Excretion

The process by which the unwanted substances and metabolic wastes are eliminated
from the body. A large amount of waste materials and carbon dioxide are produced in the
tissues during metabolic process. In addition, residue of undigested food, heavy metals,
drugs, toxic substances and pathogenic organisms like bacteria are also present in the
body. All these substances must be removed to keep the body in healthy condition. Various
systems/organs in the body are involved in performing the excretory function…
 Digestive system excretes food residues in the form of feces. Some bacteria and toxic substances also are excreted through feces.
 Liver excretes many substances like bile pigments, heavy metals, drugs, toxins, bacteria, etc. through bile.
 Skin excretes water, salts and some wastes. It also removes heat from the body
 Lungs remove carbon dioxide and water vapor

Renal system includes:

 A pair of kidneys------Kidneys produce the urine.
 Ureters -----Ureters transport the urine to urinary bladder.
 Urinary bladder--- stores the urine until it is voided
 Urethra--Urine is voided from bladder through urethra
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
Kidneys perform several vital functions besides formation of urine. By excreting urine, kidneys play the principal role
in homeostasis.
1. ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS---- Primary function of kidneys is homeostasis. It is performed
by the formation of urine. During the formation of urine, kidneys regulate various activities in the
body, which are concerned with homeostasis such as:
Excretion of Waste Products--- Kidneys excrete the unwanted waste products, which are
formed during metabolic activities:
 Urea— End product of Amino acid Metabolism
 Uric Acid-- End product of nuclelic acid Metabolism
 Creatinine--End product of metabolism of muscles
 Bilirubin--End product of hemoglobin Degradation.
It also excrete harmful foreign chemical substances toxins drugs, heavy metals, pesticides,etc.
Maintenance of water Balance- It maintain the water balance in the body by conserving water, when it is decreased
and excreting water, when it is excess in the body.
Maintenance of Electrolyte balance—Mainly sodium in relation to water balance.
Maintenance of Acid base Balance---Kidneys play major role in preventing acidosis. In fact, kidneys are
the only organs, which are capable of eliminating certain metabolic acids like sulfuric and phosphoric acids.
2. HEMOPOIETIC FUNCTION –It stimulate the production of erythrocytes by
secreting erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is the important stimulating factor for
erythropoiesis, Kidney also secretes another factor called thrombopoietin, which
stimulates the production of thrombocytes
3. ENDOCRINE FUNCTION----Kidneys secrete many hormonal substances in
addition to erythropoietin and thrombopoietin
• Hormones secreted by kidneys
• i. Erythropoietin ii. Thrombopoietin iii. Renin
iv. 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol) v. Prostaglandins.
4. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE ------Kidneys play an important role
in the long-term regulation of arterial blood pressure by two ways:
• i. By regulating the volume of extracellular fluid
• ii. Through renin-angiotensin mechanism.
5.. REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL --Kidneys play a role in the
regulation of blood calcium level by activating 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol into
vitamin D. It is necessary for the absorption of calcium from intestine.
• FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF KIDNEY
• Kidney is a compound tubular gland covered by a connective tissue capsule. There
is a depression on the medial border of kidney called hilum, through which renal
artery, renal veins, nerves and ureter pass.
• DIFFERENT LAYERS OF KIDNEY----Components of kidney are arranged in
three layers --
 Outer cortex
 Inner medulla
 Renal sinus.
1. Outer Cortex--Cortex is dark and granular in appearance. It contains renal
corpuscles and convoluted tubules. At intervals, cortical tissue penetrates medulla in
the form of columns, which are called renal columns or columns of Bertini.
2. Inner Medulla-- Medulla contains tubular and vascular structures arranged in
parallel radial lines. Medullary mass is divided into 8 to 18 medullary or
Malpighian pyramids. Broad base of each pyramid is in contact with cortex and
the apex projects into minor calyx.
3. Renal Sinus-- It consists of the following structures:
i. Upper expanded part of ureter called renal pelvis
ii. Subdivisions of pelvis: 2 or 3 major calyces and about 8 minor calyces
iii. Branches of nerves, arteries and tributaries of veins
iv. Loose connective tissues and fat.
• Nephron – Structural and functional unit of kidney. Each kidney consists of 1
to 1.3 millions of nephrons. The number of nephrons starts decreasing after about
45 to 50 years of age at the rate of 0.8% to 1% every year.
• Each nephron is formed by two parts
1. A blind end called renal corpuscle or Malpighian corpuscle
2. A tubular portion called renal tubule.
• RENAL CORPUSCLE
• Renal corpuscle or Malpighian corpuscle is a spheroidal and slightly flattened
structure with a diameter of about 200 μ. Function of the renal corpuscle is the
filtration of blood which forms the first phase of urine formation.
• SITUATION OF RENAL CORPUSCLE AND TYPES OF NEPHRON
• Renal corpuscle is situated in the cortex of the kidney either near the periphery or
near the medulla.
• Classification of Nephrons ---Based on the situation of renal corpuscle, the
nephrons are classified into two types:
1. Cortical nephrons or superficial nephrons: Nephrons having the corpuscles in
outer cortex of the kidney near the periphery In human kidneys, 85% nephrons are
cortical nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons: Nephrons having the corpuscles in inner cortex near
medulla or corticomedullary junction.
• Features of the two types of nephrons are---
• STRUCTURE OF RENAL CORPUSCLE
• Renal corpuscle is formed by two portions:
1. Glomerulus
2. Bowman capsule.
• Glomerular capillaries arise from the afferent arteriole.
• After entering the Bowman capsule, the afferent arteriole divides into 4 or 5 large capillaries.
Each large capillary subdivides into many small capillaries. These small capillaries are arranged
in irregular loops and form anastomosis. All the smaller capillaries finally reunite to form the
efferent arteriole, which leaves the Bowman capsule. Diameter of the efferent arteriole is less
than that of afferent arteriole. This difference in diameter has got functional significance.
• Functional histology-- Glomerular capillaries are made up of single layer of endothelial cells,
which are attached to a basement membrane. Endothelium has many pores called fenestrae or
filtration pores.
• Bowman Capsule
• Bowman capsule is a capsular structure, which encloses
the glomerulus.
• It is formed by two layers:
i. Inner visceral layer
ii. Outer parietal layer.
Visceral layer covers the glomerular capillaries.
It is continued as the parietal layer at the visceral pole.
Parietal layer is continued with the wall of the tubular
portion of nephron.
 Urine Formation
It is a blood cleansing function. Normally, about 1300 mL of blood enters
the kidneys. Kidneys excrete the unwanted substances along with water
from the blood as urine. Normal urinary output is 1 L/day to 1.5 L/day.
Urine formation includes three processes..
Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption
Tubular secretion.
• Among these three processes filtration is the function of the glomerulus.
Reabsorption and secretion are the functions of tubular portion of the
nephron.
• The process by which the blood is filtered while passing through the glomerular capillaries by
filtration membrane. It is the first process of urine formation. The structure of filtration
membrane is well suited for filtration.
• Filtration Membrane
• Filtration membrane is formed by three layers:
1. Glomerular capillary membrane
2. Basement membrane
3. Visceral layer of Bowman capsule.
1.Glomerular capillary membrane --It is formed by single layer of endothelial cells, which are
attached to the basement membrane. The capillary membrane has many pores called fenestrae or
filtration pores with a diameter of 0.1 μ.
2. Basement membrane--- It is the glomerular capillaries and the basement membrane of visceral
layer of Bowman capsule fuse together. The fused basement membrane separates the endothelium
of glomerular capillary and the epithelium of visceral layer of Bowman capsule.
3. Visceral layer of Bowman capsule ---This layer is formed by a single layer of flattened
epithelial cells resting on a basement membrane. Each cell is connected with the basement
membrane by cytoplasmic extensions called pedicles or feet. Epithelial cells with pedicles are
called podocytes.
Pedicles interdigitate leaving small cleft like spaces in between. The cleft like space is called slit
pore or filtration slit. Filtration takes place through these slit pores.
• Process of Glomerular Filtration
• When blood passes through glomerular capillaries, the plasma is filtered into the
Bowman capsule. All the substances of plasma are filtered except the plasma
proteins. The filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate.
• GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE
• Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is defined as the total quantity of filtrate formed
in all the nephrons of both the kidneys in the given unit of time.
• Normal GFR is 125 mL/minute or about 180 L/day.
Tubular reabsorption--- is the process by which water and other substances are
transported from renal tubules back to the blood. When the glomerular filtrate
flows through the tubular portion of nephron, both quantitative and qualitative
changes occur. Large quantity of water, electrolytes and other substances are
reabsorbed by the tubular epithelial cells. The reabsorbed substances move into
the interstitial fluid of renal medulla. And, from here, the substances move into the
blood in peritubular capillaries. Since the substances are taken back into the blood
from the glomerular filtrate, the entire process is called tubular reabsorption.
• SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
• Tubular reabsorption is known as selective reabsorption because the tubular cells
reabsorb only the substances necessary for the body. Essential substances such as
glucose, amino acids and vitamins are completely reabsorbed from renal tubule.
Whereas the unwanted substances like metabolic waste products are not
reabsorbed and excreted through urine.
MECHANISM OF REABSORPTION
• Basic transport mechanisms involved in tubular reabsorption are of two types:
1.Active reabsorption— ( it needs liberation of energy, which is derived from
ATP.)---Substances reabsorbed actively from the renal tubule are sodium, calcium,
potassium, phosphates, sulfates, bicarbonates, glucose, amino acids, ascorbic acid,
uric acid and ketone bodies.
2.Passive reabsorption.— (Does not need energy.) Substances reabsorbed
passively are chloride, urea and water.
• ROUTES OF REABSORPTION
• Reabsorption of substances from tubular lumen into the peritubular capillary occurs by two
routes:
• 1. Trancelluar route
• 2. Paracellular route.
• 1. Transcellular Route
In this route the substances move through the cell. It includes transport of substances from:
a. Tubular lumen into tubular cell through apical (luminal) surface of the cell membrane
b. Tubular cell into interstitial fluid
c. Interstitial fluid into capillary.
• Paracelluar Route
• In this route, the substances move through the intercellular space. It includes transport of
substances from:
i. Tubular lumen into interstitial fluid present in lateral intercellular space through the tight
junction between the cells
ii. Interstitial fluid into capillary
• Reabsorption of the substances occurs in almost all the segments of tubular portion of
nephron.
• Substances Reabsorbed from Proximal Convoluted Tubule
• About 7/8 of the filtrate (about 88%) is reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule.
The brush border of epithelial cells in proximal convoluted tubule increases the
surface area and facilitates the reabsorption. Substances reabsorbed from proximal
convoluted tubule are glucose, amino acids, sodium, potassium, calcium,
bicarbonates, chlorides, phosphates, urea, uric acid and water.
• 2. Substances Reabsorbed from Loop of Henle --Substances reabsorbed from
loop of Henle are sodium and chloride.
3. Substances Reabsorbed from Distal
Convoluted Tubule --Sodium, calcium,
bicarbonate and water are reabsorbed
from distal convoluted tubule.
• Tubular secretion --It is the process by which the substances care transported
from blood into renal tubules. It is also called tubular excretion. In addition to
reabsorption from renal tubules, some substances are also secreted into the lumen
from the peritubular capillaries through the tubular epithelial cells.
SUBSTANCES SECRETED IN DIFFERENT SEGMENTS OF RENAL
TUBULES
 Potassium is secreted actively by sodium potassium pump in proximal and distal
convoluted tubules and collecting duct
 Ammonia is secreted in the proximal convoluted tubule
 Hydrogen ions are secreted in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules.
Maximum hydrogen ion secretion occurs in proximal tubule
 Urea is secreted in loop of Henle.
Thus, urine is formed in nephron by the processes of glomerular filtration, selective
reabsorption and tubular secretion.
 Micturition
• It is a process by which urine is voided from the urinary bladder. It is a reflex process. However, in
grown up children and adults, it can be controlled voluntarily to some extent.
• Control of Micturition-Urine is formed by the renal tubules and passes to pelvis of the kidney… this is
conveyed by ureter… reaches to the urinary bladder and stored there. The passage of urine through the
ureter is by peristaltic waves which occur every 10- 12 sec and travel 2-3cm/sec. When the bladder is
reasonably filled, micturition reflex develops…… Urine exits by urethra. Thus micturition is a reflex and
basically it is spinal reflex but this spinal reflex is controlled by fibers from the brain.. So that
micturition can be inhibited when is inconvenience to pass urine or micturition can be started voluntarily.
In spinal transaction, cerebral control is removed and the bladder becomes automatic.
• In the bladder, the end parts of the ureter are so compressed by the detrusor muscles that the ureters are
normally closed. This arrangement of detrusor muscle produce ureterovesical valve.
• Micturition reflex --It is the reflex by which micturition occurs. This reflex is elicited by the stimulation
of stretch receptors situated on the wall of urinary bladder and urethra. When about 300 to 400 mL of
urine is collected in the bladder, intravesical pressure increases.
• When the bladder is sufficiently full, the stretch receptor with in the wall of the bladder are
stretch…. Afferent impulses sets up…….
The impulses travel via parasympathetic fibres of pelvic splanchnic nerves impulses arise from the
spinal centers….
Travels via efferent parasympathetic fibres of the same pelvic splanchnic nerves…..
Impulses terminate on the detrusor muscle …. Contraction of the detrusor muscles…. Micturition…
 Formation Of Faeces
When the ingested food product reaches to colon to get further digestion and gets
dehydrated by the enzymes secreted there and gates a bolus form in to the lump, this
lumped material is known as stool.
Usually the last stage of digestion occurs in the colon through the activities of the
bacteria that live in the lumen. The gland of large intestine secretes mucus but no
enzymes are secreted. Chyme is prepared for elimination by the action bacteria.
During passage of intestinal contents through the small intestine, the products of
digestion, along with many other compounds, such a vitamins and mineral salts are
absorbed. As the chime derived from the food reach the large intestine, the process
of absorption, with the excretion of water and salts are absorbed and take 36 hours
for the solidification of remaining materials, that solid residual matter is known as
faeces, leave the body. Bactria ferment remaining carbohydrates and release
hydrogen, carbon di oxide and methane gas. These gases contribute to flatus in their
colon. Bacteria also convert remaining protein to amino acids and breakdown the
amino acids in simpler substances.
 Mechanism of defecation
The act of defecation is reflex in nature. After a mass peristalsis, if the
fecal matters enter the rectum is stretch. This stretching stimulate the
afferent nerve fibres of the pelvic splanchnic, a reflex is set up, rectum
begins to contract strongly, a desire to defecate develops and person
eases himself.
If the environmental conditions are not suitable the urge to defecate
develops no doubt, but the external sphincter, which is supplied by the
pudendal nerves, and is under voluntary control, remains firmly
contracted. If this condition persists for a while, the rectum no longer
remains sensitive to the stretch and the urge disappears.