Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering
Central Campus, Pulchowk

Prepared by
Umesh Sharma
 Course outline
Phase Change Heat Transfer [2 hours]
 Boiling Heat Transfer
 Pool Boiling and Flow Boiling
 Correlations in Boiling
 Condensation Heat Transfer
 Nusselt’s Theory of Condensation
Correlations in Condensation

2
INTRODUCTION
When the temperature of a liquid at a specified pressure is raised to the saturation
temperature Tsat at that pressure, boiling occurs. Likewise, when the temperature of a
vapor is lowered to Tsat, condensation occurs. In this chapter, we study the rates of
heat transfer during such liquid-to-vapor and vapor-to-liquid phase transformations.

Boiling and condensation differ from other forms of convection in that they depend on
the latent heat of vaporization hfg of the fluid and the surface tension σ at the liquid–
vapor interface, in addition to the properties of the fluid in each phase.

Heat transfer coefficients h associated with boiling and condensation are typically
much higher than those encountered in other forms of convection processes that
involve a single phase.

3
1. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Boiling is a liquid‐to‐vapor phase change process just like
evaporation, but there are significant differences between the two.
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapor
pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature.
Examples of evaporation are the drying of clothes, fruits, and
vegetables.
Note that evaporation involves no bubble formation or bubble
motion.
Boiling, on the other hand, occurs at the solid–liquid
interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface
maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the saturation
temperature of the liquid.
The boiling process is characterized by the rapid formation
of vapor bubbles
4
The boiling processes in practice do not occur under equilibrium conditions. The
temperature and pressure of the vapor in a bubble are usually different than those of the
liquid. The pressure difference between the liquid and the vapor is balanced by the
surface tension at the interface. The temperature difference between the vapor in a
bubble and the surrounding liquid is the driving force for heat transfer between the
two phases.

When the liquid is at a lower temperature than

the bubble, heat will be transferred from the bubble
into the liquid, causing some of the vapor inside the
bubble to condense and the bubble to collapse
eventually.
When the liquid is at a higher temperature than
the bubble, heat will be transferred from the liquid
to the bubble, causing the bubble to grow and rise to
the top under the influence of buoyancy.

5
2. POOL BOILING AND FLOW BOILING
Pool boiling
Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk
fluid flow. Any motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the bubbles
under the influence of buoyancy. The boiling of
water in a pan on top of a stove is an example of pool
boiling. Pool boiling can also be achieved by placing
a heating coil in the fluid.

Flow boiling
Boiling is called flow boiling in the presence of bulk
fluid flow. In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move
in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means
such as a pump. Therefore, flow boiling is always
accompanied by other convection effects.

6
Classification of Boiling
Pool and flow boiling are further classified as
subcooled boiling or saturated boiling, depending
on the bulk liquid temperature

Subcooled Boiling
When the temperature of the main body of the liquid
is below the saturation temperature (i.e., the bulk of
liquid is subcooled).
Saturated Boiling
When the temperature of the liquid is equal to the
saturation temperature (i.e., the bulk of liquid is
saturated).

7
2.1 POOL BOILING
Consider the boiling of tap water in a pan on top of a stove. The water is initially be at
15˚C, far below the saturation temperature of 100˚C at standard atmospheric pressure.
At the early stages of boiling, you will not notice anything significant except some
bubbles that stick to the surface of the pan. These bubbles are caused by the release of
air molecules dissolved in liquid water and should not be confused with vapor bubbles.
As the water temperature rises, you will notice chunk of liquid water rolling up and
down as a result of natural convection currents, followed by the first vapor bubbles
forming at the bottom surface of the pan. These bubbles get smaller as they detach from
the surface and start rising, and eventually collapse in the cooler water above. This is
subcooled boiling since the bulk of the liquid water has not reached saturation
temperature yet.
The intensity of bubble formation increases as the water temperature rises further, and
you will notice waves of vapor bubbles coming from the bottom and rising to the top
when the water temperature reaches the saturation temperature (100˚C at standard
atmospheric conditions). This full scale boiling is the saturated boiling.
8
Boling regimes
The pioneering work on boiling was done in 1934
by S. Nukiyama, who used electrically heated
Nichrome and platinum wires immersed in liquids
in his experiments. Nukiyama noticed that boiling
takes different forms depending on the value of the
excess temperature ΔTexcess=Ts-Tsat.

Four different boiling regimes are observed: natural

convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition
boiling and film boiling. These regimes are
illustrated on the boiling curve which is a plot of
boiling heat flux versus the excess temperature.

The specific shape of the curve depends on the

fluid–heating surface material combination and the
fluid pressure, but it is practically independent of
the geometry of the heating surface.
9
Boiling curve
Although the boiling curve given in figure is for water, the general shape of the boiling
curve remains the same for different fluids.

Figure: Typical boiling curve for water at 1 atmospheric pressure.

10
I. Natural Convection (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above
the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water). Therefore, the liquid is slightly
superheated in this case ( a metastable state) and evaporates when it rises to free surface.
The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection currents. Heat
transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural convection.
II. Nucleate Boiling (From Point A to C)
The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as we
move along the boiling curve toward point C.
Region A–B ─isolated bubbles are formed on the heated surface.
Region B–C ─ Forms numerous continuous columns of vapor in the liquid.
In region A–B the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the
heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient. In
region B–C the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the combined
effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation. After point B the heat flux increases at a
lower rate with increasing ΔTexcess, and reaches a maximum at point C. The heat flux at
this point is called the critical (or maximum) heat flux, and is of prime engineering
importance. 11
III. Transition Boiling (From Point C to D)
When ΔTexcess is increased past point C, the heat
flux decreases. This is because a large fraction of
the heater surface is covered by a vapor film,
which acts as an insulation. In the transition
boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling
partially occur.

IV. Film Boiling (From Point D to E)

Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely
covered by a continuous stable vapor film. Point
D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is
called the Leidenfrost point. The presence of a
vapor film between the heater surface and the
liquid is responsible for the low heat transfer rates
in the film boiling region. The heat transfer rate
increases with increasing excess temperature due
to radiation to the liquid.
12
Burnout Phenomenon
A typical boiling process does not follow the boiling curve beyond point C. When
the power applied to the heated surface exceeded the value at point C even slightly,
the surface temperature increased suddenly to point E.
When the power is reduced gradually starting from point E, the cooling curve
follows figure below with a sudden drop in excess temperature when point D is
reached.
C E

13
2.2 FLOW BOILING
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an external source such as a pump as it
undergoes a phase-change process. The boiling in this case exhibits the combined effects
of convection and pool boiling.
Flow boiling is classified as either external and internal flow boiling.
External flow ─ the higher the velocity, the higher the nucleate boiling heat flux and
the critical heat flux.

14
Internal flow
The two-phase flow in a tube exhibits different flow boiling regimes, depending on the
relative amounts of the liquid and the vapor phases.

Typical flow regimes:

Liquid single-phase flow: In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled
and heat transfer to the liquid is by forced convection (assuming no
Axial position in the tube

subcooled boiling).
Bubbly flow: Individual bubbles, Low mass qualities
Slug flow: Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor, Moderate mass
qualities
Annular flow: Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid
adjacent to the walls, Very high heat transfer coefficients
Mist flow: a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient
Vapor single-phase flow: The liquid phase is completely
evaporated and vapor is superheated.

15
3. CORRELATIONS IN BOILING
Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character. Therefore, different heat transfer
relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.

Correlations in Pool Boiling - Natural Convection Boiling

In the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be accurately
determined using natural convection relations.

16
Correlations in Pool Boiling ─ Nucleate Boiling
No general theoretical relations for heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime is
available. Therefore, experimental based correlations are used. The rate of heat
transfer strongly depends on the nature of nucleation and the type and the condition of
the heated surface. A widely used correlation proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:

17
Critical Heat Flux (CHF)
The maximum (or critical) heat flux in nucleate pool boiling was determined
theoretically by S. S. Kutateladze in Russia in 1948 and N. Zuber in the United
States in 1958 to be:
1
2
q m ax  C cr h fg   g  v l   v   4

Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is about
0.15.
The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface combination, as well as the
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure, and
then starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure.
The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained using
fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.

18
Correlations in Pool Boiling ─ Transition Boiling
Minimum Heat Flux
Minimum heat flux, which occurs at the
Leidenfrost point, is of practical interest since
it represents the lower limit for the heat flux in
the film boiling regime.
Zuber derived the following expression for the
minimum heat flux for a large horizontal plate

1
4
 g l  v 
q m a x  0 .0 9  v h fg  2

   l   v  

The relation above can be in error by 50% or more.

19
Correlations in Pool Boiling ─ Film Boiling
The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D is
given by
1
3 4
 g k  v   l   v   h fg  0 .4 C p v T s  T sa t   
q film  C
v  
film  T s  T sa t 
  v D T s  T sa t  

At high surface temperatures (typically above

300°C), heat transfer across the vapor film by
radiation becomes significant and needs to be
considered.
The two mechanisms of heat transfer (radiation
and convection) adversely affect each other,
causing the total heat transfer to be less than their
sum.
Experimental studies confirm that the critical heat
flux and heat flux in film boiling are proportional
to g1/4.
20
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling

• The rate of heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime strongly depends on the
number of active nucleation sites on the surface, and the rate of bubble formation at
each site. Therefore, modification that enhances nucleation on the heating surface
will also enhance heat transfer in nucleate boiling.
• Irregularities on the heating surface, including roughness and dirt, serve as
additional nucleation sites during boiling. The effect of surface roughness is
observed to decay with time.

Thermoexcel-E
Surfaces that provide enhanced heat transfer in nucleate boiling permanently are being
manufactured and are available in the market. Heat transfer can be enhanced by a
factor of up to 10 during nucleate boiling, and the critical heat flux by a factor of 3.
21
4. CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its
saturation temperature Tsat. This is usually done by bringing the vapor into contact
with a solid surface whose temperature Ts is below the saturation temperature Tsat
of the vapor.
• But condensation can also occur on the free surface of a liquid or even in a gas
when the temperature of the liquid or the gas to which the vapor is expose is below
Tsat.
• In the latter case, the liquid droplets suspended in the gas form a fog.
• Only condensation on solid surfaces is considered in this chapter.
• Two forms of condensation:
 Film condensation,
 Dropwise condensation.

22
DROPWISE CONDENSATION AND FILM CONDENSATION
Film condensation
• The condensate wets the surface and forms a
liquid film.
• The surface is blanketed by a liquid film which
serves as a resistance to heat transfer.
Dropwise condensation
• The condensed vapor forms droplets on the
surface.
• The droplets slide down when they reach a
certain size.
• No liquid film to resist heat transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer rates that are more
than 10 times larger than with film
condensation can be achieved.
23
5. NUSSELT’S THEORY OF CONDENSATION
Condensation is a rather complicated process. It was
Wilhelmm Nusselt’s idea to reduce the complexity of the
real process to a rather a simple model, namely that the
only resistance for the removal of the heat released during
condensation occurs in the condensate film. The following
gives an explanation of the Nusselt’s theory at the example
of condensation on a vertical wall.
Condensation occurs if a vapor is cooled below its
(pressure dependent) saturation temperature. The heat of
evaporation which is released during condensation must
be removed by heat transfer, e.g. at a cooled wall. Figure
shows how saturated vapor at temperature Ts is
condensing on a vertical wall whose temperature Tw is
constant and lower than the saturation temperature.
A condensate film develops which flows downwards under the influence of gravity.
As condensation occurs over the whole surface the thickness of the film increases.
24
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
Liquid film starts forming at the top of the plate and
flows downward under the influence of gravity and d
increases in the flow direction x
Heat in the amount hfg is released during condensation
and is transferred through the film to the plate surface
and Ts must be below the saturation temperature for
condensation.
The temperature of the condensate is Tsat at the
interface and decreases gradually to Ts at the wall.
The dimensionless parameter controlling the transition
between regimes is the Reynolds number defined as:
h y d ra u lic d ia m e te r D 
 h

4    lV l
R e x 
 l
Three prime flow regimes:
Re<30 ─ Laminar (wave-free),
30<Re<1800 ─ Wavy-laminar,
Re>1800 ─ Turbulent.
The Reynolds number increases in the flow direction.
25
6. CORRELATIONS IN CONDENSATION
Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation ─ Vertical wall

Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are maintained at
constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat, respectively,
and the temperature across the liquid film varies
linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure
conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero) so that it
exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous shear
on the liquid–vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar (Re<30) and
the properties of the liquid are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is
negligible.
Height L and width b
26
Hydrodynamics

Newton’s second law of motion: Weight=Viscous shear force +Buoyancy force

du
lg   y  b d x    l  b d x    v g   y  b d x 
dy
Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy
d u g  l   v    y 

d y  l

Integrating from y=0 (u =0) to y (u =u(y))

g  l   v   y2 
u ( y)   y  
 l  2 
The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location x is determined from

m ( x )    lu ( y ) d A    lu ( y )b d y
A y  0

Substituting u(y) from Eq. 10–12 into Eq. 10–13

3
g b  l   l   v 
m ( x ) 
3 l

whose derivative with respect to x is d m gb      2

d 
l l v

dx  dx
l
27
Thermal Considerations

The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate through the liquid film
T  T
d Q  h fg d m  k l b d x  s a t s

d m k lb T s a t  T s
 
d x h fg 

Equating Eqs. 10–15 and 10–16 and separating the variables gives
 l k l T s a t  T s 
 3d   dx
g  l   l   v  h fg
Integrating from x =0 (d=0) to x (d=d(x)), the liquid film thickness at x is determined to be
1 4
 4  l k l T s a t  T s  x 
 (x)   
 g  l   l   v  h f g 
Since the heat transfer across the liquid film is assumed to be by pure conduction, the
heat transfer coefficient can be expressed through Newton’s law of cooling and Fourier
law as T sat  T s kl
q x  h x T s a t  T s  kl  hx 
  28
Substituting d(x) from Eq. 10–18, the local heat transfer coefficient is determined to be
1 4
 g  l   l   v  h f g k l3 
hx   
 4  l T s a t  T s  x 

The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is

1 4
1 L 4  g  l   l   v  h f g k l3 
h   h x d x  h x  L  0 .9 4 3  
L 0 3   l T s a t  T s  L 

It is observed to under predict heat transfer because it does not take into account the
effects of the nonlinear temperature profile in the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid
below the saturation temperature.
Both of these effects can be accounted for by replacing hfg by modified h*fg to yield
1 4
1 L 4  g  l   l   v  h *f g k l3 
h   hxdx  hxL  0 .9 4 3  
L 0 3   l T s a t  T s  L 

0 <Re<30
29
When rv«rl (and thus rl-rv≈rl). Using this approximation and substituting Eqs. 10–14 and
10–18 at x =L into the Reynolds number definition by noting that dx=L=kl/hx=L and
havg=4/3hx=L (Eqs. 10–19 and 10–21) gives
3 3
3
4 g  l   l   v  2
4 g   kl
l
 4g  kl 
Re      2  
3  l2 3  l2  h x  L 
3 l  3 h a v g / 4 

Then the average heat transfer coefficient in terms of Re becomes
1/3
 g 
h a v g  1 .4 7 k l R e  1 / 3  2  v l
 l 
The results obtained from the theoretical relations above are in excellent agreement with
the experimental results.

30
Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical Plates
• The waves at the liquid–vapor interface tend to increase heat transfer. This
knowledge is based on experimental studies.
• The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is, on average, about 20 percent,
but it can exceed 50 percent.
• Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963) recommended the following
relation 1/3
R e kl  g 
havg ,w a vy  1 .2 2  2  ; v l
1 .0 8 R e  5 .2   l 
Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates

• Labuntsov (1957) proposed the following relation for the turbulent flow of
condensate on vertical plates:
1 / 3
R e k l
 g 
h a v g ,tu r b u le n t  2 
8750  58 P r  0 .5
R e 0 .7 5
 253    l 

The physical properties of the condensate are to be evaluated at the film temperature.
31
DROPWISE CONDENSATION

• One of the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer, and extremely large heat
transfer coefficients can be achieved.
• Small droplets grow as a result of continued condensation, coalesce into large
droplets, and slide down when they reach a certain size.
• Large heat transfer coefficients enable designers to achieve a specified heat transfer
rate with a smaller surface area.
• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to achieve it, but rather, to sustain it
for prolonged periods of time.
• Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number of surface–
fluid combinations.
• Griffith (1983) recommends these simple correlations for dropwise condensation of
steam on copper surfaces:
 5 1,1 0 4  2 0 4 4 T s a t 2 2 0C  Tsat  1 0 0 0
C
h d ro p w is e  
 2 5 5, 3 1 0 Tsat  1 0 0 0C
32