this has created a further misconception that an enormously
purge mode (except a positive building pressure will result because expensive and complicated pressure control system is required to
there is less total exhaust than supply). maintain the pressure difference of not less than 20 Pa (0.08 in.
Exhaust fans must provide six air changes per hour in the lar- wg) between the fire and non-fire floors.
gest compartment or handle the volume entering the largest floor A practical solution resolves this dilemma: Select an
when all pressurized exits serving that floor are open, whichever appropriate fan performance curve that will prevent very high
is greater. In a traditional office building with two pressurized pressures at low volume flow (try not to use forward curved fans).
ex.its, a velocity of not less than 1 mis (197 fpm) is required Further, specify fans that can be repitched or incorporate drive
through each open door. At around 1.75 mJ /s (3,700 cfm) per pulleys that can be changed after installation (with sufficient com-
door, this equates to a required exhaust of at least 3.5 m3Is (7 ,400 missioning costs allowed for this). This simple prescription ena-
cfm) per floor. bles the system to be tailored for the building at commissioning
To this air quantity, we must add infiltration from leakage time.
paths such as lift doors, expansion due to temperature, curtain In practice, pressure differential control is extremely simple
facade, and other factors. This will, in practice, probably make the (crude, but foolproof). Air leaks into the fire floor while the pres-
at-floor exhaust not less than 4 ml Is (8,47 5 cfm). surizing system rides the supply fan performance curve. The 20
· Therefore, in buildings having a net leasable floor area of up Pa (0.08 in. wg) is a minimum; go as high as possible.
to about 800 m2 (8,600 ft 2), the air volume through the exit doors Continued on page 24

22 ASHRAE Journal November 1992

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 Smoke control sandwich pressurization systems Unsprinklered buildings are likely to have fully flashed-over
Continued from page 22
fires on the fire floor, and I doubt that any smoke control system
can effectively deal with that situation. This suggests that sprin-
We have achieved 140 Pa (0.56 in. wg) between fire and non- kling is an essential component of a successful smoke control
fire floors, and maintained llO newtons (25 lb) force at the han- system.
dle of the door across which this pressure differential was meas- Overseas designers have installed smoke control systems that
ured. (Force at door handle equals pressure times area, taken as pressurize a few floors above and below the fire floor. This will not
a force midway between door jambs, acting as a moment about work because the elevator and other shafts will not be adequately
the door hinges.) pressurized, so any smoke entering these distribution paths will end
Table I summarizes tests of stairwell pressure differentials up on other floors within the building. All floors must be pres-
and door opening forces achieved in a building that employed a surized.
sandwich pressurization system leaking into the fire stairs. We have found that, in many buildings, independent stair
Because relief to the outside had not been provided, this system pressurization systems are not required if the building has sufficient
had too great a pressure differential across the upper stairwell' floors and infiltration gaps around the closed doors accessing the
doors. This caused unacceptably high door opening forces (more stair. Stair pressurization will occur because of leakage into the
than 110 newtons; 25 lb). stairwell from the pressurized non-fire floors. We often achieve 2
Prior to the installation of relief grilles, the tests detailed in mis (394 fpm) through open doors to the fire floor with all other
Table I were conducted by opening various door combinations, doors to the stairwell shut, except for the bottom escape door to
using the open top door of each stair as a relief into the roofplant- outside the building. When more doors are opened into the stair-
room fresh air plenum. The figures are as presented by the com- well, leakage rates into the stair improve and the velocity through
11llssioning engineer. Unfortunately, door closures have adjustable the open doors to the fire floor will increase.
and varied torque settings and no absolute reference pressure was Successful stair pressurization has generally been achieved by
measured between the stair and outside the building. normal leakage. However, in some instances, small fire dampers
During full-scale fire tests, it has been established 6 that a have been installed to open up ceiling plenum spaces to the stairwell.
maximum fire pressure of 16 Pa (0.06 in. wg) was developed at an In low-rise buildings, small supplementary stair pressuriza-
exit door. Further from the door, 15 to 20 Pa (0.06 to 0.08 in. wg) tion fans may be required if there is not enough leakage area.
is suggested. In sprinklered buildings, 5 to 10 Pa (0.02 to 0.04 in. These will not need to supply air for open doors, onto non-fire
wg) is suggested. Current systems installed in South Australia floors, bec;mse these are pressurized. Once the building reaches
appear to develop pressure differentials between non-fire and fire 10 or more floors, there is usually sufficient door leakage to pres-
floors of between 50 to 100 Pa (0.2 to 0.4 in. wg). surize most escape stairs. However, the length of corridor at the
Academic discourse as to what pressures are created by fires base of the stair (offering resistance to air flow) affects the pres-
in sprinklered and unsprinklered buildings tends to fade into the surization of the stairwell at the lower floors, hence the velocity
background as they appear well below these easily achieved through the doors at these levels.
figures. Stairwell pressurization is technically a defunct term. Aus-
tralian Standard 1668.I is not concerned with how much pressure
a system generates in a stair, just the maximum force required to
Table 1. Tests of Stairwell Pressure Differentials open the fire floor door (110 newtons; 25 lb) and the minimum
and Door Opening Forces fresh air velocity through it (1 mis; 197 fpm).
Stair 1 2 3 4 5 6 In central exhaust systems, over-exhausting the fire floor can
No.. 1 Pascals Pascals Pascals Pascals Newtons Newtons be overcome by "cracking" the exhaust dampers on non-fire
Floor 10W 60.0 100.0 65.0 110.0 69.0 74.0 floors. However, do not design this way. Buildings and dampers
Floor8W 30.0 70.0 45.0 120.0 69.0 98.0 are extremely leaky, a lot more than most people think.
Floor6W 30.0 70.0 47.0 100.0 69.0 108.0 For central plant systems, fire-rated wiring to fans is required.
Floor4W 40.0 70.0 60.0 110.0 59.0 108.0 On-floor fans do not need fire-rated wiring because the fan on the
Floor2W 40.0 72.0 60.0 115.0 64.0 103.0
fire floor stops. Only where the wiring is exposed to fire on other
Stair 1 2 3 4 5 6 (possible fire) floors does it need to be fire-rated. In the future, we
No.2 Pascals Pascals Pascals Pascals Newtons Newtons should consider the "essential services tower concept" and incor-
Floor 10E 60.0 90.0 65.0 120.0 69.0 74.0 porate such reticulation within the design of the fire-rated stair-
Floor BE 30.0 70.0 45.0 120.0 69.0 98.0 wells used for egress.
Floor 6E 30.0 65.0 45.0 105.0 69.0 108.0 One of the best South Australian systems tested to date uses
Floor 4E 42.0 70.0 65.0 112.0 69.0 108.0 an on-floor plant, located in fire-rated rooms in the services core,
Floor 2E 40.0 60.0 50.0 120.0 59.0 103.0
accessible from a fire stair. Stair pressurization fans, fire-rated
Table Legend
wiring and smoke exhaust fans are not necessary. Fire floors are
Column 1: Differential pressure across closed fire floor door (stairwell - office) with bot· relieved to atmosphere using solenoid dampers distributed around
tom exit door to stairwell open. the building facade (fail-safe open), located above a return air ple-
Co_lumn 2: Differential pressure across closod 'tire Uoor door (stairwell - office) with
ad1acent non-fire lloor door and bottom exit door to stairwell open. num ceiling.
Co_lumn 3: Differential pressure across closed fl re floor aoor (stairwell - office) with Pressure differentials between floors exceeded 50 Pa (0.2 in.
ad1acent non-fire floor door. bottoill exit door to stairwell and roof plantroom relief door wg) and velocities onto fire floors through open stairwell doors
open.
Column 4: Differential pressure across closed non-fire floor door(stairwell- office) with exceeded 2 mis (394 fpm). I believe this to be the preferred smoke
bottom exit door to stairwell open . control system, with all control accomplished by fans and equip-
Column 5: Force required to open fire stair doors with air-conditioning system art. ment remote from the fire and its hot smoky gasses. This simple
Column 6: Forco re~u! red to open fire slafr doors with adjacent non-fire floor door, bot·
tom exit door to sta11we11 open and roof plantroom relief door open. philosophy is really the secret to a successful design.
Continued on page 26

24 ASHRAE Journal November 1992

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